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110-532: Federal Aviation Administration records say the airport had 684 passenger boardings (enplanements) in calendar year 2008, 926 in 2009 and 2,127 in 2010. The National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015 categorized it as a general aviation facility (the commercial service category requires at least 2,500 enplanements per year). Cape Air is the current airline, averaging 900 to 1,000 passengers per month on three daily round trips to St. Louis Lambert International Airport . After Cape Air notified

220-509: A U.S. federal government agency within the U.S. Department of Transportation which regulates civil aviation in the United States and surrounding international waters . Its powers include air traffic control , certification of personnel and aircraft , setting standards for airports, and protection of U.S. assets during the launch or re-entry of commercial space vehicles. Powers over neighboring international waters were delegated to

330-412: A bitumen binder, which is frequently used for road surfaces , and polymer concretes that use polymers as a binder. Concrete is distinct from mortar . Whereas concrete is itself a building material, mortar is a bonding agent that typically holds bricks , tiles and other masonry units together. Grout is another material associated with concrete and cement. It does not contain coarse aggregates and

440-463: A "prior experience" bid, where anyone with an FAA Control Tower Operator certificate (CTO) and 52 weeks of experience could apply. This was a revolving bid, every month the applicants on this bid were sorted out, and eligible applicants were hired and sent directly to facilities, bypassing the FAA academy entirely. In the process of promoting diversity, the FAA revised its hiring process. The FAA later issued

550-522: A CTI certificate allowed a prospective controller to skip the Air Traffic Basics part of the academy, about a 30- to 45-day course, and go right into Initial Qualification Training (IQT). All prospective controllers, CTI or not, have had to pass the FAA Academy in order to be hired as a controller. Failure at the academy means FAA employment is terminated. In January 2015 they launched another pipeline,

660-433: A French structural and civil engineer . Concrete components or structures are compressed by tendon cables during, or after, their fabrication in order to strengthen them against tensile forces developing when put in service. Freyssinet patented the technique on 2 October 1928. Concrete is an artificial composite material , comprising a matrix of cementitious binder (typically Portland cement paste or asphalt ) and

770-626: A Special Agent with the Office of Inspector General for the Department of Transportation and with FAA Security, is one of the most outspoken critics of FAA. Rather than commend the agency for proposing a $ 10.2 million fine against Southwest Airlines for its failure to conduct mandatory inspections in 2008, he was quoted as saying the following in an Associated Press story: "Penalties against airlines that violate FAA directives should be stiffer. At $ 25,000 per violation, Gutheinz said, airlines can justify rolling

880-408: A bond issue was approved by Kirksville voters in 1967. A new six-thousand foot concrete runway was built, as well as a new terminal building and improved hangar facilities. The longer runway was needed for the faster Fairchild prop-jet that began flights to Kirksville in late 1968. Also in the 1960s, Ozark switched Kirksville service from a Kansas City-Chicago route to a Des Moines-to-St. Louis one. With

990-452: A cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and makes it flow more freely. As stated by Abrams' law , a lower water-to-cement ratio yields a stronger, more durable concrete, whereas more water gives a freer-flowing concrete with a higher slump . The hydration of cement involves many concurrent reactions. The process involves polymerization ,

1100-509: A college that offered a CTI program. Before the change, candidates who had completed coursework at participating colleges and universities could be "fast-tracked" for consideration. However, the CTI program had no guarantee of a job offer, nor was the goal of the program to teach people to work actual traffic. The goal of the program was to prepare people for the FAA Academy in Oklahoma City, OK. Having

1210-400: A concrete component—and become a part of the binder for the aggregate. Fly ash and slag can enhance some properties of concrete such as fresh properties and durability. Alternatively, other materials can also be used as a concrete binder: the most prevalent substitute is asphalt , which is used as the binder in asphalt concrete . Admixtures are added to modify the cure rate or properties of

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1320-434: A dispersed phase or "filler" of aggregate (typically a rocky material, loose stones, and sand). The binder "glues" the filler together to form a synthetic conglomerate . Many types of concrete are available, determined by the formulations of binders and the types of aggregate used to suit the application of the engineered material. These variables determine strength and density, as well as chemical and thermal resistance of

1430-421: A few government facilities", and that humanity would never get to Mars under those rules. A Designated Engineering Representative (DER) is an engineer who is appointed under 14 CFR section 183.29 to act on behalf of a company or as an independent consultant (IC). The DER system enables the FAA to delegate certain involvement in airworthiness exams, tests, and inspections to qualified technical people outside of

1540-483: A flight instructor (Gold Seal certification), a 50-year aviator (Wright Brothers Master Pilot Award), a 50-year mechanic (Charles Taylor Master Mechanic Award) or as a proficient pilot. The latter, the FAA " WINGS Program ", provides a lifetime series of grouped proficiency activities at three levels (Basic, Advanced, and Master) for pilots who have undergone several hours of ground and flight training since their last WINGS award, or "Phase". The FAA encourages volunteerism in

1650-429: A four-year degree or five years of full-time work experience to apply, rather than the closed college program or Veterans Recruitment Appointment bids, something that had last been done in 2008. Thousands were hired, including veterans, Collegiate Training Initiative graduates, and people who are true "off the street" hires. The move was made to open the job up to more people who might make good controllers but did not go to

1760-452: A greater degree of fracture resistance even in seismically active environments. Roman concrete is significantly more resistant to erosion by seawater than modern concrete; it used pyroclastic materials which react with seawater to form Al- tobermorite crystals over time. The use of hot mixing and the presence of lime clasts are thought to give the concrete a self-healing ability, where cracks that form become filled with calcite that prevents

1870-546: A key event in the history of architecture termed the Roman architectural revolution , freed Roman construction from the restrictions of stone and brick materials. It enabled revolutionary new designs in terms of both structural complexity and dimension. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the Pantheon has the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome. Concrete, as

1980-415: A large aggregate that is too large for the size of the formwork, or which has too few smaller aggregate grades to serve to fill the gaps between the larger grades, or using too little or too much sand for the same reason, or using too little water, or too much cement, or even using jagged crushed stone instead of smoother round aggregate such as pebbles. Any combination of these factors and others may result in

2090-461: A large type of industrial facility called a concrete plant , or often a batch plant. The usual method of placement is casting in formwork , which holds the mix in shape until it has set enough to hold its shape unaided. Concrete plants come in two main types, ready-mix plants and central mix plants. A ready-mix plant blends all of the solid ingredients, while a central mix does the same but adds water. A central-mix plant offers more precise control of

2200-469: A mixture of calcium silicates ( alite , belite ), aluminates and ferrites —compounds, which will react with water. Portland cement and similar materials are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay or shale (a source of silicon, aluminium and iron) and grinding this product (called clinker ) with a source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum ). Cement kilns are extremely large, complex, and inherently dusty industrial installations. Of

2310-425: A new airport aid program and certain added responsibilities for airport safety. During the 1960s and 1970s, the FAA also started to regulate high altitude (over 500 feet) kite and balloon flying. By the mid-1970s, the agency had achieved a semi-automated air traffic control system using both radar and computer technology. This system required enhancement to keep pace with air traffic growth, however, especially after

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2420-669: A new independent agency, the Civil Aeronautics Authority . The legislation also expanded the government's role by giving the CAA the authority and the power to regulate airline fares and to determine the routes that air carriers would serve. President Franklin D. Roosevelt split the authority into two agencies in 1940: the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) and the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). CAA

2530-405: A number of manufactured aggregates, including air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash are also permitted. The size distribution of the aggregate determines how much binder is required. Aggregate with a very even size distribution has the biggest gaps whereas adding aggregate with smaller particles tends to fill these gaps. The binder must fill the gaps between the aggregate as well as paste

2640-425: A report that the "bio-data" was not a reliable test for future performance. However, the "Bio-Q" was not the determining factor for hiring, it was merely a screening tool to determine who would take a revised Air Traffic Standardized Aptitude Test (ATSAT). Due to cost and time, it was not practical to give all 30,000 some applicants the revised ATSAT, which has since been validated. In 2015 Fox News levied criticism that

2750-424: A semi-liquid slurry (paste) that can be shaped, typically by pouring it into a form. The concrete solidifies and hardens through a chemical process called hydration . The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, creating a robust, stone-like material. Other cementitious materials, such as fly ash and slag cement , are sometimes added—either pre-blended with the cement or directly as

2860-648: A series of midair collisions—most notably the 1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision ) prompted passage of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 . This legislation passed the CAA's functions to a new independent body, the Federal Aviation Agency. The act also transferred air safety regulation from the CAB to the FAA, and gave it sole responsibility for a joint civil-military system of air navigation and air traffic control. The FAA's first administrator, Elwood R. Quesada ,

2970-493: A simple, fast way of getting a basic idea of the properties of the finished concrete without having to perform testing in advance. Various governing bodies (such as British Standards ) define nominal mix ratios into a number of grades, usually ranging from lower compressive strength to higher compressive strength. The grades usually indicate the 28-day cure strength. Thorough mixing is essential to produce uniform, high-quality concrete. Separate paste mixing has shown that

3080-461: A small empire in the regions of southern Syria and northern Jordan from the 4th century BC. They discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime , with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of rubble masonry houses, concrete floors, and underground waterproof cisterns . They kept the cisterns secret as these enabled the Nabataeans to thrive in

3190-409: A variety of tooled processes performed. The hydration process is exothermic , which means ambient temperature plays a significant role in how long it takes concrete to set. Often, additives (such as pozzolans or superplasticizers ) are included in the mixture to improve the physical properties of the wet mix, delay or accelerate the curing time, or otherwise change the finished material. Most concrete

3300-399: Is 1,370 by 100 feet (418 x 30 m) turf. In the year ending April 30, 2023 the airport had 5,888 aircraft operations, average 113 per week: 50% general aviation , 37% airline, 12% air taxi , and <1% military. 20 aircraft were then based at the airport: 17 single-engine, 2 multi-engine, and 1 jet. Federal Aviation Administration The Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) is

3410-615: Is a set of programs to implement a suite of incremental changes to the National Airspace System (NAS). More precise Performance Based Navigation can reduce fuel burn, emissions, and noise exposure for a majority of communities, but the concentration of flight tracks also can increase noise exposure for people who live directly under those flight paths. A feature of the NextGen program is GPS-based waypoints, which result in consolidated flight paths for planes. The result of this change

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3520-633: Is appointed for a five-year term. On March 19, 2019, President Donald Trump announced he would nominate Stephen Dickson, a former executive and pilot at Delta Air Lines , to be the next FAA Administrator. On July 24, 2019, the Senate confirmed Dickson by a vote of 52–40. He was sworn in as Administrator by Transportation Secretary Elaine Chao on August 12, 2019. On February 16, 2022, Dickson announced his resignation as FAA Administrator, effective March 31, 2022. In September 2023, President Joe Biden announced that he would be nominating Mike Whitaker to lead

3630-468: Is flat and had been covered with cement". "The floors were cement, in some places hard, but, by long exposure, broken, and now crumbling under the feet." "But throughout the wall was solid, and consisting of large stones imbedded in mortar, almost as hard as rock." Small-scale production of concrete-like materials was pioneered by the Nabatean traders who occupied and controlled a series of oases and developed

3740-680: Is headquartered in Washington, D.C. , and also operates the William J. Hughes Technical Center near Atlantic City, New Jersey , for support and research, and the Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma , for training. The FAA has nine regional administrative offices: The Air Commerce Act of May 20, 1926, is the cornerstone of the U.S. federal government 's regulation of civil aviation. This landmark legislation

3850-426: Is mixed with dry Portland cement and water , the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts with the water through a process called concrete hydration that hardens it over several hours to form a hard matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. This time allows concrete to not only be cast in forms, but also to have

3960-566: Is poured with reinforcing materials (such as steel rebar ) embedded to provide tensile strength , yielding reinforced concrete . In the past, lime -based cement binders, such as lime putty, were often used but sometimes with other hydraulic cements , (water resistant) such as a calcium aluminate cement or with Portland cement to form Portland cement concrete (named for its visual resemblance to Portland stone ). Many other non-cementitious types of concrete exist with other methods of binding aggregate together, including asphalt concrete with

4070-600: Is that many localities experience huge increases in air traffic over previously quiet areas. Complaints have risen with the added traffic and multiple municipalities have filed suit. As a result of the March 10, 2019 Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 crash and the Lion Air Flight 610 crash five months earlier, most airlines and countries began grounding the Boeing 737 MAX 8 (and in many cases all MAX variants) due to safety concerns, but

4180-559: Is then blended with aggregates and any remaining batch water and final mixing is completed in conventional concrete mixing equipment. Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly with the desired work (pouring, pumping, spreading, tamping, vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size distribution), cementitious content and age (level of hydration ) and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures, like superplasticizer. Raising

4290-562: Is usually either pourable or thixotropic , and is used to fill gaps between masonry components or coarse aggregate which has already been put in place. Some methods of concrete manufacture and repair involve pumping grout into the gaps to make up a solid mass in situ . The word concrete comes from the Latin word " concretus " (meaning compact or condensed), the perfect passive participle of " concrescere ", from " con -" (together) and " crescere " (to grow). Concrete floors were found in

4400-399: Is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension, typically steel rebar . The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete is mixed and delivered, and how it is placed to form the structure. Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar , and many plasters . It consists of

4510-472: The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 phased out the CAB's economic regulation of the airlines. A nationwide strike by the air traffic controllers union in 1981 forced temporary flight restrictions but failed to shut down the airspace system. During the following year, the agency unveiled a new plan for further automating its air traffic control facilities, but progress proved disappointing. In 1994,

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4620-472: The Boeing 737 MAX , following the crash of Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 . Concrete Concrete is a composite material composed of aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that cures to a solid over time. Concrete is the second-most-used substance in the world after water , and is the most widely used building material. Its usage worldwide, ton for ton, is twice that of steel, wood, plastics, and aluminium combined. When aggregate

4730-605: The Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight. In fulfilling its civil aviation responsibilities, the U.S. Department of Commerce initially concentrated on such functions as safety regulations and the certification of pilots and aircraft. It took over the building and operation of the nation's system of lighted airways, a task initiated by the Post Office Department . The Department of Commerce improved aeronautical radio communications—before

4840-480: The construction industry , whose demand is ever growing with greater impacts on raw material extraction, waste generation and landfill practices. Concrete production is the process of mixing together the various ingredients—water, aggregate, cement, and any additives—to produce concrete. Concrete production is time-sensitive. Once the ingredients are mixed, workers must put the concrete in place before it hardens. In modern usage, most concrete production takes place in

4950-644: The fuselage of an aircraft , but was prevented by supervisors he said were friendly with the airline. This was validated by a report by the Department of Transportation which found FAA managers had allowed Southwest Airlines to fly 46 airplanes in 2006 and 2007 that were overdue for safety inspections, ignoring concerns raised by inspectors. Audits of other airlines resulted in two airlines grounding hundreds of planes, causing thousands of flight cancellations. The House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee held hearings in April 2008. Jim Oberstar , former chairman of

5060-411: The 1960s had already brought the agency into the field of civil aviation security. In response to the hijackings on September 11, 2001, this responsibility is now primarily taken by the Department of Homeland Security . The FAA became more involved with the environmental aspects of aviation in 1968 when it received the power to set aircraft noise standards. Legislation in 1970 gave the agency management of

5170-419: The FAA and Boeing had colluded on recertification test flights, attempted to cover up important information and that the FAA had retaliated against whistleblowers. SpaceX CEO Elon Musk criticized the FAA as moving too slowly, after a 2020 launch of a Starship prototype rocket violated the company's license. Musk said the agency's regulations are tailored for "a handful of expendable launches per year from

5280-474: The FAA announced it will allow airlines to expand the passengers use of portable electronic devices during all phases of flight, but mobile phone calls would still be prohibited (and use of cellular networks during any point when aircraft doors are closed remains prohibited to-date). Implementation initially varied among airlines. The FAA expected many carriers to show that their planes allow passengers to safely use their devices in airplane mode , gate-to-gate, by

5390-748: The FAA by authority of the International Civil Aviation Organization . The FAA was created in August ;1958  ( 1958-08 ) as the Federal Aviation Agency, replacing the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA). In 1967, the FAA became part of the newly formed U.S. Department of Transportation and was renamed the Federal Aviation Administration. The FAA's roles include: The FAA operates five "lines of business". Their functions are: The FAA

5500-734: The FAA called the Air Traffic Organization , (ATO) was set up by presidential executive order. This became the air navigation service provider for the airspace of the United States and for the New York (Atlantic) and Oakland (Pacific) oceanic areas. It is a full member of the Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation . The FAA issues a number of awards to holders of its certificates. Among these are demonstrated proficiencies as an aviation mechanic (the AMT Awards),

5610-475: The FAA declined to ground MAX 8 aircraft operating in the U.S. On March 12, the FAA said that its ongoing review showed "no systemic performance issues and provides no basis to order grounding the aircraft." Some U.S. Senators called for the FAA to ground the aircraft until an investigation into the cause of the Ethiopian Airlines crash was complete. U.S. Transportation Secretary Elaine Chao said that "If

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5720-441: The FAA discriminated against qualified candidates. In December 2015, a reverse discrimination lawsuit was filed against the FAA seeking class-action status for the thousands of men and women who spent up to $ 40,000 getting trained under FAA rules before they were abruptly changed. The prospects of the lawsuit are unknown, as the FAA is a self-governing entity and therefore can alter and experiment with its hiring practices, and there

5830-514: The FAA identifies an issue that affects safety, the department will take immediate and appropriate action." The FAA resisted grounding the aircraft until March 13, 2019, when it received evidence of similarities in the two accidents. By then, 51 other regulators had already grounded the plane, and by March 18, 2019, all 387 aircraft in service were grounded. Three major U.S. airlines-- Southwest , United , and American Airlines —were affected by this decision. Further investigations also revealed that

5940-432: The FAA proposed to fine Southwest $ 10.2 million for failing to inspect older planes for cracks, and in 2009 Southwest and the FAA agreed that Southwest would pay a $ 7.5 million penalty and would adopt new safety procedures, with the fine doubling if Southwest failed to follow through. In 2014, the FAA modified its approach to air traffic control hiring. It launched more "off the street bids", allowing anyone with either

6050-431: The FAA shifted to a more step-by-step approach that has provided controllers with advanced equipment. In 1979, Congress authorized the FAA to work with major commercial airports to define noise pollution contours and investigate the feasibility of noise mitigation by residential retrofit programs. Throughout the 1980s, these charters were implemented. In the 1990s, satellite technology received increased emphasis in

6160-450: The FAA when acting under the authority of a DER appointment; a DER has no federal protection for work done or the decisions made as a DER. Neither does the FAA provide any indemnification for a DER from general tort law . "The FAA cannot shelter or protect DERs from the consequences of their findings." A DAR is an individual appointed in accordance with 14 CFR 183.33 who may perform examination, inspection, and testing services necessary to

6270-524: The FAA's development programs as a means to improvements in communications, navigation, and airspace management. In 1995, the agency assumed responsibility for safety oversight of commercial space transportation, a function begun eleven years before by an office within DOT headquarters. The agency was responsible for the decision to ground flights after the September 11 attacks . In December 2000, an organization within

6380-453: The FAA. Qualifications and policies for appointment of Designated Airworthiness Representatives are established in FAA Order 8100.8 , Designee Management Handbook . Working procedures for DERs are prescribed in FAA Order 8110.37 , Designated Engineering Representative (DER) Handbook . Neither type of DER is an employee of either the FAA or the United States government. While a DER represents

6490-446: The FAA. Whitaker previously served as deputy administrator of the FAA under President Barack Obama . The FAA has been cited as an example of regulatory capture , "in which the airline industry openly dictates to its regulators its governing rules, arranging for not only beneficial regulation, but placing key people to head these regulators." Retired NASA Office of Inspector General Senior Special Agent Joseph Gutheinz , who used to be

6600-622: The Federal Aviation Administration as it became one of several agencies (e.g., Federal Highway Administration, Federal Railroad Administration, the Coast Guard, and the Saint Lawrence Seaway Commission) within DOT. The FAA administrator no longer reported directly to the president, but instead to the Secretary of Transportation. New programs and budget requests would have to be approved by DOT, which would then include these requests in

6710-465: The International Community (commonly abbreviated as CANIC) is a notification from the FAA to civil airworthiness authorities of foreign countries of pending significant safety actions. The FAA Airworthiness Directives Manual, states the following: 8. Continued Airworthiness Notification to the International Community (CANIC). The FAA issued a CANIC to state the continued airworthiness of

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6820-504: The Romans knew it, was a new and revolutionary material. Laid in the shape of arches , vaults and domes , it quickly hardened into a rigid mass, free from many of the internal thrusts and strains that troubled the builders of similar structures in stone or brick. Modern tests show that opus caementicium had as much compressive strength as modern Portland-cement concrete (c. 200 kg/cm  [20 MPa; 2,800 psi]). However, due to

6930-594: The US Army Air Corps War Training Service. In 1942 a paved all-weather landing strip, hangars, a control tower and small restaurant were built; the paved runway was 3870 ft until 1968. In 1960, Ozark Air Lines began scheduled flights. The Ozark route began in Kansas City to Chicago with stops in Kirksville, Ottumwa , Cedar Rapids, Iowa and Moline, Illinois . Airport improvements came after

7040-639: The absence of reinforcement, its tensile strength was far lower than modern reinforced concrete , and its mode of application also differed: Modern structural concrete differs from Roman concrete in two important details. First, its mix consistency is fluid and homogeneous, allowing it to be poured into forms rather than requiring hand-layering together with the placement of aggregate, which, in Roman practice, often consisted of rubble . Second, integral reinforcing steel gives modern concrete assemblies great strength in tension, whereas Roman concrete could depend only upon

7150-567: The aftermath of the Southwest Airlines inspection scandal, a bill was unanimously approved in the House to tighten regulations concerning airplane maintenance procedures, including the establishment of a whistleblower office and a two-year "cooling off" period that FAA inspectors or supervisors of inspectors must wait before they can work for those they regulated. The bill also required rotation of principal maintenance inspectors and stipulated that

7260-486: The airline was still required to continue their flights until the city selected a replacement. The Kirksville City Council approved a contract on February 6, 2023 with Contour Airlines , with 12 flights per week beginning in June to Chicago O'Hare International Airport . The airport covers 476 acres (193 ha ) at an elevation of 966 feet (294 m). It has two runways : 18/36 is 6,005 by 100 feet (1,830 x 30 m) concrete ; 9/27

7370-425: The airport improvements came a new name, Clarence Cannon Memorial Airport —chosen to honor long-time US Congressman Clarence Cannon of Missouri who had done much to help secure air service and funding for the airport. Ozark Airlines found flew their final route on April 23, 1976. Fortunately a local pilot and dentist, Dr. Stephen Barber, has established a small commuter air service, Horizon Airways , in 1972. Horizon

7480-620: The airways. In 1936, the Bureau itself took over the centers and began to expand the ATC system. The pioneer air traffic controllers used maps, blackboards, and mental calculations to ensure the safe separation of aircraft traveling along designated routes between cities. In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the federal civil aviation responsibilities from the Commerce Department to

7590-522: The city in November 2022 of their plans to terminate their service, the Kirksville City Council approved a contract on February 6, 2023 with Contour Airlines , with service beginning in June to Chicago O'Hare International Airport . Local resident Nick Sparling is credited as being Adair County's first aviator, in 1909. In 1924, Roy B. "Cap" Dodson started the first airport in the area, located on

7700-426: The committee, said its investigation uncovered a pattern of regulatory abuse and widespread regulatory lapses, allowing 117 aircraft to be operated commercially although not in compliance with FAA safety rules . Oberstar said there was a "culture of coziness" between senior FAA officials and the airlines and "a systematic breakdown" in the FAA's culture that resulted in "malfeasance, bordering on corruption". In 2008

7810-526: The concrete at the time of batching/mixing. (See § Production below.) The common types of admixtures are as follows: Inorganic materials that have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties, these very fine-grained materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of concrete (mineral admixtures), or as a replacement for Portland cement (blended cements). Products which incorporate limestone , fly ash , blast furnace slag , and other useful materials with pozzolanic properties into

7920-399: The concrete can cause the initially placed material to begin to set before the next batch is added on top. This creates a horizontal plane of weakness called a cold joint between the two batches. Once the mix is where it should be, the curing process must be controlled to ensure that the concrete attains the desired attributes. During concrete preparation, various technical details may affect

8030-461: The concrete quality. Central mix plants must be close to the work site where the concrete will be used, since hydration begins at the plant. A concrete plant consists of large hoppers for storage of various ingredients like cement, storage for bulk ingredients like aggregate and water, mechanisms for the addition of various additives and amendments, machinery to accurately weigh, move, and mix some or all of those ingredients, and facilities to dispense

8140-477: The crack from spreading. The widespread use of concrete in many Roman structures ensured that many survive to the present day. The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are just one example. Many Roman aqueducts and bridges, such as the magnificent Pont du Gard in southern France, have masonry cladding on a concrete core, as does the dome of the Pantheon . After the Roman Empire, the use of burned lime and pozzolana

8250-554: The desert. Some of these structures survive to this day. In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, builders discovered that adding volcanic ash to lime allowed the mix to set underwater. They discovered the pozzolanic reaction . The Romans used concrete extensively from 300 BC to AD 476. During the Roman Empire, Roman concrete (or opus caementicium ) was made from quicklime , pozzolana and an aggregate of pumice . Its widespread use in many Roman structures ,

8360-564: The dice and taking the chance on getting caught. He also said the FAA is often too quick to bend to pressure from airlines and pilots." Other experts have been critical of the constraints and expectations under which the FAA is expected to operate. The dual role of encouraging aerospace travel and regulating aerospace travel are contradictory. For example, to levy a heavy penalty upon an airline for violating an FAA regulation which would impact their ability to continue operating would not be considered encouraging aerospace travel. On July 22, 2008, in

8470-571: The downing of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 , the FAA suspended flights by U.S. airlines to Ben Gurion Airport during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict for 24 hours. The ban was extended for a further 24 hours but was lifted about six hours later. The FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018 gives the FAA one year to establish minimum pitch, width and length for airplane seats, to ensure they are safe for passengers. The first FAA licensed orbital human space flight took place on November 15, 2020 , carried out by SpaceX on behalf of NASA. The administrator

8580-449: The end of 2013. Devices must be held or put in the seat-back pocket during the actual takeoff and landing. Mobile phones must be in airplane mode or with mobile service disabled, with no signal bars displayed, and cannot be used for voice communications due to Federal Communications Commission regulations that prohibit any airborne calls using mobile phones. From a technological standpoint, cellular service would not work in-flight because of

8690-431: The finished product. Construction aggregates consist of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a coarse gravel or crushed rocks such as limestone , or granite , along with finer materials such as sand . Cement paste, most commonly made of Portland cement , is the most prevalent kind of concrete binder. For cementitious binders, water is mixed with the dry cement powder and aggregate, which produces

8800-530: The founding of the Federal Communications Commission in 1934, which handles most such matters today—and introduced radio beacons as an effective aid to air navigation. The Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 to reflect its enhanced status within the Department. As commercial flying increased, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first three centers for providing air traffic control (ATC) along

8910-554: The interlinking of the silicates and aluminate components as well as their bonding to sand and gravel particles to form a solid mass. One illustrative conversion is the hydration of tricalcium silicate: The hydration (curing) of cement is irreversible. Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand , natural gravel, and crushed stone are used mainly for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from construction, demolition, and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial replacements for natural aggregates, while

9020-534: The issuance of certificates. There are two types of DARs: manufacturing, and maintenance. Specialized Experience – Amateur-Built and Light-Sport Aircraft DARs Both Manufacturing DARs and Maintenance DARs may be authorized to perform airworthiness certification of light-sport aircraft. DAR qualification criteria and selection procedures for amateur-built and light-sport aircraft airworthiness functions are provided in Order 8100.8. A Continued Airworthiness Notification to

9130-406: The making of mortar. In an English translation from 1397, it reads "lyme ... is a stone brent; by medlynge thereof with sonde and water sement is made". From the 14th century, the quality of mortar was again excellent, but only from the 17th century was pozzolana commonly added. The Canal du Midi was built using concrete in 1670. Perhaps the greatest step forward in the modern use of concrete

9240-531: The material. Mineral admixtures use recycled materials as concrete ingredients. Conspicuous materials include fly ash , a by-product of coal-fired power plants ; ground granulated blast furnace slag , a by-product of steelmaking ; and silica fume , a by-product of industrial electric arc furnaces . Structures employing Portland cement concrete usually include steel reinforcement because this type of concrete can be formulated with high compressive strength , but always has lower tensile strength . Therefore, it

9350-419: The mix, are being tested and used. These developments are ever growing in relevance to minimize the impacts caused by cement use, notorious for being one of the largest producers (at about 5 to 10%) of global greenhouse gas emissions . The use of alternative materials also is capable of lowering costs, improving concrete properties, and recycling wastes, the latest being relevant for circular economy aspects of

9460-478: The mixed concrete, often to a concrete mixer truck. Modern concrete is usually prepared as a viscous fluid, so that it may be poured into forms. The forms are containers that define the desired shape. Concrete formwork can be prepared in several ways, such as slip forming and steel plate construction . Alternatively, concrete can be mixed into dryer, non-fluid forms and used in factory settings to manufacture precast concrete products. Interruption in pouring

9570-441: The mixing of cement and water into a paste before combining these materials with aggregates can increase the compressive strength of the resulting concrete. The paste is generally mixed in a high-speed , shear-type mixer at a w/c (water to cement ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass. The cement paste premix may include admixtures such as accelerators or retarders, superplasticizers , pigments , or silica fume . The premixed paste

9680-571: The north edge of Kirksville. However, an airfield at the present location of Kirksville Regional Airport wasn't created until 1930 when the Federal Aviation Administration built a series of emergency landing strips across the nation. With America's entry into World War II , the Kirksville Municipal Airport , as it had been declared in the late 1930s, received a major upgrade from the Civilian Pilots Training Program and

9790-559: The overall budget and submit it to the president. At the same time, a new National Transportation Safety Board took over the Civil Aeronautics Board's (CAB) role of investigating and determining the causes of transportation accidents and making recommendations to the secretary of transportation. CAB was merged into DOT with its responsibilities limited to the regulation of commercial airline routes and fares. The FAA gradually assumed additional functions. The hijacking epidemic of

9900-588: The promotion of aviation safety. The FAA Safety Team, or FAASTeam, works with Volunteers at several levels and promotes safety education and outreach nationwide. On March 18, 2008, the FAA ordered its inspectors to reconfirm that airlines are complying with federal rules after revelations that Southwest Airlines flew dozens of aircraft without certain mandatory inspections. The FAA exercises surprise Red Team drills on national airports annually. On October 31, 2013, after outcry from media outlets, including heavy criticism from Nick Bilton of The New York Times ,

10010-506: The properties or increase the performance envelope of the mix. Design-mix concrete can have very broad specifications that cannot be met with more basic nominal mixes, but the involvement of the engineer often increases the cost of the concrete mix. Concrete mixes are primarily divided into nominal mix, standard mix and design mix. Nominal mix ratios are given in volume of Cement : Sand : Aggregate {\displaystyle {\text{Cement : Sand : Aggregate}}} . Nominal mixes are

10120-468: The quality and nature of the product. Design mix ratios are decided by an engineer after analyzing the properties of the specific ingredients being used. Instead of using a 'nominal mix' of 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, and 4 parts aggregate (the second example from above), a civil engineer will custom-design a concrete mix to exactly meet the requirements of the site and conditions, setting material ratios and often designing an admixture package to fine-tune

10230-409: The rapid speed of the airborne aircraft: mobile phones cannot switch fast enough between cellular towers at an aircraft's high speed. However, the ban is due to potential radio interference with aircraft avionics. If an air carrier provides Wi-Fi service during flight, passengers may use it. Short-range Bluetooth accessories, like wireless keyboards , can also be used. In July 2014, in the wake of

10340-632: The royal palace of Tiryns , Greece, which dates roughly to 1400 to 1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, such as in Crete and Cyprus, in 800 BC. The Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct (688 BC) made use of waterproof concrete . Concrete was used for construction in many ancient structures. Mayan concrete at the ruins of Uxmal (AD 850–925) is referenced in Incidents of Travel in the Yucatán by John L. Stephens . "The roof

10450-504: The same committee sent before a meeting to discuss air traffic control privatization noted a 35-year legacy of failed air traffic control modernization management, including NextGen. The letter said the FAA initially described NextGen as fundamentally transforming how air traffic would be managed. In 2015, however, the National Research Council noted that NextGen, as currently executed, was not broadly transformational and that it

10560-411: The strength of the concrete bonding to resist tension. The long-term durability of Roman concrete structures has been found to be due to its use of pyroclastic (volcanic) rock and ash, whereby the crystallization of strätlingite (a specific and complex calcium aluminosilicate hydrate) and the coalescence of this and similar calcium–aluminium-silicate–hydrate cementing binders helped give the concrete

10670-497: The surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular among landscape designers. Admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. Admixtures are defined as additions "made as the concrete mix is being prepared". The most common admixtures are retarders and accelerators. In normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement and are added to

10780-535: The surfaces of the aggregate together, and is typically the most expensive component. Thus, variation in sizes of the aggregate reduces the cost of concrete. The aggregate is nearly always stronger than the binder, so its use does not negatively affect the strength of the concrete. Redistribution of aggregates after compaction often creates non-homogeneity due to the influence of vibration. This can lead to strength gradients. Decorative stones such as quartzite , small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes added to

10890-655: The various ingredients used to produce a given quantity of concrete, the cement is the most energetically expensive. Even complex and efficient kilns require 3.3 to 3.6 gigajoules of energy to produce a ton of clinker and then grind it into cement . Many kilns can be fueled with difficult-to-dispose-of wastes, the most common being used tires. The extremely high temperatures and long periods of time at those temperatures allows cement kilns to efficiently and completely burn even difficult-to-use fuels. The five major compounds of calcium silicates and aluminates comprising Portland cement range from 5 to 50% in weight. Combining water with

11000-409: The war. The application of radar to ATC helped controllers in their drive to keep abreast of the postwar boom in commercial air transportation. In 1946, meanwhile, Congress gave CAA the added task of administering the federal-aid airport program, the first peacetime program of financial assistance aimed exclusively at development of the nation's civil airports. The approaching era of jet travel (and

11110-439: The water content or adding chemical admixtures increases concrete workability. Excessive water leads to increased bleeding or segregation of aggregates (when the cement and aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having reduced quality. Changes in gradation can also affect workability of the concrete, although a wide range of gradation can be used for various applications. An undesirable gradation can mean using

11220-479: The word "customer" properly applies to the flying public, not those entities regulated by the FAA. The bill died in a Senate committee that year. In September 2009, the FAA administrator issued a directive mandating that the agency use the term "customers" to refer to only the flying public. In 2007, two FAA whistleblowers , inspectors Charalambe "Bobby" Boutris and Douglas E. Peters, alleged that Boutris said he attempted to ground Southwest after finding cracks in

11330-515: Was Smeaton's Tower , built by British engineer John Smeaton in Devon , England, between 1756 and 1759. This third Eddystone Lighthouse pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate. A method for producing Portland cement was developed in England and patented by Joseph Aspdin in 1824. Aspdin chose the name for its similarity to Portland stone , which

11440-609: Was a former Air Force general and adviser to President Eisenhower . The same year witnessed the birth of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which was created in response to the Soviet Union (USSR) launch of the first manmade satellite. NASA assumed NACA's aeronautical research role. In 1967, a new U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) combined major federal responsibilities for air and surface transport. The Federal Aviation Agency's name changed to

11550-816: Was able to help fill the void left by Ozarks departure, eventually expanding to five aircraft and service to both Kansas City and St. Louis. Air Choice One began scheduled flight operations twice daily, to and from Lambert-St. Louis International Airport during July 2009. Scheduled operations are currently subsidized by the Essential Air Service Act. Previously service was operated by Air Midwest (operating as US Airways Express ) to Kansas City International Airport and by RegionsAir (operating as American Connection ) with flights to Lambert-St. Louis International Airport . In September, 2010 Cape Air replaced Air Choice One. In November 2022, Cape Air notified Kirksville of their plans to terminate service. However,

11660-602: Was greatly reduced. Low kiln temperatures in the burning of lime, lack of pozzolana, and poor mixing all contributed to a decline in the quality of concrete and mortar. From the 11th century, the increased use of stone in church and castle construction led to an increased demand for mortar. Quality began to improve in the 12th century through better grinding and sieving. Medieval lime mortars and concretes were non-hydraulic and were used for binding masonry, "hearting" (binding rubble masonry cores) and foundations. Bartholomaeus Anglicus in his De proprietatibus rerum (1240) describes

11770-438: Was never any guarantee of a job in the CTI program. In August 2023 The New York Times published an investigative report that showed overworked air traffic controllers at understaffed facilities making errors that resulted in 46 near collisions in the air and on the ground in the month of July alone. A May 2017 letter from staff of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure to members of

11880-533: Was passed at the urging of the aviation industry, whose leaders believed the airplane could not reach its full commercial potential without federal action to improve and maintain safety standards. The Act charged the Secretary of Commerce with fostering air commerce, issuing and enforcing air traffic rules, licensing pilots , certifying aircraft, establishing airways, and operating and maintaining aids to air navigation. The newly created Aeronautics Branch, operating under

11990-614: Was quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset , England. His son William continued developments into the 1840s, earning him recognition for the development of "modern" Portland cement. Reinforced concrete was invented in 1849 by Joseph Monier . and the first reinforced concrete house was built by François Coignet in 1853. The first concrete reinforced bridge was designed and built by Joseph Monier in 1875. Prestressed concrete and post-tensioned concrete were pioneered by Eugène Freyssinet ,

12100-499: Was responsible for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB was entrusted with safety regulation, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines. The CAA was part of the Department of Commerce. The CAB was an independent federal agency. On the eve of America's entry into World War II , CAA began to extend its ATC responsibilities to takeoff and landing operations at airports. This expanded role eventually became permanent after

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