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104-517: IWR may be: Interactive Web Response , similar to Interactive Voice Response (IVR) Intelligent word recognition Iraq Resolution or Iraq War Resolution , enacted by the United States in 2002 Information World Review , an information industry trade newspaper iShares Russell Midcap (ticker symbol IWR ), an exchange-traded fund of U.S. stocks Institute for Water Resources , part of

208-473: A call center operation by identifying the needs of the caller. Information can be obtained from the caller such as an account number. Answers to simple questions such as account balances or pre-recorded information can be provided without operator intervention. Account numbers from the IVR are often compared to caller ID data for security reasons and additional IVR responses are required if the caller ID does not match

312-605: A central processor , main processor , or just processor , is the most important processor in a given computer . Its electronic circuitry executes instructions of a computer program , such as arithmetic , logic, controlling, and input/output (I/O) operations. This role contrasts with that of external components, such as main memory and I/O circuitry, and specialized coprocessors such as graphics processing units (GPUs). The form, design , and implementation of CPUs have changed over time, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged. Principal components of

416-459: A CPU include the arithmetic–logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations , processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a control unit that orchestrates the fetching (from memory) , decoding and execution (of instructions) by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers, and other components. Modern CPUs devote

520-482: A CPU may also contain memory , peripheral interfaces, and other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC). Early computers such as the ENIAC had to be physically rewired to perform different tasks, which caused these machines to be called "fixed-program computers". The "central processing unit" term has been in use since as early as 1955. Since

624-502: A SIP end point; SIP IVR systems can be used to replace agents directly by the use of applications deployed using BBUA (back-to-back user agents). Due to the introduction of instant messaging (IM) in contact centers, agents can handle up to 6 different IM conversations at the same time, which increases agent productivity. IVR technology is being used to automate IM conversations using existing natural language processing software. This differs from email handling as email automated response

728-465: A better caller experience and workforce efficiency. IVR systems are often combined with automated attendant functionality. The term voice response unit ( VRU ) is sometimes used as well. Despite the increase in IVR technology during the 1970s, the technology was considered complex and expensive for automating tasks in call centers. Early voice response systems were digital signal processing (DSP) technology based and limited to small vocabularies. In

832-402: A cache had only one level of cache; unlike later level 1 caches, it was not split into L1d (for data) and L1i (for instructions). Almost all current CPUs with caches have a split L1 cache. They also have L2 caches and, for larger processors, L3 caches as well. The L2 cache is usually not split and acts as a common repository for the already split L1 cache. Every core of a multi-core processor has

936-400: A code from the control unit indicating which operation to perform. Depending on the instruction being executed, the operands may come from internal CPU registers , external memory, or constants generated by the ALU itself. When all input signals have settled and propagated through the ALU circuitry, the result of the performed operation appears at the ALU's outputs. The result consists of both

1040-458: A data word, which may be stored in a register or memory, and status information that is typically stored in a special, internal CPU register reserved for this purpose. Modern CPUs typically contain more than one ALU to improve performance. The address generation unit (AGU), sometimes also called the address computation unit (ACU), is an execution unit inside the CPU that calculates addresses used by

1144-458: A dedicated L2 cache and is usually not shared between the cores. The L3 cache, and higher-level caches, are shared between the cores and are not split. An L4 cache is currently uncommon, and is generally on dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), rather than on static random-access memory (SRAM), on a separate die or chip. That was also the case historically with L1, while bigger chips have allowed integration of it and generally all cache levels, with

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1248-464: A different status, the service will automatically prioritize the individual's call and move customers to the front of a specific queue. IVRs will also log call detail information into its own database for auditing, performance report, and future IVR system enhancements. CTI allows a contact center or organization to gather information about the caller as a means of directing the inquiry to the appropriate agent. CTI can transfer relevant information about

1352-399: A function different from the current one. Higher level IVR development tools are available to further simplify the application development process. A call flow diagram can be drawn with a GUI tool and the presentation layer (typically VoiceXML) can be automatically generated. In addition, these tools normally provide extension mechanisms for software integration, such as an HTTP interface to

1456-555: A global clock signal. Two notable examples of this are the ARM compliant AMULET and the MIPS R3000 compatible MiniMIPS. Rather than totally removing the clock signal, some CPU designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous, such as using asynchronous ALUs in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains. While it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at

1560-460: A hundred or more gates, was to build them using a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) semiconductor manufacturing process (either PMOS logic , NMOS logic , or CMOS logic). However, some companies continued to build processors out of bipolar transistor–transistor logic (TTL) chips because bipolar junction transistors were faster than MOS chips up until the 1970s (a few companies such as Datapoint continued to build processors out of TTL chips until

1664-522: A lot of semiconductor area to caches and instruction-level parallelism to increase performance and to CPU modes to support operating systems and virtualization . Most modern CPUs are implemented on integrated circuit (IC) microprocessors , with one or more CPUs on a single IC chip. Microprocessor chips with multiple CPUs are called multi-core processors . The individual physical CPUs, called processor cores , can also be multithreaded to support CPU-level multithreading. An IC that contains

1768-593: A mechanism to support communities and provide information to populations that are hard to reach by traditional methods. IVR has been used for community generated content which NGOs and social organizations can tailor to spread relevant content to hard to reach population. The introduction of Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) means that point-to-point communications are no longer restricted to voice calls but can now be extended to multimedia technologies such as video . IVR manufacturers have extended their systems into IVVR (interactive voice and video response), especially for

1872-411: A memory management unit, translating logical addresses into physical RAM addresses, providing memory protection and paging abilities, useful for virtual memory . Simpler processors, especially microcontrollers , usually don't include an MMU. A CPU cache is a hardware cache used by the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer to reduce the average cost (time or energy) to access data from

1976-456: A number that identifies the address of the next instruction to be fetched. After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction so that it will contain the address of the next instruction in the sequence. Often, the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned. This issue

2080-496: A prevalence of mobile phones even in rural areas, which allows room for IVR technology to support social good projects. However, most IVR technology is designed in resource-rich domains hence research is necessary to contextualize and adapt this technology for developing countries. Research in ICTD has helped tailor IVR towards social impact has created innovative applications in health, agricultural, entertainment and citizen journalism. In

2184-446: A set of valid responses (e.g. "How can I help you?"). In both cases, the goal is to glean a valid spoken response from the user. The key difference is that with directed dialogue, the user is more likely to speak an option exactly as was communicated by the prompt (e.g. "account balance"). With an open-ended prompt, however, the user is likely to include extraneous words or phrases (e.g. "I was just looking at my bill and saw that my balance

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2288-554: A time. Some CPU architectures include multiple AGUs so more than one address-calculation operation can be executed simultaneously, which brings further performance improvements due to the superscalar nature of advanced CPU designs. For example, Intel incorporates multiple AGUs into its Sandy Bridge and Haswell microarchitectures , which increase bandwidth of the CPU memory subsystem by allowing multiple memory-access instructions to be executed in parallel. Many microprocessors (in smartphones and desktop, laptop, server computers) have

2392-446: A useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches. Vacuum-tube computers such as EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers—such as the slower but earlier Harvard Mark I —failed very rarely. In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed

2496-439: A very small number of ICs; usually just one. The overall smaller CPU size, as a result of being implemented on a single die, means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance . This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz. Additionally, the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased

2600-408: A website and a Java interface for connecting to a database. In telecommunications , an audio response unit (ARU) (often included in IVR systems) is a device that provides synthesized voice responses to DTMF keypresses by processing calls based on (a) the call-originator input, (b) information received from a database, and (c) information in the incoming call, such as the time of day. ARUs increase

2704-464: Is a perception that IVR is adopted because it allows companies to save money and allow the hiring of fewer employees to answer the phone. Additionally, as basic information is now available online, the calls coming into a call center are more likely to be complex problems and not ones that can be resolved in an automated fashion, thus requiring the attention of a live agent. Central processing unit A central processing unit ( CPU ), also called

2808-401: Is a project that uses good ICTD principles to use IVR technology to benefit TB patients. Patients have a customized packet of tablets that they receive from the healthcare official who trains them to take the medicine in the sequence daily. Opening the packet in a sequence reveals a phone number that the patient needs to dial to acknowledge that they have taken the medicine. This research project

2912-410: Is also being introduced into automobile systems for hands-free operation. TTS is computer generated synthesized speech that is no longer the robotic voice traditionally associated with computers. Real voices create the speech in fragments that are spliced together (concatenated) and smoothed before being played to the caller. An IVR can be deployed in several ways: An automatic call distributor (ACD)

3016-433: Is based on key word spotting and IM conversations are conversational. The use of text messaging abbreviations and smilies requires different grammars to those currently used for speech recognition. IM is also starting to replace text messaging on multimedia mobile handsets. With the introduction of web services into the contact center, host integration has been simplified, allowing IVR applications to be hosted remotely from

3120-400: Is defined by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA). Often, one group of bits (that is, a "field") within the instruction, called the opcode, indicates which operation is to be performed, while the remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required for the operation, such as the operands. Those operands may be specified as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as

3224-460: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Interactive Voice Response IVR systems can be used standing alone to create self-service solutions for mobile purchases, banking payments, services, retail orders, utilities, travel information and weather conditions. In combination with systems such an automated attendant and automatic call distributor (ACD), call routing can be optimized for

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3328-494: Is generally referred to as the " classic RISC pipeline ", which is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called microcontrollers). It largely ignores the important role of CPU cache, and therefore the access stage of the pipeline. Some instructions manipulate the program counter rather than producing result data directly; such instructions are generally called "jumps" and facilitate program behavior like loops , conditional program execution (through

3432-479: Is greater or whether they are equal; one of these flags could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow. Fetch involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory. The instruction's location (address) in program memory is determined by the program counter (PC; called the "instruction pointer" in Intel x86 microprocessors ), which stores

3536-468: Is information that could easily be handled by a person but the IVR system is used to preserve privacy and avoid potential embarrassment of sensitive information or test results. Users are given a passcode to access their results. Some of the largest installed IVR platforms are used for televoting on television game shows, such as Pop Idol and Big Brother , which can generate enormous call spikes. The network provider will often deploy call gapping in

3640-400: Is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures (see below). The instruction that the CPU fetches from memory determines what the CPU will do. In the decode step, performed by binary decoder circuitry known as the instruction decoder , the instruction is converted into signals that control other parts of the CPU. The way in which the instruction is interpreted

3744-524: Is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, and the design became known as the von Neumann architecture , others before him, such as Konrad Zuse , had suggested and implemented similar ideas. The so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I , which was completed before EDVAC, also used a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. The key difference between

3848-455: Is often the second point of contact when calling many larger businesses. An ACD uses digital storage devices to play greetings or announcements, but typically routes a caller without prompting for input. An IVR can play announcements and request an input from the caller. This information can be used to profile the caller and used by an ACD to route the call to an agent with a particular skill set. Interactive voice response can be used to front-end

3952-723: Is the IBM PowerPC -based Xenon used in the Xbox 360 ; this reduces the power requirements of the Xbox 360. Another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether. While removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways, asynchronous (or clockless) designs carry marked advantages in power consumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs. While somewhat uncommon, entire asynchronous CPUs have been built without using

4056-652: Is the ability to allow external callers to page staff and transfer the inbound call to the paged person. IVR can be used to provide a more sophisticated voice mail experience to the caller. Banking institutions are reliant on IVR systems for customer engagement and to extend business hours to a 24/7 operation. Telephone banking allows customers to check balances and transaction histories as well as to make payments and transfers. As online channels have emerged, banking customer satisfaction has decreased. IVR systems are used by pharmaceutical companies and contract research organizations to conduct clinical trials and manage

4160-485: The IBM z13 has a 96 KiB L1 instruction cache. Most CPUs are synchronous circuits , which means they employ a clock signal to pace their sequential operations. The clock signal is produced by an external oscillator circuit that generates a consistent number of pulses each second in the form of a periodic square wave . The frequency of the clock pulses determines the rate at which a CPU executes instructions and, consequently,

4264-539: The Manchester Mark 1 ran its first program during the night of 16–17 June 1949. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger and sometimes distinctive computer. However, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers , and has rapidly accelerated with

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4368-627: The PSTN to prevent network overload. IVR may also be used by survey organizations to ask more sensitive questions where the investigators are concerned that a respondent might feel less comfortable providing these answers to a human interlocutor (such as questions about drug use or sexual behavior). In some cases, an IVR system can be used in the same survey in conjunction with a human interviewer. By allowing low-literacy populations to interact with technology, IVR systems form an avenue to build technological skills in developing countries. Developing countries have

4472-474: The main memory . A cache is a smaller, faster memory, closer to a processor core , which stores copies of the data from frequently used main memory locations . Most CPUs have different independent caches, including instruction and data caches , where the data cache is usually organized as a hierarchy of more cache levels (L1, L2, L3, L4, etc.). All modern (fast) CPUs (with few specialized exceptions ) have multiple levels of CPU caches. The first CPUs that used

4576-450: The AGU, various address-generation calculations can be offloaded from the rest of the CPU, and can often be executed quickly in a single CPU cycle. Capabilities of an AGU depend on a particular CPU and its architecture . Thus, some AGUs implement and expose more address-calculation operations, while some also include more advanced specialized instructions that can operate on multiple operands at

4680-431: The ALU's output word size), an arithmetic overflow flag will be set, influencing the next operation. Hardwired into a CPU's circuitry is a set of basic operations it can perform, called an instruction set . Such operations may involve, for example, adding or subtracting two numbers, comparing two numbers, or jumping to a different part of a program. Each instruction is represented by a unique combination of bits , known as

4784-468: The CPU can fetch the data from actual memory locations. Those address-generation calculations involve different integer arithmetic operations , such as addition, subtraction, modulo operations , or bit shifts . Often, calculating a memory address involves more than one general-purpose machine instruction, which do not necessarily decode and execute quickly. By incorporating an AGU into a CPU design, together with introducing specialized instructions that use

4888-479: The CPU to access main memory . By having address calculations handled by separate circuitry that operates in parallel with the rest of the CPU, the number of CPU cycles required for executing various machine instructions can be reduced, bringing performance improvements. While performing various operations, CPUs need to calculate memory addresses required for fetching data from the memory; for example, in-memory positions of array elements must be calculated before

4992-422: The CPU to malfunction. Another major issue, as clock rates increase dramatically, is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the CPU . The constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time. In general, a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state. Therefore, as clock rate increases, so does energy consumption, causing

5096-467: The CPU to require more heat dissipation in the form of CPU cooling solutions. One method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called clock gating , which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components (effectively disabling them). However, this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very low-power designs. One notable recent CPU design that uses extensive clock gating

5200-438: The IVR developer to focus on the call flow. IVR speech recognition interactions (call flows) are designed using 3 approaches to prompt for and recognize user input: directed, open-ended, and mixed dialogue. A directed dialogue prompt communicates a set of valid responses to the user (e.g. "How can I help you? ... Say something like, account balance, order status, or more options "). An open-ended prompt does not communicate

5304-525: The United States Army Corps of Engineers Isle of Wight Railway In-water recompression , a treatment for decompression sickness Independent Wrestling Revolution , a company that promotes professional wrestling The Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing (in German: I nterdisziplinäres Zentrum für w issenschaftliches R echnen, short IWR ), a scientific research institute of

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5408-518: The University of Heidelberg, Germany. Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title IWR . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IWR&oldid=886618846 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

5512-407: The account record. IVR call flows are created in a variety of ways. A traditional IVR depended upon proprietary programming or scripting languages, whereas modern IVR applications are generated in a similar way to Web pages, using standards such as VoiceXML , CCXML , SRGS and SSML . The ability to use XML-driven applications allows a web server to act as the application server , freeing

5616-431: The advent and eventual success of the ubiquitous personal computer , the term CPU is now applied almost exclusively to microprocessors. Several CPUs (denoted cores ) can be combined in a single processing chip. Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards. Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on

5720-428: The advent of the transistor . Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable, and fragile switching elements, like vacuum tubes and relays . With this improvement, more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing discrete (individual) components. In 1964, IBM introduced its IBM System/360 computer architecture that

5824-564: The complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU many fold. This widely observed trend is described by Moore's law , which had proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity until 2016. While the complexity, size, construction and general form of CPUs have changed enormously since 1950, the basic design and function has not changed much at all. Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as von Neumann stored-program machines. As Moore's law no longer holds, concerns have arisen about

5928-423: The complexity scale, a machine language program is a collection of machine language instructions that the CPU executes. The actual mathematical operation for each instruction is performed by a combinational logic circuit within the CPU's processor known as the arithmetic–logic unit or ALU. In general, a CPU executes an instruction by fetching it from memory, using its ALU to perform an operation, and then storing

6032-444: The contact center. This has meant hosted IVR applications using speech are now available to smaller contact centers across the globe and has led to an expansion of ASP (application service providers). IVR applications can also be hosted on the public network, without contact center integration. Services include public announcement messages and message services for small business. It is also possible to deploy two-prong IVR services where

6136-419: The context of tuberculosis, patients need to adhere to the medicine daily basis for a period of few months to completely heal. In public sector, there is a scheme called DOTS (Directly Observed Therapy Short Course ) which was the most effective source for poor population. However, this method requires the patient to commute to the clinic everyday which adds financial and time constraints to the patient. 99DOTS

6240-486: The control unit as part of the von Neumann architecture . In modern computer designs, the control unit is typically an internal part of the CPU with its overall role and operation unchanged since its introduction. The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit within the processor that performs integer arithmetic and bitwise logic operations. The inputs to the ALU are the data words to be operated on (called operands ), status information from previous operations, and

6344-453: The desired operation. The action is then completed, typically in response to a clock pulse. Very often the results are written to an internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions. In other cases results may be written to slower, but less expensive and higher capacity main memory . For example, if an instruction that performs addition is to be executed, registers containing operands (numbers to be summed) are activated, as are

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6448-429: The drawbacks of globally synchronous CPUs. For example, a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal. Higher clock rates in increasingly complex CPUs make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase (synchronized) throughout the entire unit. This has led many modern CPUs to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause

6552-453: The early 1980s). In the 1960s, MOS ICs were slower and initially considered useful only in applications that required low power. Following the development of silicon-gate MOS technology by Federico Faggin at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968, MOS ICs largely replaced bipolar TTL as the standard chip technology in the early 1970s. As the microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, decreasing

6656-410: The early 1980s, Leon Ferber's Perception Technology became the first mainstream market competitor, after hard drive technology (read/write random-access to digitized voice data) had reached a cost-effective price point. At that time, a system could store digitized speech on disk, play the appropriate spoken message, and process the human's DTMF response. As call centers began to migrate to multimedia in

6760-578: The era of specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc and Fujitsu Ltd . During this period, a method of manufacturing many interconnected transistors in a compact space was developed. The integrated circuit (IC) allowed a large number of transistors to be manufactured on a single semiconductor -based die , or "chip". At first, only very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as NOR gates were miniaturized into ICs. CPUs based on these "building block" ICs are generally referred to as "small-scale integration" (SSI) devices. SSI ICs, such as

6864-503: The execution of an instruction, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter . If a jump instruction was executed, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to and program execution continues normally. In more complex CPUs, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded and executed simultaneously. This section describes what

6968-401: The faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU will execute each second. To ensure proper operation of the CPU, the clock period is longer than the maximum time needed for all signals to propagate (move) through the CPU. In setting the clock period to a value well above the worst-case propagation delay , it is possible to design the entire CPU and the way it moves data around the "edges" of

7072-414: The individual customer and the IVR dialog from the IVR to the agent desktop using a screen-pop , making for a more effective and efficient service. Voice-activated dialing (VAD) IVR systems are used to automate routine inquiries to a switchboard or PABX (Private Automatic Branch exchange) operators, and are used in many hospitals and large businesses to reduce the caller waiting time. An additional function

7176-555: The individual transistors used by the PDP-8 and PDP-10 to SSI ICs, and their extremely popular PDP-11 line was originally built with SSI ICs, but was eventually implemented with LSI components once these became practical. Lee Boysel published influential articles, including a 1967 "manifesto", which described how to build the equivalent of a 32-bit mainframe computer from a relatively small number of large-scale integration circuits (LSI). The only way to build LSI chips, which are chips with

7280-399: The initial IVR application is used to route the call to the appropriate contact center. This can be used to balance loading across multiple contact centers or provide business continuity in the event of a system outage. Surveys show IVR is generally unpopular with customers. It is difficult to use and unresponsive to the caller. Many customers object to talking to an automated system. There

7384-506: The introduction of SIP contact centers, call control in a SIP contact center can be implemented by CCXML scripting, which is an adjunct to the VXML language used to generate modern IVR dialogues. As calls are queued in the SIP contact center, the IVR system can provide treatment or automation, wait for a fixed period, or play music. Inbound calls to a SIP contact center must be queued or terminated against

7488-534: The large volumes of data generated. The caller will respond to questions in their preferred language and their responses will be logged into a database and possibly recorded at the same time to confirm authenticity. Applications include patient randomization and drug supply management. They are also used in recording patient diaries and questionnaires. IVR systems allow callers to obtain data relatively anonymously. Hospitals and clinics have used IVR systems to allow callers to receive anonymous access to test results. This

7592-415: The late 1990s, companies started to invest in computer telephony integration (CTI) with IVR systems. IVR became vital for call centers deploying universal queuing and routing solutions and acted as an agent which collected customer data to enable intelligent routing decisions. With improvements in technology, systems could use speaker-independent voice recognition of a limited vocabulary instead of requiring

7696-439: The limits of integrated circuit transistor technology. Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant. These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer , as well as to expand the use of parallelism and other methods that extend

7800-408: The location of a value that may be a processor register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode . In some CPU designs, the instruction decoder is implemented as a hardwired, unchangeable binary decoder circuit. In others, a microprogram is used to translate instructions into sets of CPU configuration signals that are applied sequentially over multiple clock pulses. In some cases

7904-406: The machine language opcode . While processing an instruction, the CPU decodes the opcode (via a binary decoder ) into control signals, which orchestrate the behavior of the CPU. A complete machine language instruction consists of an opcode and, in many cases, additional bits that specify arguments for the operation (for example, the numbers to be summed in the case of an addition operation). Going up

8008-421: The memory that stores the microprogram is rewritable, making it possible to change the way in which the CPU decodes instructions. After the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed. Depending on the CPU architecture, this may consist of a single action or a sequence of actions. During each action, control signals electrically enable or disable various parts of the CPU so they can perform all or part of

8112-490: The mobile phone networks. The use of video gives IVR systems the ability to implement multimodal interaction with the caller. The introduction of full-duplex video IVR in the future will allow systems the ability to read emotions and facial expressions. It may also be used to identify the caller, using technology such as Iris scan or other biometric means. Recordings of the caller may be stored to monitor certain transactions and can be used to reduce identity fraud. With

8216-706: The number of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU. MSI and LSI ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands. By 1968, the number of ICs required to build a complete CPU had been reduced to 24 ICs of eight different types, with each IC containing roughly 1000 MOSFETs. In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU composed of only four LSI integrated circuits. Since microprocessors were first introduced they have almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods. The first commercially available microprocessor, made in 1971,

8320-471: The number of information calls handled and provide consistent quality in information retrieval. IVR systems are used to service high call volumes at lower cost. The use of IVR allows callers' queries to be resolved without a live agent. If callers do not find the information they need, the calls may be transferred to a live agent. The approach allows live agents to have more time to deal with complex interactions. When an IVR system answers multiple phone numbers,

8424-567: The ones used in the Apollo Guidance Computer , usually contained up to a few dozen transistors. To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs. IBM's System/370 , follow-on to the System/360, used SSI ICs rather than Solid Logic Technology discrete-transistor modules. DEC's PDP-8 /I and KI10 PDP-10 also switched from

8528-409: The parts of the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that perform addition. When the clock pulse occurs, the operands flow from the source registers into the ALU, and the sum appears at its output. On subsequent clock pulses, other components are enabled (and disabled) to move the output (the sum of the operation) to storage (e.g., a register or memory). If the resulting sum is too large (i.e., it is larger than

8632-563: The person to use DTMF signaling. Starting in the 2000s, voice response became more common and cheaper to deploy. This was due to increased CPU power and the migration of speech applications from proprietary code to the VXML standard. DTMF decoding and speech recognition are used to interpret the caller's response to voice prompts. DTMF tones are entered via the telephone keypad . Other technologies include using text-to-speech (TTS) to speak complex and dynamic information, such as e-mails, news reports or weather information. IVR technology

8736-537: The physical wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time and effort required to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task. With von Neumann's design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. EDVAC was not the first stored-program computer; the Manchester Baby , which was a small-scale experimental stored-program computer, ran its first program on 21 June 1948 and

8840-501: The popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers . Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, and sometimes even in toys. While von Neumann

8944-473: The possible exception of the last level. Each extra level of cache tends to be bigger and is optimized differently. Other types of caches exist (that are not counted towards the "cache size" of the most important caches mentioned above), such as the translation lookaside buffer (TLB) that is part of the memory management unit (MMU) that most CPUs have. Caches are generally sized in powers of two: 2, 8, 16 etc. KiB or MiB (for larger non-L1) sizes, although

9048-448: The processor. It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic and logic unit and input and output devices how to respond to the instructions that have been sent to the processor. It directs the operation of the other units by providing timing and control signals. Most computer resources are managed by the CU. It directs the flow of data between the CPU and the other devices. John von Neumann included

9152-408: The prompts themselves are typically much shorter. A mixed dialogue approach involves shifting from open-ended to directed dialogue or vice versa within the same interaction, as one type of prompt may be more effective in a given situation. Mixed dialog prompts must also be able to recognize responses that are not relevant to the immediate prompt, for instance in the case of a user deciding to shift to

9256-415: The queue, choose an automated service, or request a callback. The system may obtain caller line identification (CLI) data from the network to help identify or authenticate the caller. Additional caller authentication data could include account number, personal information, password and biometrics (such as voice print). IVR also enables customer prioritization. In a system wherein individual customers may have

9360-478: The reliability problems. Most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, limited largely by the speed of the switching devices they were built with. The design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated the building of smaller and more reliable electronic devices. The first such improvement came with

9464-409: The result to memory. Besides the instructions for integer mathematics and logic operations, various other machine instructions exist, such as those for loading data from memory and storing it back, branching operations, and mathematical operations on floating-point numbers performed by the CPU's floating-point unit (FPU). The control unit (CU) is a component of the CPU that directs the operation of

9568-484: The rising and falling clock signal. This has the advantage of simplifying the CPU significantly, both from a design perspective and a component-count perspective. However, it also carries the disadvantage that the entire CPU must wait on its slowest elements, even though some portions of it are much faster. This limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing CPU parallelism (see below). However, architectural improvements alone do not solve all of

9672-540: The short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay. The increased reliability and dramatically increased speed of the switching elements, which were almost exclusively transistors by this time; CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were easily obtained during this period. Additionally, while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) vector processors began to appear. These early experimental designs later gave rise to

9776-439: The term "CPU" is generally defined as a device for software (computer program) execution, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer . The idea of a stored-program computer had been already present in the design of John Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly 's ENIAC , but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC

9880-408: The use of DNIS ensures that the correct application and language is executed. A single large IVR system can handle calls for thousands of applications, each with its own phone numbers and script. Call centers use IVR systems to identify and segment callers. The ability to identify customers allows services to be tailored according to the customer profile. The caller can be given the option to wait in

9984-422: The use of a conditional jump), and existence of functions . In some processors, some other instructions change the state of bits in a "flags" register . These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations. For example, in such processors a "compare" instruction evaluates two values and sets or clears bits in the flags register to indicate which one

10088-431: The usefulness of the classical von Neumann model. The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions that is called a program. The instructions to be executed are kept in some kind of computer memory . Nearly all CPUs follow the fetch, decode and execute steps in their operation, which are collectively known as the instruction cycle . After

10192-606: The von Neumann and Harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of CPU instructions and data, while the former uses the same memory space for both. Most modern CPUs are primarily von Neumann in design, but CPUs with the Harvard architecture are seen as well, especially in embedded applications; for instance, the Atmel AVR microcontrollers are Harvard-architecture processors. Relays and vacuum tubes (thermionic tubes) were commonly used as switching elements;

10296-520: Was based out of Microsoft Research India by Bill Theis and who received MacArthur Fellowship for the project. The project has spun off as Everwell Technologies which now works closely with the Government of India to scale this technology to patients throughout India. Although radio is a very popular means of entertainment, IVR provides interactivity, which can help listeners engage in novel ways using their phones. ICTD research has used IVR entertainment as

10400-530: Was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed a paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC . It was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by

10504-640: Was so popular that it dominated the mainframe computer market for decades and left a legacy that is continued by similar modern computers like the IBM zSeries . In 1965, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets—the PDP-8 . Transistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors. Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of

10608-399: Was the Intel 4004 , and the first widely used microprocessor, made in 1974, was the Intel 8080 . Mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures , and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward-compatible with their older hardware and software. Combined with

10712-429: Was used in a series of computers capable of running the same programs with different speeds and performances. This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer. To facilitate this improvement, IBM used the concept of a microprogram (often called "microcode"), which still sees widespread use in modern CPUs. The System/360 architecture

10816-499: Was wrong."). The open-ended prompt requires a greater degree of natural language processing to extract the relevant information from the phrase (i.e. "balance"). Open-ended recognition also requires a larger grammar set, which accounts for a wider array of permutations of a given response (e.g. "balance was wrong", "wrong balance", "balance is high", "high balance"). Despite the greater amount of data and processing required for open-ended prompts, they are more interactively efficient, as

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