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136-495: The IRIS-T (infrared imaging system tail/thrust vector-controlled) is a family of short range infrared homing air-to-air and short to medium range surface-to-air missiles. It also is called AIM-2000 . The missile was developed in the late 1990s–early 2000s by a German-led program to produce a short to medium range infrared homing air-to-air missile to replace the AIM-9 Sidewinder in use by some NATO member countries at

272-451: A Lockheed-Martin Skykeeper command and control station, Giraffe 4A radar and Diehl IRIS-T SLM launcher was shown at IDEX 2019 under the name Falcon Ground Based Air Defence. Egypt ordered Diehl IRIS-T SLM launchers, Hensoldt TRML-4D radars, and fire and control stations equipped with Airbus Defence Fortion IBMS integrated battle management software, all mounted on MAN 8×8 military trucks;

408-415: A forward looking infrared or similar cueing system. Heat-seekers are extremely effective: 90% of all United States air combat losses between 1984 and 2009 were caused by infrared-homing missiles. They are, however, subject to a number of simple countermeasures, most notably by dropping flares behind the target to provide false heat sources. That works only if the pilot is aware of the missile and deploys

544-616: A Bv 410-based IRIS-T SLS system integrated with a Saab Giraffe 1X radar during the ILA . In 2019, the Swedish Army fielded a ground launched version of the IRIS-T SLS, designated Luftvärnsrobotsystem 98 (lvrbs 98), to replace the RBS 70 missile system. Four missiles are carried on Eldenhet 98 (elde 98) launcher, a special version of a Bv 410 tracked , armored vehicle. Compared to the one demonstrated on

680-458: A Kalibr cruise missile. During the 2023 Ukrainian counteroffensive , a TRML-4D multi-functional radar from the IRIS-T SLM air defense system was reportedly damaged by a Russian ZALA Lancet drone, with the extent of damage unclear. According to Ukraine, the system remained functional. As of October 2023 Germany had transferred to Ukraine three IRIS-T air defense systems. On 23 November 2023,

816-610: A better weapon than the Falcon: B models managed a 14% kill ratio, while the much longer-ranged D models managed 19%. Its performance and lower cost led the Air Force to adopt it as well. The first heat-seeker built outside the US was the UK's de Havilland Firestreak . Development began as OR.1056 Red Hawk , but this was considered too advanced, and in 1951 an amended concept was released as OR.1117 and given

952-494: A combined radar and infrared seeker. On the ILA 2024, Diehl Defence displayed a missile model of the developing IRIS-T SLX, which looked quite different to both IRIS-T AAM and IRIS-T SL. This new missile can be integrated into the IRIS-T SLM launchers, which can be loaded with a mix of SL and SLX missiles as the result. Only 50 to 60 soldiers are needed for each system. The Diehl Defence chief programme officer Harald Buschek said this variant

1088-569: A distance of up to 100 km and an altitude of 50 km with a high level of agility. It should refer to IRIS-T HYDEF. For the air-to-surface role, the only difference from air-to-air version is an updated software insertion required to deliver the additional ground attack capability. Tested by the Royal Norwegian Air Force . Diehl mentioned that the IRIS-T SLM missile was being integrated to the Mark 41 vertical launching system . The IDAS variant

1224-491: A dual-mode (IR and RF) seeker, a range of 80 km and a maximum altitude of 30 km, is in development as of June 2024. Due to increased demand due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Diehl Defence is increasing production of IRIS-T systems and missiles. It plans to produce three to four systems in 2024 and at least eight in 2025, with missile production planned to grow to around 400 to 500 per year starting in 2024. It

1360-566: A high probability of a killing shot against UAVs and other small manoeuvring threats at very-short and medium-range distances. The Royal Norwegian Air Force (RNoAF) has tested a new air-to-surface capability developed by Diehl BGT Defence for the IRIS-T. A proof of concept test firing to acquire, track, and engage a target representing a small fast attack boat was conducted in Norway in September 2016, where

1496-603: A large searchlight fitted with a filter to limit the output to the IR range. This provided enough light to see the target at short range, and Spanner Anlage was fitted to a small number of Messerschmitt Bf 110 and Dornier Do 17 night fighters . These proved largely useless in practice and the pilots complained that the target often only became visible at 200 metres (660 ft), at which point they would have seen it anyway. Only 15 were built and were removed as German airborne radar systems improved though 1942. AEG had been working with

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1632-462: A missile airframe and considerable effort remained before an actual weapon would be ready for use. Nevertheless, a summer 1944 report to the German Air Ministry stated that these devices were far better developed than competing systems based on radar or acoustic methods. Aware of the advantages of passive IR homing, the research program started with a number of theoretical studies considering

1768-511: A more conventional hemispherical dome. The first test firing took place in 1955 and it entered service with the Royal Air Force in August 1958. The French R.510 project began later than Firestreak and entered experimental service in 1957, but was quickly replaced by a radar-homing version, the R.511. Neither was very effective and had short range on the order of 3 km. Both were replaced by

1904-487: A new seeker, and the UK providing most of the remaining components. In 1987, after years of silence on the program, the US proposed a requirement that the weapon must use Sidewinder rails rather than the universal aircraft rail adaptor named the "missile support unit" that had been developed. This delayed the project by one year as the British, German and Norwegian proposals were redesigned. Fearing erosion of its industrial base,

2040-610: A number of victories in the middle east and Vietnam. A major upgrade program for the Redeye started in 1967, as the Redeye II. Testing did not begin until 1975 and the first deliveries of the now renamed FIM-92 Stinger began in 1978. An improved rosette seeker was added to the B model in 1983, and several additional upgrades followed. Sent to the Soviet–Afghan War , they claimed a 79% success rate against Soviet helicopters, although this

2176-523: A part of the NATO MEADS program, the German Air Force and others are now using this missile. It has a pointed nose, unlike the regular IRIS-T, with a jettisonable drag-reducing nose cone. The missile uses a GPS-aided inertial navigation system, with radar data link for command guidance during the initial approach. The interference-resistant IR seeker head is activated at the terminal stage. Compared to

2312-494: A position where the missile would be able to continue tracking even after launch. This problem also led to efforts to make new missiles that would hit their targets even if launched under these less-than-ideal positions. In the UK this led to the SRAAM project, which was ultimately the victim of continually changing requirements. Two US programmes, AIM-82 and AIM-95 Agile , met similar fates. New seeker designs began to appear during

2448-498: A practical detector. Nevertheless, it was used for some time by the US Navy as a secure communications system. In 1930 the introduction of the Ag–O–Cs ( silver – oxygen – cesium ) photomultiplier provided the first practical solution to the detection of IR, combining it with a layer of galena as the photocathode . Amplifying the signal emitted by the galena, the photomultiplier produced

2584-611: A procurement partner in 2003. The German Air Force took first delivery of the missile in December 2005. NAMMO Raufoss supplies the rocket engine with its TVC (thrust vector control) for both the IRIS-T air-to-air missile and the SL variants. In comparison to the AIM-9M Sidewinder, the IRIS-T has higher ECM resistance and flare suppression. Improvements in target discrimination allow for five to eight times longer head-on firing range than

2720-575: A project study of an overall endo-atmospheric interceptor concept for air defence. At that time, the HYDEF project prevailed over the competitor and could win the Europe-wide tender. Hensoldt and Airbus are also involved as national partners in the HYDEF project. On 31 October 2023, SMS (Spanish Missile Systems, a collaborative proposal of Escribano Mechanical & Engineering  [ es ] , GMV and SENER AEROSPACIAL from Spain) and Diehl Defence signed

2856-450: A range of 40 kilometres or 25 miles), and a separate command vehicle that can be positioned up to 20 kilometres (12 mi) away. The command vehicle integrates multiple radar sources, and is able to launch and track all 24 missiles simultaneously. The IRIS-T SLM can counter surface-to-air missiles and cruise missiles, including low-flying, stealthy missiles such as the Kalibr . In August 1980,

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2992-591: A reduced time-to-impact. Most users would tolerate an increased FAR (up to some point where it starts limiting operations) instead of a reduced TTI, because their probability of survival depends fairly directly on the TTI, which represents the time in which countermeasures can be deployed. Accurate azimuth and elevation angle of attack (AOA) information can be another very important requirement. Directional IR counter measures (DIRCM) systems depend on MAW systems for accurate enough initial pointing (about two degrees) to ensure that

3128-416: A small but visible radar signature and also a propellant which burns – depending on the platform, typically for a very short duration. MANPADS are relatively short-range weapons, typically up to about five kilometers with the heart of the kill envelope one to three kilometers. They therefore allow very little margin for error to effectively counter them as the time to impact (TTI) on a target at one kilometer,

3264-563: A supersonic version. At this stage the concept was for a defensive weapon fired rearward out of a long tube at the back end of bomber aircraft . In April 1949 the Firebird missile project was cancelled and MX-904 was redirected to be a forward-firing fighter weapon. The first test firings began in 1949, when it was given the designation AAM-A-2 (Air-to-air Missile, Air force, model 2) and the name Falcon. IR and semi-active radar homing (SARH) versions both entered service in 1956, and became known as

3400-447: A transparent plate with a sequence of opaque segments painted on them that was placed in front of the IR detector. The plate spins at a fixed rate, which causes the image of the target to be periodically interrupted, or chopped . The Hamburg system developed during the war is the simplest system, and easiest to understand. Its chopper was painted black on one half with the other half left transparent. For this description we consider

3536-429: A useful output that could be used for detection of hot objects at long ranges. This sparked developments in a number of nations, notably the UK and Germany where it was seen as a potential solution to the problem of detecting night bombers . In the UK, research was plodding, with even the main research team at Cavendish Labs expressing their desire to work on other projects, especially after it became clear that radar

3672-568: A very desirable device. Kutzscher's team developed a system with the Eletroacustic Company of Kiel known as Hamburg , which was being readied for installation in the Blohm & Voss BV 143 glide bomb to produce an automated fire-and-forget anti-shipping missile. A more advanced version allowed the seeker to be directed off-axis by the bombardier in order to lock on to a target to the sides, without flying directly at it. However, this presented

3808-568: Is a naval version of the missile, and is also being developed for the new Type 212A submarine of the German Navy . IDAS is supposed to engage air threats, small or medium surface vessels or near land targets. The latest stage of development qualification is planned for 2024. In October 2022, the Germany Ministry of Defense revised the budget proposal and canceled the project to buy the IDAS. LFK NG

3944-523: Is being designed to become one of the weapons of the European Future Combat Air System . Some new features of IRIS-T FCAAM might include a stealthy non-cylindrical cross-section, multiple-spectrum IR sensor, advanced data processing, a two-way datalink, and a dual pulse/multi-pulse rocket motor. IRIS-T SLX is an upgraded variant of IRIS-T surface-to-air missile which has the operational range of 80 km and ceiling of 30 km. It will also use

4080-622: Is debated. The Soviets likewise improved their own versions, introducing the 9K34 Strela-3 in 1974, and the greatly improved dual-frequency 9K38 Igla in 1983, and Igla-S in 2004. The three main materials used in the infrared sensor are lead(II) sulfide (PbS), indium antimonide (InSb) and mercury cadmium telluride (HgCdTe). Older sensors tend to use PbS, newer sensors tend to use InSb or HgCdTe. All perform better when cooled, as they are both more sensitive and able to detect cooler objects. Early infrared seekers were most effective in detecting infrared radiation with shorter wavelengths, such as

4216-584: Is limited. If a platform is equipped with both radar and missile warning systems, the HMI should display both threats clearly and unambiguously. The integrated HMI must also indicate the system's operating status, serviceability status, mode of operation, remaining decoy quantities etc. Separate control panels are justified only for safety of flight purposes such as ECM on/off and decoy jettison functions. Procuring electronic warfare (EW) self-protection systems has direct and indirect cost implications. Direct costs involve

IRIS-T - Misplaced Pages Continue

4352-436: Is not required, instead, both signals can be extracted from a single photocell with the use of electrical delays or a second reference signal 90 degrees out of phase with the first. This system produces a signal that is sensitive to the angle around the clock face, the bearing , but not the angle between the target and the missile centerline, the angle off (or angle error ). This was not required for anti-ship missiles where

4488-431: Is only about three seconds. The TTI for targets at three and five kilometers is also relatively short – only seven to a little over eleven seconds respectively. The MAW must provide reliable and timely warning to allow appropriate counter measure responses. Near 100% probability of warning (POW) and very fast reaction times to counter nearby missile launches (in the order of one second) are essential. Air crew will rely on

4624-499: Is planned for 2023 and will include six modified M113 vehicles carrying IRIS-T SLS missiles, while additional launchers will be based on the ACSV . In 2022, Diehl Defence showed a new air defense system called IRIS-T SLS Mk. III at the Eurosatory . It was a modified Mowag Eagle 6×6 armored vehicle integrated with IRIS-T SLS launcher, Hensoldt Spexer 2000 3D AESA, and a .50 machine gun in

4760-456: Is radiated strongly by hot bodies. Many objects such as people, vehicle engines and aircraft generate and emit heat and so are especially visible in the infrared wavelengths of light compared to objects in the background. Infrared seekers are passive devices, which, unlike radar , provide no indication that they are tracking a target. That makes them suitable for sneak attacks during visual encounters or over longer ranges when they are used with

4896-437: Is set too small the image from the target is too small to create a useful signal, while setting it too large makes it inaccurate. For this reason, linear scanners have inherent accuracy limitations. Additionally, the dual reciprocating motion is complex and mechanically unreliable, and generally two separate detectors have to be used. Most early seekers used so-called spin-scan , chopper or reticle seekers. These consisted of

5032-477: Is the initial variant of the IRIS-T missile. IRIS-T SLS (Surface Launched Standard) is the air defence system which uses the IRIS-T AAM with few software modifications. However, its operational range is reduced from 25 km to 12 km, as has the ceiling from 8 to 6 km. It has a maximum speed of Mach 2 and average speed of 400 m/s, and it cannot attack targets that are closer than 1 km. In 2018, Diehl Defence demonstrated

5168-438: Is to receive five more by 2027. Also, mixed SLS/SLM systems are being planned. In June 2024, Diehl Defence revealed that they were working on a new variant of IRIS-T AAM which will benefit from a new seeker, replacement electronics and a data link capability. Diehl mentioned in 2022 that it was working on a 6th generation of short-range air-to-air missiles, and it is known as the "Future Combat Air-to-Air Missile" . This missile

5304-545: The AIM-4 Falcon after 1962. The Falcon was a complex system offering limited performance, especially due to its lack of a proximity fuse, and managed only a 9% kill ratio in 54 firings during Operation Rolling Thunder in the Vietnam War . However, this relatively low success rate must be appreciated in the context of all these kills representing direct hits, something that was not true of every kill by other American AAMs. In

5440-554: The AIM-9M Sidewinder and Stinger use compressed gas like argon to cool their sensors in order to lock onto the target at longer ranges and all aspects. (Some such as the AIM-9J and early-model R-60 used a peltier thermoelectric cooler ). The detector in early seekers was barely directional, accepting light from a very wide field of view (FOV), perhaps 100 degrees across or more. A target located anywhere within that FOV produces

5576-548: The German Federal Ministry of Defence announced that an additional four IRIS-T SLM medium-range air defense systems would be supplied to Ukraine as part of a military aid package worth more than €1.3 billion (US$ 1.4 billion). The systems will be supplied from 2025. The package also includes drones and drone-defense systems, demining vehicles, satellite communications, electronic warfare equipment, directional anti-tank mines and artillery shells. By June 2024, Helmut Rauch,

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5712-464: The Hamburg , an AC signal was generated that matched the rotational frequency of the disk. However, in this case the signal does not turn on and off with angle, but is constantly being triggered very rapidly. This creates a series of pulses that are smoothed out to produce a second AC signal at the same frequency as the test signal, but whose phase is controlled by the actual position of the target relative to

5848-605: The MiG-29 Fulcrum and concluded that the AA-11's capabilities had been noticeably underestimated. It was one of the earliest 4th generation WVRAAM which were more capable in dogfight than the former 3rd generation ones. In 1990, Germany withdrew from the ASRAAM project, while the UK resolved to find another seeker and develop ASRAAM according to the original range requirement. In 1992, the missile development programme ultimately separated with

5984-1099: The SA-7 could be as low as $ 5,000. Intelligence regarding the whereabouts of MANPADS, especially in the hands of "non state" organizations, is usually vague and unreliable. This, in turn, makes it difficult to anticipate where and when to expect MANPADS attacks. The 2nd- and 3rd-generation MANPADS that appeared by the 1980s further increased the performance and effectiveness of MANPADS due to advanced new seeker head technology, improved rocket motors, and aerodynamic refinements. Their performance improved in terms of lethal range, minimum launch angle, maneuvering potential and all aspect engagement angles (1st-generation MANPADS were restricted to only rear sector attacks). They also became more electronic counter-countermeasure (ECM) resistant. MANPADS therefore became even more lethal specifically against more vulnerable platforms such as helicopters, light aircraft, and commercial and military transport aircraft (during approaches and departures). The slower speed of these platforms forces them to spend more time within

6120-459: The remote controlled weapon station . Its STANAG 4569 protection was level 1, and it could be upgraded to level 3 by adding armor kit. This vehicle had integrated the missile launcher, the radar, the sensors and the C command system, making it able to operate independently as an air defence system. IRIS-T SLM (Surface Launched Missile) is the air defence system which uses the IRIS-T SL missile. As

6256-426: The "Sun Tracker", was being developed as a possible guidance system for an intercontinental ballistic missile . Testing this system led to the 1948 Lake Mead Boeing B-29 crash . USAAF project MX-798 was awarded to Hughes Aircraft in 1946 for an infrared tracking missile. The design used a simple reticle seeker and an active system to control roll during flight. This was replaced the next year by MX-904, calling for

6392-655: The 1950s. In response, electronic countermeasures (ECM) and flying tactics were developed to overcome them. They proved to be quite successful provided that a reliable and timely threat warning was given. Analysis of aircraft losses due to enemy action since the 1960s shows that at least 70% of all losses were attributed to passive heat seeking i.e. infrared (IR) guided missiles . This might be surprising given that radar guided SAM systems have longer engagement ranges, are faster, have higher maneuvering potential, carry larger warheads and are equipped with proximity fuzes . The main reason why IR guided missiles were so effective

6528-529: The 1960s. IR MANPADS are relatively cheap, quite robust, easy to operate and difficult to detect. They also do not require the infrastructure, such as radar dishes, associated with radar-guided SAM deployments which often reveals their presence. Vast quantities of MANPADS have been manufactured (as many as 700,000 produced since 1970 ). Large numbers proliferated during the Cold War and immediate post Cold War era. Substantial quantities are available and affordable on

6664-410: The 1960s. A new generation developed in the 1970s and the 1980s made great strides and significantly improved their lethality. The latest examples from the 1990s and on have the ability to attack targets out of their field of view (FOV) behind them and even to pick out vehicles on the ground. IR seekers are also the basis for many semi-automatic command to line of sight (SACLOS) weapons. In this use,

6800-474: The 1970s and led to a series of more advanced missiles. A major upgrade to the Sidewinder began, providing it with a seeker that was sensitive enough to track from any angle, giving the missile all aspect capability for the first time. This was combined with a new scanning pattern that helped reject confusing sources (like the sun reflecting off clouds) and improve the guidance towards the target. A small number of

6936-441: The 1970s and when the correct jamming modulation techniques were applied, were reasonably effective against 1st-generation amplitude-modulated MANPADS, which operated in the near-IR band (1 to 2 micrometres (μm)). The arrival of 2nd- and 3rd-generation MANPADS changed that. They operate in the mid-IR band (3 to 5 μm) and use more advanced modulation techniques (for example frequency modulation). Instead of jamming these missiles,

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7072-436: The 4.2 micrometre emissions of the carbon dioxide efflux of a jet engine . This made them useful primarily in tail-chase scenarios, where the exhaust was visible and the missile's approach was carrying it toward the aircraft as well. In combat these proved extremely ineffective as pilots attempted to make shots as soon as the seeker saw the target, launching at angles where the target's engines were quickly obscured or flew out of

7208-617: The AIM-9L and three to four times longer target acquiring range than the AIM-9M. Its seeker can receive cues from radar, helmet mounted display, infrared search and track device , missile approach warner and data link . It can engage targets behind the launching aircraft, made possible by extreme close-in agility, allowing turns of 60 g at a rate of 60°/s via thrust vectoring and LOAL capability. The IRIS-T belongs to 5th generation IR-guided missiles which introduce infrared imaging seeker. Compared to

7344-490: The Block III version was put into production. The Soviets started development of two almost identical weapons in 1964, Strela-1 and Strela-2. Development of these proceeded much more smoothly, as the 9K32 Strela-2 entered service in 1968 after fewer years of development than the Redeye. Originally a competing design, the 9K31 Strela-1 was instead greatly increased in size for vehicle applications and entered service at around

7480-587: The CEO of Diehl Defense claimed that 240 kills were achieved by the IRIS-T SLM and SLS in Ukraine with an almost 100% success rate. In September 2024, The German Air Force activated its first IRIS-T SLM fire unit. Infrared homing Infrared homing is a passive weapon guidance system which uses the infrared (IR) light emission from a target to track and follow it seamlessly. Missiles which use infrared seeking are often referred to as "heat-seekers" since infrared

7616-455: The DIRCM acquires and engages incoming missiles timely and successfully. Accurate AOA is also important in deciding the dispensing direction of the counter measure decoys (flares). It is vital to avoid the situation where the platform and the dispensed decoys both remain within the instantaneous field of view (IFoV) of incoming missiles. In situations like that missiles could very well, once they pass

7752-716: The ILA 2018, there was no radar on the Swedish Eldenhet 98. Instead, the Swedish Army used the Underrättelseenhet 23 radar truck as its radar unit. The Norwegian Army ordered the "mobile ground based air defence system", based on NASAMS command and control solutions, in a direct acquisition with Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace . The system will integrate tracked IRIS-T SLS launchers from Diehl Defence GmbH with High Mobility Launchers for AIM-120 and AIM-9X missiles and radars from Weibel Scientific ; initial delivery

7888-479: The IRIS-T SLM was completed in January 2022. An IRIS-T SLM air defence system consists of a tactical operation center, a logistic support unit, several radar units, and 3 or 4 missile trucks. The IRIS-T SLM can be integrated with a variety of electro-optical/infrared (EO/IR) guidance systems and AESA radars, such as Hensoldt TRML-4D , Thales Ground Master 200 MM/C , CEA CEAFAR , and Saab Giraffe 4A. A version with

8024-852: The IRIS-T missile was launched from an RNoAF F-16AM multirole aircraft. For the air-to-surface role, the missile retains the same standard IRIS-T AAM hardware configuration, including the HE warhead and IIR guidance package, with only an updated software insertion required to deliver the additional ground attack capability. This basic air-to-ground capability provides the ability to acquire, track and engage individual ground targets like boats, ships, small buildings and vehicles. By June 2024, three variants were available: The initial IRIS-T air to air missile with 25 km range, IRIS-T SLS (short range) with 12 km range and 8 km altitude and IRIS-T SLM (medium range) with 40 km range and 20 km maximum altitude. A third variant, IRIS-T SLX (long range) variant with

8160-542: The IRIS-T, the diameter of the rocket motor was increased by 25 mm, to 152 mm. Test launches from a battery consisting of a CEA CEAFAR radar, a Diehl IRIS-T SL launcher and an Oerlikon Skymaster battle management system were performed in 2014. The IRIS-T SL qualification tests were completed in January 2015 at the Denel Overberg Test Range in South Africa. A further fire test on the developed system of

8296-480: The POW. Since a longer time-to-impact (TTI) warning is almost invariably desirable, this leads to the conclusion that there is something like a too-low FAR: all warning systems gather data, and then make decisions when some confidence level is reached. False alarms represent decision errors, which (assuming optimal processing) can be reduced only by gathering more information, which means taking more time, inevitably resulting in

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8432-528: The R-73 problem was initially going to be the ASRAAM , a pan-European design that combined the performance of the R-73 with an imaging seeker. In a wide-ranging agreement, the US agreed to adopt ASRAAM for their new short-range missile, while the Europeans would adopt AMRAAM as their medium-range weapon. However, ASRAAM soon ran into intractable delays as each of the member countries decided a different performance metric

8568-635: The UK the ASRAAM, France the MBDA MICA , US the AIM-9X and Germany electing to restart development on what became the IRIS-T. In 1995, Germany announced the start of the IRIS-T development, in collaboration with Greece, Italy, Norway, Sweden and Canada. In 1997, Germany had invested more than 500 million DM in this project and held a 46% share. In addition, Italy accounted for 20%, Sweden 18%, Greece 8%, Canada 4% and Norway 3%. Canada later dropped out, while Spain joined as

8704-568: The US proposed it would choose the latest version of its existing Sidewinder design with increased manoeuvrability and IRCCM unless the European partners increased the US industrial workshare, designated AIM-9X . However, the Sidewinder upgrade proposal failed to interest NATO buyers. After German reunification in 1990, Germany found itself with large stockpiles of the Soviet Vympel R-73 missiles (NATO reporting name: AA-11 Archer ) carried by

8840-600: The USA, the UK, Germany and France signed a MoU which aimed to develop two types of AAMs to replace existing ones. The USA developed Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missile (AMRAAM) to replace AIM-7 Sparrow , while the Europe team developed Advanced Short-Range Air-to-Air Missile (ASRAAM) to replace AIM-9 Sidewinder . This work was dusted off for the UK–German effort, with the Germans providing

8976-464: The ability to be fired at targets completely out of view of the seeker; after firing the missile would orient itself in the direction indicated by the launcher and then attempt to lock on. When combined with a helmet mounted sight , the missile could be cued and targeted without the launch aircraft first having to point itself at the target. This proved to offer significant advantages in combat, and caused great concern for Western forces. The solution to

9112-477: The aircraft and thus produce an ever-increasing signal while the aircraft is providing little or none. Additionally, as the missile approaches the target, smaller changes in relative angle are enough to move it out of this center null area and start causing control inputs again. With a bang-bang controller, such designs tend to begin to overreact during the last moments of the approach, causing large miss distances and demanding large warheads. A great improvement on

9248-410: The angle-off and feed that into the controls as well. This can be accomplished with the same disk and some work on the physical arrangement of the optics. Since the physical distance between the radial bars is larger at the outer position of the disk, the image of the target on the photocell is also larger, and thus has greater output. By arranging the optics so the signal is increasingly cut off closer to

9384-451: The basic spin-scan concept is the conical scanner or con-scan . In this arrangement, a fixed reticle is placed in front of the detector and both are positioned at the focus point of a small Cassegrain reflector telescope. The secondary mirror of the telescope is pointed slightly off-axis, and spins. This causes the image of the target to be spun around the reticle , instead of the reticle itself spinning. Consider an example system where

9520-461: The black market and have found their way into the hands of "non state" organizations or the so-called "asymmetric" threat. (An estimate by Jane's Intelligence Review of February 2003 puts this number as high as 150,000 ). An article "Proliferation of MANPADS and the Threat to Civil Aviation" of August 13, 2003 by Jane's Terrorism and Insurgency Centre estimates that the black market price of MANPADS like

9656-409: The center of the disk, the resulting output signal varies in amplitude with the angle-off. However, it will also vary in amplitude as the missile approaches the target, so this is not a complete system by itself and some form of automatic gain control is often desired. Spin-scan systems can eliminate the signal from extended sources like sunlight reflecting from clouds or hot desert sand. To do this,

9792-478: The center of the operator's telescope. SACLOS systems of this sort have been used both for anti-tank missiles and surface-to-air missiles , as well as other roles. The infrared sensor package on the tip or head of a heat-seeking missile is known as the seeker head . The NATO brevity code for an air-to-air infrared-guided missile launch is Fox Two . The ability of certain substances to give off electrons when struck by infrared light had been discovered by

9928-401: The centerline it was. Other systems used a second scanning disk with radial slits to provide the same result but from a second output circuit. AEG developed a much more advanced system during the war, and this formed the basis of most post-war experiments. In this case, the disk was pattered with a series of opaque regions, often in a series of radial stripes forming a pizza-slice pattern. Like

10064-472: The code name Blue Jay . Designed as an anti-bomber weapon, the Blue Jay was larger, much heavier and flew faster than its US counterparts, but had about the same range. It had a more advanced seeker, using PbTe and cooled to −180 °C (−292.0 °F) by anhydrous ammonia to improve its performance. One distinguishing feature was its faceted nose cone, which was selected after it was found ice would build up on

10200-405: The contract with OCCAR , marking the official start of the project. It has the operational range of 100 km and ceiling of 50 km. On the ILA 2024, Diehl Defence revealed that they were working on a two-stage missile to defend against hypersonic weapons. It will consist of a booster as a starting engine and a warhead called "Kill vehicle" for the direct hit. This should enable it to attack targets at

10336-401: The control system and commands the missile to turn up. A second cell placed at the 3 o'clock position completes the system. In this case, the switching takes place not at the 9 and 3 o'clock positions, but 12 and 6 o'clock. Considering the same target, in this case, the waveform has just reached its maximum positive point at 12 o'clock when it is switched negative. Following this process around

10472-410: The countermeasures on time. The sophistication of modern seekers has rendered these countermeasures increasingly ineffective. The first IR devices were experimented with during World War II . During the war, German engineers were working on heat-seeking missiles and proximity fuses but did not have time to complete development before the war ended. Truly practical designs did not become possible until

10608-508: The deal was approved by the German government in December 2021. Further orders includes Hensoldt TwInvis  [ de ] passive radars , IRIS-T SLS launchers and IRIS-T SLX long-range missiles. Passive radars can detect enemy aircraft by analysing reflections from external radio and television signals, making them effective in urban areas where active radars struggle. The German Air Force has received its first IRIS-T SLM system in 2024 and

10744-488: The decoy's ejection velocity. A turn towards approaching missiles to establish/increase the angle between the decoy and the platform is especially important in cases where a missile approaches from the rear between the five or seven 'o clock sectors. If the AOA is not accurate enough, the pilot could very well turn in the wrong direction and set himself up for the situation as described above. The system must also be fully automated as

10880-415: The decoys, still hit the platform. This is of particular importance where separation between the decoys and the platform takes too long as is the case with slow flying aircraft. Accurate AOA is further important where the platform should preferably maneuver when dispensing decoys to increase the miss distance. This is more applicable to fast jets where their high speed tends to negate the separation caused by

11016-401: The detector, or in the case of Madrid , two metal vanes were tilted to block off more or less of the signal. By comparing the time the flash was received to the location of the scanner at that time, the vertical and horizontal angle-off can be determined. However, these seekers also have the major disadvantage that their FOV is determined by the physical size of the slit (or opaque bar). If this

11152-410: The disk spinning clockwise as seen from the sensor; we will call the point in the rotation when the line between the dark and light halves is horizontal and the transparent side is on the top to be the 12 o'clock position. A photocell is positioned behind the disk at the 12 o'clock position. A target is located just above the missile. The sensor begins to see the target when the disk is at 9 o'clock, as

11288-401: The disk. By comparing the phase of the two signals, both the vertical and horizontal correction can be determined from a single signal. A great improvement was made as part of the Sidewinder program, feeding the output to the pilot's headset where it creates a sort of growling sound known as the missile tone that indicates that the target is visible to the seeker. In early systems this signal

11424-438: The emissions from the targets. This led to the practical discovery that the vast majority of the IR output from a piston-engine aircraft was between 3 and 4.5 micrometers. The exhaust was also a strong emitter, but cooled rapidly in the air so that it did not present a false tracking target. Studies were also made on atmospheric attenuation, which demonstrated that air is generally more transparent to IR than visible light, although

11560-433: The entire seeker assembly is mounted on a gimbal system that allows it to track the target through wide angles, and the angle between the seeker and the missile aircraft is used to produce guidance corrections. This gives rise the concepts of instantaneous field of view (IFOV) which is the angle the detector sees, and the overall field of view, also known as the tacking angle or off-boresight capability , which includes

11696-494: The famous Indian polymath Jagadish Chandra Bose in 1901, who saw the effect in galena , known today as lead sulfide, PbS. There was little application at the time, and he allowed his 1904 patent to lapse. In 1917, Theodore Case , as part of his work on what became the Movietone sound system , discovered that a mix of thallium and sulfur was much more sensitive, but was highly unstable electrically and proved to be of little use as

11832-583: The first effective French design, the R.530 , in 1962. The Soviets introduced their first infrared homing missile, the Vympel K-13 in 1961, after reverse engineering a Sidewinder that stuck in the wing of a Chinese MiG-17 in 1958 during the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis . The K-13 was widely exported, and faced its cousin over Vietnam throughout the war. It proved even less reliable than the AIM-9B it

11968-402: The fixed signal is filtered out. A significant problem with the spin-scan system is that the signal when the target is near the center drops to zero. This is because even its small image covers several segments as they narrow at the center, producing a signal similar enough to an extended source that it is filtered out. This makes such seekers extremely sensitive to flares, which move away from

12104-403: The high degree of sensitivity required to lock onto the lower-level signals coming from the front and sides of an aircraft. Background heat from inside the sensor, or the aerodynamically heated sensor window, can overpower the weak signal entering the sensor from the target. ( CCDs in cameras have similar problems; they have much more "noise" at higher temperatures.) Modern all-aspect missiles like

12240-563: The highest successful hit rate among others in the Armed Forces of Ukraine, and it could destroy 9 out of 10 Russian missiles. Following another Russian missile attack against Ukraine on 31 October 2022, the Ukrainian Air Force stated that IRIS-T missiles had a 100% success rate countering the attack. On 15 November, 2022 footage appearing to show the IRIS-T system shooting down two cruise missiles circulated. One missile appeared to be

12376-511: The human reaction time in relevant cases (short range launches) is too long. Light aircraft, helicopters, and fighters usually have limited space and mass capacity for additional equipment. The system may also cause adverse aerodynamic drag which demands minimal physical size and number of boxes. The power consumption must further be kept within the capacity of the platform's electrical system. Integrated display and control functions are desirable to avoid duplication on instrument panels where space

12512-421: The initial price of the system, spare parts as well as test equipment to ensure that the performance and availability of the systems is maintained throughout their entire life cycle. Installing and integrating EW systems on aircraft is another direct cost Indirect cost on the other hand involves degradation of the aircraft's performance as a result of having the system on-board which in turn impacts negatively on

12648-416: The introduction of conical scanning and miniaturized vacuum tubes during the war. Anti-aircraft IR systems began in earnest in the late 1940s, but the electronics and the entire field of rocketry were so new that they required considerable development before the first examples entered service in the mid-1950s. The early examples had significant limitations and achieved very low success rates in combat during

12784-611: The kill zones of MANPADS compared to high performance fighter and strike aircraft. Over fifty MANPADS attacks on civilian aircraft are on record to 2007. Thirty-three were shot down killing over 800 people in the process. Protecting aircraft against IR guided missiles depends in most cases firstly on reliable detection and warning of missiles and secondly on applying effective ECM. An exception to this are omni-directional IR jammers which do not make use of missile warning at all, as they simply radiate modulated IR energy for as long as they are switched on. These jammers have been around since

12920-413: The location of the target by timing when the image disappeared (AEG) or reappeared (Kepka). The Kepka Madrid system had an instantaneous field of view (IFOV) of about 1.8 degrees and scanned a full 20 degree pattern. Combined with the movement of the entire seeker within the missile, it could track at angles as great as 100 degrees. Rheinmetall-Borsig and another team at AEG produced different variations on

13056-486: The markings on the reticle. At this same instant, a spin-scan system would be producing a constant output in its center null. Flares will still be seen by the con-scan seeker and cause confusion, but they will no longer overwhelm the target signal as it does in the case of spin-scan when the flare leaves the null point. Missile approach warning system Guided surface-to-air missile (SAM) systems were developed during World War II and began to make their presence felt in

13192-555: The missile's field of view. Such seekers, which are most sensitive to the 3 to 5 micrometre range, are now called single-color seekers. This led to new seekers sensitive to both the exhaust as well as the longer 8 to 13 micrometer wavelength range, which is less absorbed by the atmosphere and thus allows dimmer sources like the fuselage itself to be detected. Such designs are known as "all-aspect" missiles. Modern seekers combine several detectors and are called two-color systems. All-aspect seekers also tend to require cooling to give them

13328-456: The movement of the entire seeker assembly. Since the assembly cannot move instantly, a target moving rapidly across the missile's line of flight may be lost from the IFOV, which gives rise to the concept of a tracking rate , normally expressed in degrees per second. Some of the earliest German seekers used a linear-scan solution, where vertical and horizontal slits were moved back and forth in front of

13464-399: The negative voltage portion of its waveform, so the switch inverts this back to positive. When the disk reaches the 9 o'clock position the cell switches again, no longer inverting the signal, which is now entering its positive phase again. The resulting output from this cell is a series of half-sine waves, always positive. This signal is then smoothed out to produce a DC output, which is sent to

13600-469: The next year. Wally Schirra recalls visiting the lab and watching the seeker follow his cigarette. The missile was given the name Sidewinder after a local snake; the name had a second significance as the sidewinder is a pit viper and hunts by heat, and moves in an undulating pattern not unlike the missile. The Sidewinder entered service in 1957, and was widely used during the Vietnam war. It proved to be

13736-441: The omni-directional IR jammer became a source for the missiles to home in. Providing timely warning against IR MANPADS is a challenge. They give no warning of their presence prior to launch, they do not rely on active IR, radar guidance or a laser designator, which would possibly emit a detectable radiation. They are typically fire-and-forget and can lock on and engage a target, speed to the target and destroy it in seconds. They have

13872-698: The operating cost of the aircraft. The lowest initial price of a system does therefore not necessarily offer the best solution as all the factors needs to be considered. The overall cost effectiveness of systems i.e. price versus performance is more important in deciding which system to select. Three different technologies have been used for MAW systems, i.e. systems based on: Pulse-Doppler radar , Infrared , and Ultraviolet . Each technology has its advantages and disadvantages which can be summarized as follows: Current available MAW systems as well as those under development, represent all three types of technologies. Each technology has strong and weak points and none provide

14008-402: The other 5th generation IR-guided missiles, such as AIM-9X, ASRAAM which use staring array , the IRIS-T uses an InSb two-colour seeker based around a 128x2 linear array and a scanning mirror which builds an image from a row of detector elements and scans rapidly across the target. It would produce a 128x128 size image 80 times per second. Each of the elements has a resolution in milliradians. It

14144-469: The period the target is visible to the sensor, the AC waveform is in the positive voltage period, varying from zero to its maximum and back to zero. When the target disappears, the sensor triggers a switch that inverts the output of the AC signal. For instance, when the disk reaches the 3 o'clock position and the target disappears, the switch is triggered. This is the same instant that the original AC waveform begins

14280-487: The presence of water vapour and carbon dioxide produced several sharp drops in transitivity. Finally, they also considered the issue of background sources of IR, including reflections off clouds and similar effects, concluding this was an issue due to the way it changed very strongly across the sky. This research suggested that an IR seeker could home on a three-engine bomber at 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) with an accuracy of about 1 ⁄ 10 degree, making an IR seeker

14416-566: The probability of a direct hit, the missile is equipped with a K u band active radar proximity fuze. The IRIS-T has the unique ability, in comparison to other similar missiles such as the AIM-9X, to target and shoot down other air-to-air and surface-to-air missiles, thus offering a 360° defence capability. Surface launched variants of the IRIS-T, the IRIS-T SLS and IRIS-T SLM, have enhanced capabilities to destroy aircraft, helicopters, cruise missiles, air-to-surface missiles, anti-ship missiles, anti-radar rockets and large-calibre rockets. They have

14552-428: The problem that when the bomb was first released it was traveling too slowly for the aerodynamic surfaces to easily control it, and the target sometimes slipped out from the view of the seeker. A stabilized platform was being developed to address this problem. The company also developed a working IR proximity fuse by placing additional detectors pointing radially outward from the missile centerline. which triggered when

14688-461: The resulting L models were rushed to the UK just prior to their engagement in the Falklands War , where they achieved an 82% kill ratio, and the misses were generally due to the target aircraft flying out of range. The Argentine aircraft, equipped with Sidewinder B and R.550 Magic , could only fire from the rear aspect, which the British pilots simply avoided by always flying directly at them. The L

14824-421: The reticle is modified by making one half of the plate be covered not with stripes but a 50% transmission color. The output from such a system is a sine wave for half of the rotation and a constant signal for the other half. The fixed output varies with the overall illumination of the sky. An extended target that spans several segments, like a cloud, will cause a fixed signal as well, and any signal that approximates

14960-410: The rotation causes a series of chopped-off positive and negative sine waves. When this is passed through the same smoothing system, the output is zero. This means the missile does not have to correct left or right. If the target were to move to the right, for instance, the signal would be increasingly positive from the smoother, indicating increasing corrections to the right. In practice a second photocell

15096-593: The same output signal. Since the goal of the seeker is to bring the target within the lethal radius of its warhead, the detector must be equipped with some system to narrow the FOV to a smaller angle. This is normally accomplished by placing the detector at the focal point of a telescope of some sort. This leads to a problem of conflicting performance requirements. As the FOV is reduced, the seeker becomes more accurate, and this also helps eliminate background sources which helps improve tracking. However, limiting it too much allows

15232-549: The same systems for use on tanks , and deployed a number of models through the war, with limited production of the FG 1250 beginning in 1943. This work culminated in the Zielgerät 1229 Vampir riflescope which was used with the StG 44 assault rifle for night use. The devices mentioned previously were all detectors, not seekers. They either produce a signal indicating the general direction of

15368-527: The same technologies have appeared in the Chinese PL-10 and Israeli Python-5 . Based on the same general principles as the original Sidewinder, in 1955 Convair began studies on a small man-portable missile ( MANPADS ) that would emerge as the FIM-43 Redeye . Entering testing in 1961, the preliminary design proved to have poor performance, and a number of major upgrades followed. It was not until 1968 that

15504-461: The same time. The UK began development of its Blowpipe in 1975, but placed the seeker on the launcher instead of the missile itself. The seeker sensed both the target and the missile and sent corrections to the missile via a radio link. These early weapons proved ineffective, with the Blowpipe failing in almost every combat use, while the Redeye fared somewhat better. The Strela-2 did better and claimed

15640-615: The same year as MX-798, 1946, William B. McLean began studies of a similar concept at the Naval Ordnance Test Station, today known as Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake . He spent three years simply considering various designs, which led to a considerably less complicated design than the Falcon. When his team had a design they believed would be workable, they began trying to fit it to the newly introduced Zuni 5-inch rocket . They presented it in 1951 and it became an official project

15776-403: The seeker is mounted on a trainable platform on the launcher and the operator keeps it pointed in the general direction of the target manually, often using a small telescope. The seeker does not track the target, but the missile, often aided by flares to provide a clean signal. The same guidance signals are generated and sent to the missile via thin wires or radio signals, guiding the missile into

15912-410: The seeker's mirror is tilted at 5 degrees, and the missile is tracking a target that is currently centered in front of the missile. As the mirror spins, it causes the image of the target to be reflected in the opposite direction, so in this case the image is moving in a circle 5 degrees away from the reticle's centerline. That means that even a centered target is creating a varying signal as it passes over

16048-405: The signal strength began to decrease, which it did when the missile passed the target. There was work on using a single sensor for both tasks instead of two separate ones. Other companies also picked up on the work by Eletroacustic and designed their own scanning methods. AEG and Kepka of Vienna used systems with two movable plates that continually scanned horizontally or vertically, and determined

16184-527: The spinning-disk system. In the post-war era, as the German developments became better known, a variety of research projects began to develop seekers based on the PbS sensor. These were combined with techniques developed during the war to improve accuracy of otherwise inherently inaccurate radar systems, especially the conical scanning system. One such system developed by the US Army Air Force (USAAF), known as

16320-406: The system only if they have high confidence in it. The MAW must also have sufficiently low false alarm rates (FAR), even when illuminated by multiple sources (which may include threats) from different directions. Quick response times and low FAR are inherently conflicting requirements. An acceptable solution requires a balanced approach to provide the most successful end result without compromising

16456-407: The target is moving very slowly relative to the missile and the missile quickly aligns itself to the target. It was not appropriate for air-to-air use where the velocities were greater and smoother control motion was desired. In this case, the system was changed only slightly so the modulating disk was patterned in a cardioid which blanked out the signal for more or less time depending on how far from

16592-483: The target to move out of the FOV and be lost to the seeker. To be effective for guidance to the lethal radius, tracking angles of perhaps one degree are ideal, but to be able to continually track the target safely, FOVs on the order of 10 degrees or more are desired. This situation leads to the use of a number of designs that use a relatively wide FOV to allow easy tracking, and then process the received signal in some way to gain additional accuracy for guidance. Generally,

16728-465: The target, or in the case of later devices, an image. Guidance was entirely manual by an operator looking at the image. There were a number of efforts in Germany during the war to produce a true automatic seeker system, both for anti-aircraft use as well as against ships. These devices were still in development when the war ended; although some were ready for use, there had been no work on integrating them with

16864-468: The time. A goal of the program was for any aircraft capable of firing the Sidewinder to also be capable of launching the IRIS-T. The air-to-air variant was fielded in 2005. Surface-to-air defence systems variants came later, with the short-range IRIS-T SLS fielded in 2015, and the medium-range IRIS-T SLM fielded in 2022. One IRIS-T SLM battery, as supplied by Germany to Ukraine, consists of three truck-mounted launchers, carrying eight missiles each (with

17000-414: The transparent portion of the chopper is aligned vertically at the target at 12 o'clock becomes visible. The sensor continues to see the target until the chopper reaches 3 o'clock. A signal generator produces an AC waveform that had the same frequency as the rotational rate of the disk. It is timed so the waveform reaches its maximum possible positive voltage point at the 12 o'clock position. Thus, during

17136-616: Was a surface-to-air variant that was developed by the Diehl BGT Defence and MBDA/LFK for the Germany air defence plan called SysFla ( German : System Flugabwehr ). Its weight is 28 kg, which is just one third of the original IRIS-T AAM. It would be equipped on the Army's Ozelot air defence system and Eurocopter Tiger . It has the operational range of 10 km. In 2012, the German Army air defence units Heeresflugabwehrtruppe  [ de ]

17272-432: Was based on, with the guidance system and fuse suffering continual failure. As Vietnam revealed the terrible performance of existing missile designs, a number of efforts began to address them. In the US, minor upgrades to the Sidewinder were carried out as soon as possible, but more broadly pilots were taught proper engagement techniques so they would not fire as soon as they heard the missile tone, and would instead move to

17408-503: Was capable of countering standoff weapons , and it was likely to be ready for operation within around 4 years. It also would retain the ability to engage cruise missiles and helicopters. The Hypersonic Defence (HYDEF) is a program for missile defense against hypersonic threats. The consortium of this project consists of 13 companies from seven European nations. The HYDEF project is based on the successful contract signing in July 2022, dealing with

17544-557: Was disbanded. There's no further news about this variant afterward. The following operators are listed and defined as of June 2023. The first IRIS-T SLM system was delivered in 2021 to Egypt , and trials followed, seeing the successful downing of two drones. On 24 October 2022, at the opening of the 5th Business Forum on the Reconstruction of Ukraine, the Prime Minister of Ukraine Denys Shmyhal noted that German IRIS-T system had

17680-412: Was fed directly to the control surfaces, causing rapid flicking motions to bring the missile back into alignment, a control system known as "bang-bang". Bang-bang controls are extremely inefficient aerodynamically, especially as the target approaches the centerline and the controls continually flick back and forth with no real effect. This leads to the desire to either smooth out these outputs, or to measure

17816-582: Was going to be a better solution. Nevertheless, Frederick Lindemann , Winston Churchill 's favorite on the Tizard Committee , remained committed to IR and became increasingly obstructionist to the work of the Committee who were otherwise pressing for radar development. Eventually they dissolved the Committee and reformed, leaving Lindemann off the roster, and filling his position with well known radio expert Edward Victor Appleton . In Germany, radar research

17952-407: Was more important. The US eventually bowed out of the program, and instead adapted the new seekers developed for ASRAAM on yet another version of the Sidewinder, the AIM-9X. This so extends its lifetime that it will have been in service for almost a century when the current aircraft leave service. ASRAAM did, eventually, deliver a missile that has been adopted by a number of European forces and many of

18088-518: Was not given nearly the same level of support as in the UK, and competed with IR development throughout the 1930s. IR research was led primarily by Edgar Kutzscher at the University of Berlin working in concert with AEG . By 1940 they had successfully developed one solution; the Spanner Anlage (roughly "Peeping Tom system") consisting of a detector photomultiplier placed in front of the pilot, and

18224-489: Was regarded to have good resistance against DIRCM . Bodenseewerk Gerätetechnik GmbH (BGT) claimed that scanning arrays were less susceptible than staring arrays as the former receive the DIRCM energy for fractions of a second whereas the latter receive it continuously. The IRIS-T is able to intercept fast-moving and miniature targets, such as air-to-air/surface-to-air missiles and air-to-surface/surface-to-surface missiles and rockets, UAV/drones, and cruise missiles. To improve

18360-564: Was so effective that aircraft hurried to add flare countermeasures, which led to another minor upgrade to the M model to better reject flares. The L and M models would go on to be the backbone of Western air forces through the end of the Cold War era. An even larger step was taken by the Soviets with their R-73 , which replaced the K-13 and others with a dramatically improved design. This missile introduced

18496-585: Was that it took much longer to develop effective warning systems against them. Most aircraft that were shot down never knew that the missiles were coming. Radar warning receivers on the other hand already proved their effectiveness by the early 1970s which considerably improved the survival rate of aircraft against radar threats. The first air-to-air IR missiles appeared in the 1950s. The technology allowed more compact missile designs and made it possible to develop IR man-portable air-defense systems (MANPADS) i.e. shoulder-launched missiles, which became operational by

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