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27-438: The term was introduced by Ukrainophiles, who used it pejoratively. Nikolay Chernyshevsky called "Iazychie" a mutilation of the language and sharply condemned it. Ivan Franko and other representatives of the contemporary territories of today's Western Ukraine 's progressive intelligentsia also opposed "Iazychie". The proponents of the language themselves called it the "traditional Carpatho-Rusyn language". Russophiles saw it as

54-473: A "great Russian scholar and critic". A number of scholars have contended that Ayn Rand , who grew up in Russia when Chernyshevsky's novel was still influential and ubiquitous, was influenced by the book. Novels Philosophy Literary Criticism Fortress of St. Peter and Paul The Peter and Paul Fortress ( Russian : Петропавловская крепость , romanized :  Petropavlovskaya krepost' )

81-635: A struggle on July 6 (O.S.). On October 25 (O.S.), the fortress quickly fell into Bolshevik hands. Following the ultimatum from the Petrograd Soviet to the Provisional Government ministers in the Winter Palace , after the blank salvo of the cruiser Aurora at 21.00, the guns of the fortress fired 30 or so shells at the Winter Palace. Just two hit, inflicting only minor damage, and

108-992: A tool against Polish influence and a transition to Russian literary language, considering local dialects to be a "speech of swineherds and shepherds". Що єсть тепло и свѣтло — того дово̂дно оучени̂ єще не знаютъ. Но безъ свѣтла и тепла нїяка изъ нашихъ пашниць не може оудатися. — Свѣтло, здаеся, возбуджае въ рослинахъ силу, которою они оуглянный квасъ, амонїякъ, воду, и другое поживлѣнье розкладаютъ на части, зъ ıакихъ тїи рѣчи повстаютъ, — и — потребное въ себе вживаютъ, остальное же назадъ воздухови о̂тдаютъ. На пр. оугляный квасъ розкладаютъ они на єго части, на квасородъ и оуглеродъ, и оуглеродъ вживаютъ въ себе, квасородъ же о̂тдаютъ воздухови, и тымъ способомъ воздухъ все о̂тсвѣжуютъ. Но все то дѣеся лишь днемъ при свѣтлѣ солнечно̂мъ, ночїю же нѣ; и также днемъ при захмарено̂мъ небѣ робота тая оуже имъ складно не иде, а для того въ хмарнїи роки овощи николи не буваютъ смачни̂ та тревали̂. (1875) This Ukrainian history –related article

135-448: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Nikolay Chernyshevsky Nikolay Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky (24 July [ O.S. 12 July] 1828 – 29 October [ O.S. 17 October] 1889) was a Russian literary and social critic, journalist, novelist, democrat, and socialist philosopher, often identified as a utopian socialist and leading theoretician of Russian nihilism and Narodniks . He

162-449: Is not ashamed to say that its aim is to understand and explain reality, and then to use its explanation for man's benefit. Let not art be ashamed to admit that its aim is ... to reproduce this precious reality and explain it for the good of mankind." In 1862, he was arrested and confined in the Fortress of St. Peter and Paul , where he wrote his famous novel What Is to Be Done? The novel

189-465: Is the original citadel of Saint Petersburg , Russia, founded by Peter the Great in 1703 and built to Domenico Trezzini 's designs from 1706 to 1740 as a star fortress . Between the first half of the 1700s and early 1920s it served as a prison for political criminals. It has been a museum since 1924. The fortress was established by Peter the Great on May 16 ( Old Style ; henceforth "(O.S.)"; May 27 by

216-636: The Gregorian calendar ) 1703 on small Hare Island by the north bank of the Neva river. From around 1720, the fort served as a base for the city garrison and also as a prison for high-ranking or political prisoners . During the February Revolution of 1917, it was attacked by mutinous soldiers of the Pavlovsky Life Guards Regiment on February 27 (O.S.) and the prisoners were freed. Under

243-681: The Kronverksky Strait lies the Kronverk , formerly the fortress' outer defence and now home to the Military Historical Museum of Artillery, Engineers and Signal Corps . During the time of Peter the Great, a shot from the cannon of the Peter and Paul Fortress was heard in honor of military victories, on holidays, and also to warn residents about the rise in the water level of the Neva. Since 1873,

270-515: The Peter and Paul Cathedral (1712–1733), which has a 122.5 m (402 ft) bell-tower and a gilded angel-topped cupola. Other structures inside the fortress include the still functioning Saint Petersburg Mint building (constructed to Antonio Porta's designs under Emperor Paul I ), the Trubetskoy Bastion with its grim prison cells, and the city museum . To the north of the fortress across

297-654: The Provisional Government , hundreds of Tsarist officials were held in the Fortress. The tsar was threatened with being incarcerated at the fortress on his return from Mogilev to Tsarskoye Selo on March 8 (O.S.); but he was placed under house arrest. On July 4 (O.S.) during the July Days demonstrations, the fortress garrison of 8,000 men declared for the Bolsheviks . They surrendered to government forces without

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324-469: The North American nation is important for all nations with the rapidly growing significance of the North American states in the life of all humanity." Chernyshevsky's ideas were heavily influenced by Alexander Herzen , Vissarion Belinsky , and Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach . He saw class struggle as the means of society's forward movement and advocated for the interests of the working people. In his view,

351-530: The Saratov Gymnasium. He openly expressed his beliefs to students, some of whom later became revolutionaries. From 1853 to 1862, he lived in Saint Petersburg , and became the chief editor of Sovremennik (“The Contemporary”), in which he published his main literary reviews and his essays on philosophy. Chernyshevsky was sympathetic to the 1848 revolutions throughout Europe . He followed the events of

378-537: The Soviet government Vladimir Lenin praised Chernyshevsky: "..he approached all the political events of his times in a revolutionary spirit and was able to exercise a revolutionary influence by advocating, in spite of all the barriers and obstacles placed in his way by the censorship, the idea of a peasant revolution, the idea of the struggle of the masses for the overthrow of all the old authorities” Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels studied Chernyshevsky's works and called him

405-532: The bombardment of the city during World War II by the Luftwaffe who were laying siege to the city. It has been restored post-war and is a tourist attraction. In the years before and after the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, the Peter and Paul Fortress was portrayed by Bolshevik propaganda as a hellish, torturous place, where thousands of prisoners suffered endlessly in filthy, cramped, and grossly overcrowded dungeons amid frequent torture and malnutrition. Such legends had

432-714: The defenders refused to surrender at that time. At 02.10 on the morning of October 26 (O.S.), the Winter Palace was taken by forces under Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko ; the captured ministers were taken to the fortress as prisoners. On 28 January 1919, four grand dukes from the House of Romanov were shot within the walls of the fortress on the orders of the Presidium of the Cheka under Felix Dzerzhinsky , Yakov Peters , Martin Latsis , and Ivan Ksenofontov . The structure suffered heavy damage during

459-461: The effect of turning the prison into a symbol of government oppression in the minds of the common folk. In reality, conditions in the fortress were far less brutal than believed; no more than one hundred prisoners were ever kept in the prison at a time, and most prisoners had access to such luxuries as tobacco, writing paper, and literature (including subversive books such as Karl Marx 's Das Kapital ). Despite their ultimate falsehood, stories about

486-488: The masses were the chief maker of history. He is reputed to have used the phrase “the worse the better”, to indicate that the worse the social conditions became for the poor, the more inclined they would be to launch a revolution (though he did not originate the phrase, which predates his birth; for example, in an 1814 letter John Adams used it when discussing the lead-up to the American revolution ). There are those arguing, in

513-458: The old peasant commune. He exercised the greatest influence upon populist youth of the 1860s and 1870s. Chernyshevsky believed that American democracy was the best aspect of American life. He welcomed the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, which he believed marked a new period for "the great North American people" and that America would progress to heights "not attained since Jefferson's time." He praised these developments: "The good repute of

540-419: The people further towards dissent. Writers often purposely exaggerated their experiences to garner more hatred for the government; as writer and former Peter and Paul inmate Maksim Gorky would later state, "Every Russian who had ever sat in jail as a 'political' prisoner considered it his holy duty to bestow on Russia his memoirs of how he had suffered." The fortress contains several buildings clustered around

567-414: The prison were vital to the spread of Bolshevik revolutionary sentiment. The legends served to portray the government as cruel and indiscriminate in the administration of justice, helping to turn the common mind against Tsarist rule. Many inmates, after being released, wrote chilling and increasingly exaggerated accounts of life there that solidified the structure's horrible image in the public mind and pushed

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594-404: The same name . In 1862, Chernyshevsky was sentenced to civil execution ( mock execution ), followed by penal servitude (1864–1872), and by exile to Vilyuisk , Siberia (1872–1883). He died at the age of 61. Chernyshevsky was a founder of Narodism , Russian agrarian socialism , and agitated for the revolutionary overthrow of the autocracy and the creation of a socialist society based on

621-420: The time and rejoiced in the gains of the democratic and revolutionary parties. In 1855, Chernyshevsky defended his master's dissertation, "The Aesthetic Relation of Art to Reality", which contributed for the development of materialist aesthetics in Russia. Chernyshevsky believed that "What is of general interest in life -- that is the content of art" and that art should be a "textbook of life." He wrote, "Science

648-515: The words of Professor Joseph Frank, that “Chernyshevsky’s novel What Is to Be Done? , far more than Marx’s Das Kapital , supplied the emotional dynamic that eventually went to make the Russian Revolution”. Fyodor Dostoyevsky was enraged by what he saw as the simplicity of the political and psychological ideas expressed in the book, and wrote Notes from Underground largely as a reaction against it. Russian revolutionary and head of

675-466: Was an inspiration to many later Russian revolutionaries, who sought to emulate the novel's hero Rakhmetov , who was wholly dedicated to the revolution, ascetic in his habits and ruthlessly disciplined, to the point of sleeping on a bed of nails and eating only raw steak in order to build strength for the Revolution. Among those who have referenced the novel include Lenin, who wrote a political pamphlet of

702-515: Was the dominant intellectual figure of the 1860s revolutionary democratic movement in Russia, despite spending much of his later life in exile to Siberia , and was later highly praised by Karl Marx , Georgi Plekhanov , and Vladimir Lenin . The son of a priest, Chernyshevsky was born in Saratov in 1828, and stayed there until 1846. He graduated at the local seminary where he learned English, French, German, Italian, Latin, Greek and Old Slavonic . It

729-530: Was there that he gained a love of literature, and also there that he became an atheist . He was inspired by the works of Hegel, Ludwig Feuerbach and Charles Fourier and particularly the works of Vissarion Belinsky and Alexander Herzen . By the time he graduated from the Saint Petersburg University in 1850, Chernyshevsky developed revolutionary, democratic, and materialist views. From 1851 to 1853, he taught Russian language and literature at

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