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65-403: The ISRO Pad Abort Test was an Indian Space Research Organisation launch escape system test of its crew module as part of Indian Human Spaceflight Programme . The successful test took place on 5 July 2018. A Pad Abort Test is a trial run for the spacecraft's launch abort system (sometimes called a launch escape system). This system is designed to quickly get the crew and spacecraft away from

130-502: A specific impulse of up to 450 s at an effective exhaust velocity of 4.4 kilometres per second (2.7 mi/s; Mach 13). The major components of a cryogenic rocket engine are the combustion chamber , pyrotechnic initiator , fuel injector, fuel and oxidizer turbopumps , cryo valves, regulators, the fuel tanks, and rocket engine nozzle . In terms of feeding propellants to the combustion chamber, cryogenic rocket engines are almost exclusively pump-fed . Pump-fed engines work in

195-512: A Soviet rocket. Efforts to develop an orbital launch vehicle began after mastering sounding rocket technology. The concept was to develop a launcher capable of providing sufficient velocity for a mass of 35 kg (77 lb) to enter low Earth orbit . It took 7 years for ISRO to develop Satellite Launch Vehicle capable of putting 40 kg (88 lb) into a 400-kilometre (250 mi) orbit. An SLV Launch Pad , ground stations, tracking networks, radars and other communications were set up for

260-582: A constellation of imaging , communication and remote sensing satellites . It operates the GAGAN and IRNSS satellite navigation systems. It has sent three missions to the Moon and one mission to Mars . Formerly known as the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR), it was set up in 1962 by then-Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru on the recommendation of scientist Vikram Sarabhai . It

325-456: A ground mock-up stage with no technology transfer, instead of five cryogenic stages along with the technology and design in the earlier agreement. These engines were used for the initial flights and were named GSLV Mk.1. ISRO was under US government sanctions between 6 May 1992 to 6 May 1994. After the United States refused to help India with Global Positioning System (GPS) technology during

390-547: A joint working framework in 2021, wherein ISRO will approve all short-, medium- and long-term space research projects of common interest between the two. In return, an Advanced Space Research Group (ASRG) formed at IIST under the guidance of the EOC will have full access to ISRO facilities. This was done with the aim of "transforming" the IIST into a premier space research and engineering institute with

455-572: A launch campaign. The SLV's first launch in 1979 carried a Rohini technology payload but could not inject the satellite into its desired orbit. It was followed by a successful launch in 1980 carrying a Rohini Series-I satellite, making India the seventh country to reach Earth's orbit after the USSR, the US, France, the UK , China and Japan. RS-1 was the third Indian satellite to reach orbit as Bhaskara had been launched from

520-426: A means of displaying our might. India's economic progress has made its space programme more visible and active as the country aims for greater self-reliance in space technology. In 2008, India launched as many as 11   satellites, including nine from other countries, and went on to become the first nation to launch 10   satellites on one   rocket. ISRO has put into operation two major satellite systems:

585-472: A number of satellite series and constellations have been deployed by Indian and foreign launchers. At present, ISRO operates one of the largest constellations of active communication and earth imaging satellites for military and civilian uses. The Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are India's earth observation satellites. They are the largest collection of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today, providing remote sensing services. All

650-449: A successful launch in 1980 making India the sixth country in world with orbital launch capability. The development of bigger rockets began afterwards. Augmented or Advanced Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) was another small launch vehicle released in 1980s to develop technologies required to place satellites into geostationary orbit . ISRO did not have adequate funds to develop ASLV and PSLV at once. Since ASLV suffered repeated failures, it

715-402: A ₹400 crore (4 billion; US$ 53 million) project called Network for Space Object Tracking and Analysis (NETRA). It will help the country track atmospheric entry , intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), anti-satellite weapon and other space-based attacks. All the radars and telescopes will be connected through NETRA. The system will support remote and scheduled operations. NETRA will follow

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780-626: Is India's national space agency . It serves as the principal research and development arm of the Department of Space (DoS), overseen by the Prime Minister of India , with the Chairman of ISRO also serving as the chief executive of the DoS. It is primarily responsible for space-based operations, space exploration , international space cooperation and the development of related technologies. The agency maintains

845-441: Is a small-lift launch vehicle developed by the ISRO with payload capacity to deliver 500 kg (1,100 lb) to low Earth orbit (500 km (310 mi)) or 300 kg (660 lb) to Sun-synchronous orbit (500 km (310 mi)) for launching small satellites, with the capability to support multiple orbital drop-offs. Decade-wise summary of SSLV launches: Rohini is a series of sounding rockets developed by

910-443: Is a cooperative altimetry technology mission, used for monitoring the oceans' surface and sea levels. AltiKa measures ocean surface topography with an accuracy of 8 mm (0.31 in), compared to 2.5 cm (0.98 in) on average using altimeters, and with a spatial resolution of 2 km (1.2 mi). During the 1960s and 1970s, India initiated its own launch vehicles owing to geopolitical and economic considerations. In

975-435: Is in the liquid phase, all cryogenic rocket engines are by definition liquid-propellant rocket engines . Various cryogenic fuel-oxidizer combinations have been tried, but the combination of liquid hydrogen ( LH2 ) fuel and the liquid oxygen ( LOX ) oxidizer is one of the most widely used. Both components are easily and cheaply available, and when burned have one of the highest enthalpy releases in combustion , producing

1040-412: Is its primary service area. IRNSS provides two types of services, namely, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and Restricted Service (RS), providing a position accuracy of better than 20 m (66 ft) in the primary service area. Kalpana-1 (MetSat-1) was ISRO's first dedicated meteorological satellite. Indo-French satellite SARAL on 25 February 2013. SARAL (or "Satellite with ARgos and AltiKa")

1105-496: Is the heaviest rocket in operational service with ISRO. Equipped with a more powerful cryogenic engine and boosters than GSLV, it has significantly higher payload capacity and allows India to launch all its communication satellites. LVM3 is expected to carry India's first crewed mission to space and will be the testbed for SCE-200 engine which will power India's heavy-lift rockets in the future. Decade-wise summary of LVM3 launches: The Small Satellite Launch Vehicle ( SSLV )

1170-644: The Combined Space Operation Center (CSpOC) to protect the space-based assets of both nations from natural and man-made threats. On 11 July 2022, ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management (IS4OM) at Space Situational Awareness Control Centre, in Peenya was inaugurated by Jitender Singh . It will help provide information on on-orbit collision, fragmentation, atmospheric re-entry risk, space-based strategic information, hazardous asteroids, and space weather forecast. IS4OM will safeguard all

1235-643: The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was founded with Bhabha as its secretary . It provided funding for space research throughout India. During this time, tests continued on aspects of meteorology and the Earth's magnetic field , a topic that had been studied in India since the establishment of the Colaba Observatory in 1823. In 1954, the Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES)

1300-821: The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) for communication services, and the Indian Remote Sensing Programme (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources. ISRO is managed by the DOS, which itself falls under the authority of the Space Commission and manages the following agencies and institutes: Set up as the marketing arm of ISRO, Antrix 's job is to promote products, services and technology developed by ISRO. Set up for marketing spin-off technologies, tech transfers through industry interface and scale up industry participation in

1365-652: The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) for meteorological and atmospheric study. These sounding rockets are capable of carrying payloads of 2 to 200 kilograms (4.4 to 440.9 lb) between altitudes of 100 to 500 kilometres (62 to 311 mi). The ISRO currently uses RH-200, RH-300,Mk-II, RH-560 Mk-II and RH-560 Mk-III rockets, which are launched from the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in Thumba and

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1430-698: The Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IASDCC) and United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOSA) guidelines. The objective of NETRA is to track objects at a distance of 36,000 kilometres (22,000 mi) in GTO. India signed a memorandum of understanding on the Space Situational Awareness Data Sharing Pact with the US in April 2022. It will enable Department of Space to collaborate with

1495-514: The Kargil war , ISRO was prompted to develop its own satellite navigation system IRNSS (now NaVIC i.e. Navigation with Indian Constellation) which it is now expanding further. In 2003, Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee urged scientists to develop technologies to land humans on the Moon and programmes for lunar, planetary and crewed missions were started. ISRO launched Chandrayaan-1 in 2008, purportedly

1560-672: The Physical Research Laboratory at Ahmedabad , and Homi Bhabha , who established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in 1945. Initial experiments in space sciences included the study of cosmic radiation , high-altitude and airborne testing, deep underground experimentation at the Kolar mines —one of the deepest mining sites in the world—and studies of the upper atmosphere . These studies were done at research laboratories, universities, and independent locations. In 1950,

1625-1015: The Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota . The first proposal to send humans into space was discussed by ISRO in 2006, leading to work on the required infrastructure and spacecraft. The trials for crewed space missions began in 2007 with the 600-kilogram (1,300 lb) Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE), launched using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) rocket, and safely returned to earth 12 days later. Cryogenic rocket engine Rocket engines burning cryogenic propellants remain in use today on high performance upper stages and boosters . Upper stages are numerous. Boosters include ESA's Ariane 5 , JAXA 's H-II , ISRO 's GSLV , LVM3 , United States Delta IV and Space Launch System . The United States , Russia , Japan , India , France and China are

1690-452: The 1920s, when scientist S. K. Mitra conducted a series of experiments sounding the ionosphere through ground-based radio in Kolkata . Later, Indian scientists like C.V. Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable in space sciences. After 1945, important developments were made in coordinated space research in India by two scientists: Vikram Sarabhai, founder of

1755-472: The 1960s–1970s, the country developed a sounding rocket , and by the 1980s, research had yielded the Satellite Launch Vehicle -3 and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational supporting infrastructure. The Satellite Launch Vehicle (known as SLV-3) was the first space rocket to be developed by India. The initial launch in 1979 was a failure followed by

1820-609: The Indian Space Programme. S-TICs are at the National Institute of Technology, Agartala serving for east region, National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar for the north region, and the National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli for the south region of India. Similar to NASA's CalTech -operated Jet Propulsion Laboratory , ISRO and the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) implemented

1885-544: The PSLV in 1990s was a major boost for the Indian space programme. With the exception of its first flight in 1994 and two partial failures later, the PSLV had a streak of more than 50 successful flights. The PSLV enabled India to launch all of its low Earth orbit satellites, small payloads to GTO and hundreds of foreign satellites . Along with the PSLV flights, development of a new rocket, a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)

1950-512: The Satellite-Based Communications, Navigation, Surveillance and Air Traffic Management plan for civil aviation. The Indian SBAS system has been given the acronym GAGAN – GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation . A national plan for satellite navigation including implementation of a Technology Demonstration System (TDS) over Indian airspace as a proof of concept has been prepared jointly by Airports Authority of India and ISRO. The TDS

2015-670: The Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee. The nomenclature of the series was changed to " GSAT " from "INSAT", then further changed to "CMS" from 2020 onwards. These satellites have been used by the Indian Armed Forces as well. GSAT-9 or "SAARC Satellite" provides communication services for India's smaller neighbors. The Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement an indigenous Satellite-Based Regional GPS Augmentation System also known as Space-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) as part of

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2080-432: The USSR in 1979. Efforts to develop a medium-lift launch vehicle capable of putting 600-kilogram (1,300 lb) class spacecrafts into 1,000-kilometre (620 mi) Sun-synchronous orbit had already begun in 1978. They would later lead to the development of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) . The SLV-3 later had two more launches before discontinuation in 1983. ISRO's Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC)

2145-561: The capability of leading future space exploration missions for ISRO. To reduce dependency on North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) for space situational awareness and protect the civilian and military assets, ISRO is setting up telescopes and radars in four locations to cover each direction. Leh , Mount Abu and Ponmudi were selected to station the telescopes and radars that will cover North, West and South of Indian territory. The last one will be in Northeast India to cover

2210-579: The community of nations, we must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and society, which we find in our country. And we should note that the application of sophisticated technologies and methods of analysis to our problems is not to be confused with embarking on grandiose schemes, whose primary impact is for show rather than for progress measured in hard economic and social terms. The former president of India and chairman of DRDO , A. P. J. Abdul Kalam , said: Very many individuals with myopic vision questioned

2275-484: The entire eastern region. Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota already supports Multi-Object Tracking Radar (MOTR). All the telescopes and radars will come under Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management (DSSAM) in Bengaluru. It will collect tracking data on inactive satellites and will also perform research on active debris removal, space debris modelling and mitigation. For early warning, ISRO began

2340-489: The first director of the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station, where sounding rockets were fired, marking the start of upper atmospheric research in India. An indigenous series of sounding rockets named Rohini was subsequently developed and started undergoing launches from 1967 onwards. Waman Dattatreya Patwardhan , another IOFS officer, developed the propellant for the rockets. Under

2405-465: The first probe to verify the presence of water on the Moon, and the Mars Orbiter Mission in 2013, the first Asian spacecraft to enter Martian orbit, making India the first country to succeed at this on its first attempt. Subsequently, the cryogenic upper stage for GSLV rocket became operational, making India the sixth country to have full launch capabilities. A new heavier-lift launcher LVM3

2470-532: The government of Indira Gandhi , INCOSPAR was superseded by ISRO. Later in 1972, a space commission and Department of Space (DoS) were set up to oversee space technology development in India specifically. ISRO was brought under DoS, institutionalising space research in India and forging the Indian space programme into its existing form. India joined the Soviet Interkosmos programme for space cooperation and got its first satellite Aryabhatta in orbit through

2535-609: The name of ISRO written in two sets of text, orange-coloured Devanagari on the left and blue-coloured English in the Prakrta typeface on the right. As the national space agency of India, ISRO's purpose is the pursuit of all space-based applications such as research, reconnaissance, and communications. It undertakes the design and development of space rockets and satellites, and undertakes explores upper atmosphere and deep space exploration missions. ISRO has also incubated technologies in India's private space sector, boosting its growth. On

2600-490: The only countries that have operational cryogenic rocket engines. Rocket engines need high mass flow rates of both oxidizer and fuel to generate useful thrust. Oxygen, the simplest and most common oxidizer, is in the gas phase at standard temperature and pressure , as is hydrogen, the simplest fuel. While it is possible to store propellants as pressurized gases, this would require large, heavy tanks that would make achieving orbital spaceflight difficult if not impossible. On

2665-722: The operational space assets, identify and monitor other operational spacecraft with close approaches which have overpasses over Indian subcontinent and those which conduct intentional manoeuvres with suspicious motives or seek re-entry within South Asia . On 7 March 2023, ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management (IS4OM) conducted successful controlled re-entry of decommissioned satellite Megha-Tropiques after firing four on-board 11 Newton thrusters for 20 minutes each. A series of 20 manoeuvres were performed since August 2022 by spending 120 kg fuel. The final telemetry data confirmed disintegtration over Pacific Ocean. It

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2730-406: The other hand, if the propellants are cooled sufficiently, they exist in the liquid phase at higher density and lower pressure, simplifying tankage. These cryogenic temperatures vary depending on the propellant, with liquid oxygen existing below −183 °C (−297.4 °F; 90.1 K) and liquid hydrogen below −253 °C (−423.4 °F; 20.1 K). Since one or more of the propellants

2795-416: The prefix "EOS" regardless of functioning in 2020. They support a wide range of applications including optical, radar and electronic reconnaissance for Indian agencies, city planning, oceanography and environmental studies. The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) is the country's telecommunication system. It is a series of multipurpose geostationary satellites built and launched by ISRO to satisfy

2860-445: The relevance of space activities in a newly independent nation which was finding it difficult to feed its population. But neither Prime Minister Nehru nor Prof. Sarabhai had any ambiguity of purpose. Their vision was very clear: if Indians were to play a meaningful role in the community of nations, they must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to their real-life problems. They had no intention of using it merely as

2925-402: The rocket in the event of a potential failure. It is similar to an ejection seat for a fighter pilot, but instead of ejecting the pilot out of the spacecraft, the entire spacecraft is "ejected" away from the launch vehicle. The technology developed is expected to be applied to the first Indian crewed spacecraft called Gaganyaan , scheduled to be launched no earlier than 2024. The countdown for

2990-529: The safe g-force limits. Later recovery boats were sent to recover the crew module. The total duration of the test mission was 259 seconds. The test launch process was recorded by around 300 sensors. Main objectives of test were nominal 20 second ascent and 200 seconds of descent, not including the splashdown. Chute detachment was a scheduled event occurring around 259.4 seconds after launch as intended. Indian Space Research Organisation The Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO / ˈ ɪ s r oʊ / )

3055-508: The satellites are placed in polar Sun-synchronous orbit (except GISATs ) and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to enable several programs to be undertaken relevant to national development. The initial versions are composed of the 1 ( A , B , C , D ) nomenclature while the later versions were divided into sub-classes named based on their functioning and uses including Oceansat , Cartosat , HySIS , EMISAT and ResourceSat etc. Their names were unified under

3120-410: The space programmes. ISRO has opened Space Technology Incubation Centres (S-TIC) at premier technical universities in India which will incubate startups to build applications and products in tandem with the industry and for use in future space missions. The S-TIC will bring the industry, academia and ISRO under one umbrella to contribute towards research and development (R&D) initiatives relevant to

3185-482: The successful soft landing of its Vikram lander at 6.04pm IST (1234 GMT) near the little-explored region of the Moon in a world's first for any space programme. India then successfully launched its first sun probe, the Aditya-L1 , aboard a PSLV on September 2. ISRO did not have an official logo until 2002. The one adopted consists of an orange arrow shooting upwards attached with two blue coloured satellite panels with

3250-525: The suggestion of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai. Initially there was no dedicated ministry for the space programme and all activities of INCOSPAR relating to space technology continued to function within the DAE. IOFS officers were drawn from the Indian Ordnance Factories to harness their knowledge of propellants and advanced light materials used to build rockets. H.G.S. Murthy , an IOFS officer, was appointed

3315-486: The telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and search-and-rescue needs. Since the introduction of the first one in 1983, INSAT has become the largest domestic communication system in the Asia-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of DOS, the Department of Telecommunications , India Meteorological Department , All India Radio and Doordarshan . The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with

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3380-513: The test started at 2:00 am (IST) on 5 July 2018. At 7:00 am (IST) The Crew Escape System with crew module successfully lifted-off from Satish Dhawan Space Centre . The crew module was accelerated to 10 g and reached a highest altitude of 2.75 km (1.71 mi), it later safely parachuted down and floated in the Bay of Bengal 2.9 km (1.80 mi) away from its launch site. It was carried skyward using seven solid-fueled rocket motors keeping within

3445-405: The topic of the importance of a space programme to India as a developing nation, Vikram Sarabhai as INSCOPAR chair said in 1969: To us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with the economically advanced nations in the exploration of the Moon or the planets or manned space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, and in

3510-675: The world that possess full launch capabilities with the ability to deploy cryogenic engines , launch extraterrestrial missions and artificial satellites . It is also one of only four governmental space agencies in to have demonstrated unmanned soft landing capabilities. ISRO's programmes have played a significant role in the socio-economic development. It has supported both civilian and military domains in various aspects such as disaster management , telemedicine , navigation and reconnaissance. ISRO's spin-off technologies have also aided in new innovations in engineering and other allied domains. Modern space research in India can be traced to

3575-521: Was completed during 2007 with the installation of eight Indian Reference Stations at different airports linked to the Master Control Centre located near Bengaluru . IRNSS with an operational name NavIC is an independent regional navigation satellite system developed by India. It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India as well as the region extending up to 1,500 km (930 mi) from its borders, which

3640-534: Was dropped in favour of a new project. Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle or PSLV is the first medium-lift launch vehicle from India which enabled India to launch all its remote-sensing satellites into Sun-synchronous orbit . PSLV had a failure in its maiden launch in 1993. Besides two other partial failures, PSLV has become the primary workhorse for ISRO with more than 50 launches placing hundreds of Indian and foreign satellites into orbit. Decade-wise summary of PSLV launches: Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle

3705-416: Was envisaged in 1990s to transfer significant payloads to geostationary orbit. ISRO initially had a great problem realising GSLV as the development of CE-7.5 in India took a decade. The US had blocked India from obtaining cryogenic technology from Russia, leading India to develop its own cryogenic engines. Decade-wise summary of GSLV Launches: Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3), previously known as GSLV Mk III,

3770-554: Was established in the foothills of the Himalayas. The Rangpur Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania University , Hyderabad . Space research was further encouraged by the government of India. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 and opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space launch. The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was set up in 1962 by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru on

3835-438: Was going on. India tried to obtain upper-stage cryogenic engines from Russia's Glavkosmos but was blocked by the US from doing so. As a result, KVD-1 engines were imported from Russia under a new agreement which had limited success and a project to develop indigenous cryogenic technology was launched in 1994, taking two decades to reach fulfillment. A new agreement was signed with Russia for seven KVD-1 cryogenic stages and

3900-501: Was introduced in 2014 for heavier satellites and future human space missions. On 23 August 2023, India achieved its first soft landing on an extraterrestrial body and became the first nation to successfully land a spacecraft near the lunar south pole and fourth nation to successfully land a spacecraft on Moon with ISRO's Chandrayaan-3, the third Moon mission. Indian moon mission, Chandrayaan-3 (translated as "mooncraft" in English), saw

3965-449: Was launched by the Soviet space agency Interkosmos in 1975. In 1980, it launched the satellite RS-1 onboard SLV-3 , making India the seventh country to undertake orbital launches. It has subsequently developed various small-lift and medium-lift launch vehicles , enabling the agency to launch various satellites and deep space missions. It is one of the six government space agencies in

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4030-510: Was part of a compliance effort following international guidelines on space debris mitigation. Speaking at the 42nd annual meeting of the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC) in Bengaluru, S. Somanath stated that the long-term goal is for all Indian space actors—both governmental and non-governmental—to accomplish debris-free space missions by 2030. Since the launch of Aryabhata in 1975,

4095-518: Was renamed as ISRO in 1969 and was subsumed into the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE). The establishment of ISRO institutionalised space research activities in India. In 1972, the Government set up a Space Commission and the DoS, bringing ISRO under its purview. It has since then been managed by the DoS, which also governs various other institutions in the domain of astronomy and space technology. ISRO built India's first satellite, Aryabhata , which

4160-685: Was set up in 1985 and started working on a more powerful engine, Vikas , based upon the French Viking . Two years later, facilities to test liquid-fuelled rocket engines were established and development and testing of various rocket engines thrusters began. At the same time, another solid-fuelled rocket, the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) , whose design was based upon SLV-3 was being developed, with technologies to launch satellites into geostationary orbit (GTO). The ASLV had limited success and multiple launch failures; it

4225-513: Was soon discontinued. Alongside these developments, communication satellite technologies for the Indian National Satellite System and the Indian Remote Sensing Programme for earth observation satellites were developed and launches from overseas were initiated. The number of satellites eventually grew and the systems were established as among the largest satellite constellations in the world, with multi-band communication, radar imaging, optical imaging and meteorological satellites. The arrival of

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