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103-918: NGOs are independent of governments and can be seen as two types: advocacy NGOs , which aim to influence governments with a specific goal, and operational NGOs , which provide services. Examples of NGO mandates are environmental preservation , human rights promotions or the advancement of women . NGOs are typically not-for-profit, but receive funding from companies or membership fees. Many large INGOs have components of operational projects and advocacy initiatives working together within individual countries. Intergovernmental organizations such as International Labour Organization (ILO) and United Nations are formed when sovereign states form treaties but INGOs are not bound by state treaties when operating internationally. INGOs can either be private philanthropic organizations such as Carnegie, Rockefeller, Gates, and Ford Foundations or as arms of existing internation insitutions like

206-506: A social movement that seeks to influence the political process by lobbying, activism, and education in order to protect natural resources and ecosystems . An environmentalist is a person who may speak out about our natural environment and the sustainable management of its resources through changes in public policy or individual behaviour. This may include supporting practices such as informed consumption, conservation initiatives, investment in renewable resources , improved efficiencies in

309-527: A spaceship Earth on Earth Day, hereby referring to the ecosystem services the earth supplies to us, and hence our obligation to protect it (and with it, ourselves). Earth Day is now coordinated globally by the Earth Day Network , and is celebrated in more than 192 countries every year. The UN's first major conference on international environmental issues, the United Nations Conference on

412-488: A 1990 report, points out that little attention has been given to the significance of the colonial experience, particularly the European colonial experience, in shaping early European environmentalism. Grove argues that as European colonization expanded, so did the European interaction with land and indigenous people, providing Europeans with an awareness of the destructive consequences of their economic and colonial activities on

515-481: A carbon-copy manner with little success. This isomorphic mimicry –adopting organizational forms that have been successful elsewhere but that only hide institutional dysfunction without solving it on the home country –can contribute to getting countries stuck in 'capability traps' where the country does not advance in its development goals. An example of this can be seen through some of the criticisms of foreign aid and its success rate at helping countries develop. Beyond

618-512: A community or region". Daphne Greenwood and Richard Holt distinguish economic development from economic growth on the basis that economic development is a "broadly based and sustainable increase in the overall standard of living for individuals within a community", and measures of growth such as per capita income do not necessarily correlate with improvements in quality of life. The United Nations Development Programme in 1997 defined development as increasing people‟s choices. Choices depend on

721-444: A legal status under the international law. They have not legal personality and therefore, no formal rights. INGOs must then operate under state laws. China for instance, only allows foreign NGOs that have Chinese sponsor organizations. International non-governmental organizations emerged as a result of the need for humanitarian aid as global problems increased after World Wars. No single government could solve these problems leading to

824-675: A major contributor to development economics , asserted that economic development grew to concentrate on the poor regions of the world , primarily in Africa , Asia and Latin America yet on the outpouring of fundamental ideas and models. It has also been argued, notably by Asian and European proponents of infrastructure-based development , that systematic, long-term government investments in transportation , housing , education , and healthcare are necessary to ensure sustainable economic growth in emerging countries. During Robert McNamara's 13 years at

927-476: A national body to coordinate environmental conservation efforts across the country; the "National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty" was formally inaugurated in 1894. The organisation obtained secure footing through the 1907 National Trust Bill, which gave the trust the status of a statutory corporation. and the bill was passed in August 1907. An early "Back-to-Nature" movement, which anticipated

1030-421: A panel dataset for each 50 states with unemployment, labor force participation by race, and annual labor market statistics. In addition, for contractionary monetary policy, they utilize the federal funds rate, the short-term interest rates charged to banks. Seguino and Heintz Seguino concludes that the impact of a one percentage point increase in the federal funds rate relative to white and black women's unemployment

1133-513: A precipitous decline in the US public's interest in 19 different areas of environmental concern. Americans are less likely to be actively participating in an environmental movement or organisation and more likely to identify as "unsympathetic" to an environmental movement than in 2000. This is likely a lingering factor of the Great Recession in 2008. Since 2005, the percentage of Americans agreeing that

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1236-587: A professional industry of highly specialized practitioners. The practitioners have two key roles: one is to provide leadership in policy-making , and the other is to administer policy, programs, and projects. Economic development practitioners generally work in public offices on the state, regional, or municipal level, or in public-private partnerships organizations that may be partially funded by local, regional, state, or federal tax money. These economic development organizations function as individual entities and in some cases as departments of local governments. Their role

1339-727: A rapidly increasing flood of new members to the Sierra Club and to the environmental movement in general. This Is Dinosaur , edited by Wallace Stegner with photographs by Martin Litton and Philip Hyde , prevented the building of dams within Dinosaur National Monument by becoming part of a new kind of activism called environmentalism that combined the conservationist ideals of Thoreau, Leopold and Muir with hard-hitting advertising, lobbying, book distribution, letter writing campaigns, and more. The powerful use of photography in addition to

1442-482: A rethinking of the dangers of environmental degradation to people's quality of life. The late 19th century also saw the passage of the first wildlife conservation laws. The zoologist Alfred Newton published a series of investigations into the Desirability of establishing a 'Close-time' for the preservation of indigenous animals between 1872 and 1903. His advocacy for legislation to protect animals from hunting during

1545-486: A significant amount of revenue from this source are less accountable to their citizens (they are more autonomous) as they have less pressure to legitimately use those resources. Just as it has been documented for countries with an abundant supply of natural resources such as oil, countries whose government budget consists largely of foreign aid donations and not regular taxes are less likely to have incentives to develop effective public institutions. This in turn can undermine

1648-546: A significant indicator of a country's economic advancement: this perspective is illustrated notably through the Basic Rail Transportation Infrastructure Index (known as BRTI Index) and related models such as the (Modified) Rail Transportation Infrastructure Index (RTI). In an effort to create an indicator that would help measure gender equality , the United Nations has created two measures:

1751-619: Is Save the Children-UK that was founded in 1919. Since then, INGOs have been operating under their founding principles to provide different community welfare models. The main focus of INGOs is to provide relief and developmental aid to communities that are in crisis. These programs include health-related projects such as HIV/AIDS awareness, prevention and treatment, clean water, and malaria prevention. INGO roles extend to education-related projects such as ensuring equitable education for all genders and providing books. Overall, INGOs help to provide

1854-465: Is 0.015 and 0.043, respectively One growing understanding in economic development is the promotion of regional clusters and a thriving metropolitan economy . In today's global landscape, location is vitally important and becomes a key in competitive advantage . International trade and exchange rates are key issues in economic development. Currencies are often either under-valued or over-valued , resulting in trade surpluses or deficits. Furthermore,

1957-608: Is a form of activism in which the protester sits in a tree in an attempt to stop the removal of a tree or to impede the demolition of an area with the longest and most famous tree-sitter being Julia Butterfly Hill , who spent 738 days in a California Redwood, saving a three-acre tract of forest. Also notable is the Yellow Finch tree sit , which was a 932-day blockade of the Mountain Valley Pipeline from 2018 to 2021. Sit-ins can be used to encourage social change, such as

2060-436: Is attempting to provide renewable energy to communities (especially solar energy ), reforestation , protecting water sources, planting gardens, promoting urban agriculture , creating wildlife reserves , water recycling , beekeeping , expanding public transportation and promoting environmental awareness within their communities. The Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities are firmly environmentalist and have stopped

2163-400: Is important to not expect that particular economic development programs be able to fix many problems at once as that would be establishing unsurmountable goals for them that are highly unlikely they can achieved. Any development policy should set limited goals and a gradual approach to avoid falling victim to something Prittchet, Woolcock and Andrews call 'premature load bearing'. Many times

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2266-436: Is linked to economic development . As of 2007, aid (partly contributed to by INGOs) over the past thirty years is estimated to have increased the annual growth rate of the bottom billion by one percent. Given they are usually supported by donations, a popular concern about INGOs is where the money goes and whether it is spent efficiently. High administrative costs can be an indication of inefficiency, enrichment of employees at

2369-404: Is paramount. To this point, INGOs must prepare regions for when they leave by providing the tools and guidance necessary to support their citizens. More research must be done on the impacts of INGO support from the perspective of the recipient country or region, as much of currently published research has been completed from the lens of a Westernized donor or INGO. Another criticism is that many of

2472-482: Is sometimes called the most influential book on conservation. Throughout the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s and beyond, photography was used to enhance public awareness of the need for protecting land and recruiting members to environmental organisations. David Brower , Ansel Adams and Nancy Newhall created the Sierra Club Exhibit Format Series, which helped raise public environmental awareness and brought

2575-547: Is to seek out new economic opportunities and retain their existing business wealth. There are numerous other organizations whose primary function is not economic development that work in partnership with economic developers. They include the news media, foundations, utilities, schools, health care providers, faith-based organizations, and colleges, universities, and other education or research institutions. There are various types of macroeconomic and sociocultural indicators or "metrics" used by economists and geographers to assess

2678-429: Is typically associated with improvements in a variety of areas or indicators (such as literacy rates , life expectancy , and poverty rates) , that may be causes of economic development rather than consequences of specific economic development programs. For example, health and education improvements have been closely related to economic growth, but the causality with economic development may not be obvious. In any case, it

2781-452: The Dauerwald (best translated as the "perpetual forest") which included concepts such as forest management and protection was promoted and efforts were also made to curb air pollution . In 1949, A Sand County Almanac by Aldo Leopold was published. It explained Leopold's belief that humankind should have moral respect for the environment and that it is unethical to harm it. The book

2884-664: The American bison . The death of the last passenger pigeon as well as the endangerment of the American bison helped to focus the minds of conservationists and to popularise their concerns. In 1916, the National Park Service was founded by US President Woodrow Wilson . The Forestry Commission was set up in 1919 in Britain to increase the amount of woodland in Britain by buying land for afforestation and reforestation . The commission

2987-496: The European Journal of International Relations criticized the impact of INGOs on government decision-making, claiming they are slowing integration of developing countries into the global economy. Environmental preservation Environmentalism or environmental rights is a broad philosophy , ideology , and social movement about supporting life , habitats , and surroundings. While environmentalism focuses more on

3090-619: The Gaia hypothesis ; it proposes that life on earth can be understood as a single organism. This became an important part of the Deep Green ideology. Throughout the rest of the history of environmentalism there has been debate and argument between more radical followers of this Deep Green ideology and more mainstream environmentalists. Environmentalism continues to evolve to face up to new issues such as global warming , overpopulation , genetic engineering , and plastic pollution . Research demonstrates

3193-645: The Gender-Related Development Index (GDI) and the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM). These indicators were first introduced in the 1995 UNDP Human Development Report. Other factors include the inflation rate, investment level and national debt , birth and death rates, life expectancy , morbidity , education levels (measured through literacy and numeracy rates), housing , social services like hospitals , health facilities , clean and safe drinking water , schools (measured by

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3296-474: The Union of International Associations (UIA) were the first to suggest that a "super-national" status be given to international organizations with diplomatic intentions without governmental influence. The International Law Association (ILA) modified this, adding that this "super-national" organizational status may be adopted for associations formed for no profit. One of the oldest organization to be referred to an INGO

3399-465: The Wilderness Society and many others. After a focus on preserving wilderness in the 1950s and 1960s, the Sierra Club and other groups broadened their focus to include such issues as air and water pollution, population concern, and curbing the exploitation of natural resources . The prevailing belief regarding the origins of early environmentalism suggests that it emerged as a local response to

3502-490: The environmental conservation movement . At its crux, environmentalism is an attempt to balance relations between humans and the various natural systems on which they depend in such a way that all the components are accorded a proper degree of sustainability . The exact measures and outcomes of this balance is controversial and there are many different ways for environmental concerns to be expressed in practice. Environmentalism and environmental concerns are often represented by

3605-530: The natural environment and critical earth system elements or processes such as the climate , and may be referred to as a movement to control pollution or protect plant and animal diversity . For this reason, concepts such as a land ethics , environmental ethics , biodiversity , ecology , and the biophilia hypothesis figure predominantly. The environmentalist movement encompasses various approaches to addressing environmental issues, including free market environmentalism , evangelical environmentalism , and

3708-527: The post-war period of reconstruction initiated by the United States. In 1949, during his inaugural speech, President Harry Truman identified the development of undeveloped areas as a priority for the West: There have been several major phases of development theory since 1945. Alexander Gerschenkron argued that the less developed the country is at the outset of economic development (relative to others),

3811-653: The public sector , economic and social development is the process by which the economic well-being and quality of life of a nation, region, local community, or an individual are improved according to targeted goals and objectives. The term has been used frequently in the 20th and 21st centuries, but the concept has existed in the West for far longer. " Modernization ", " Westernization ", and especially " industrialization " are other terms often used while discussing economic development. Historically, economic development policies focused on industrialization and infrastructure ; since

3914-413: The sustainable management of resources, and the protection (and restoration, when necessary) of the natural environment through changes in public policy and individual behaviour. In its recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the movement is centered around ecology , health , and human rights . A concern for environmental protection has recurred in diverse forms, in different parts of

4017-648: The "taint of manufacture or the canker of artificiality", were enthusiastically revived, including the Morris dance and the maypole . These ideas also inspired various environmental groups in the UK, such as the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds , established in 1889 by Emily Williamson as a protest group to campaign for greater protection for the indigenous birds of the island . The Society attracted growing support from

4120-493: The 1960s, it has increasingly focused on poverty reduction . Whereas economic development is a policy intervention aiming to improve the well-being of people, economic growth is a phenomenon of market productivity and increases in GDP ; economist Amartya Sen describes economic growth as but "one aspect of the process of economic development". The precise definition of economic development has been contested: while economists in

4223-539: The 1980s pushing an agenda of free trade and removal of import substitution industrialization policies. In economics, the study of economic development was born out of an extension to traditional economics that focused entirely on the national product , or the aggregate output of goods and services. Economic development was concerned with the expansion of people's entitlements and their corresponding capabilities, such as morbidity , nourishment , literacy , education , and other socio-economic indicators. Borne out of

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4326-413: The 20th century viewed development primarily in terms of economic growth , sociologists instead emphasized broader processes of change and modernization . Development and urban studies scholar Karl Seidman summarizes economic development as "a process of creating and utilizing physical, human, financial, and social assets to generate improved and broadly shared economic well-being and quality of life for

4429-491: The 9th to 13th centuries dealt with environmentalism and environmental science , including the issue of pollution. The authors of such treatises included Al-Kindi , Qusta ibn Luqa , Al-Razi , Ibn Al-Jazzar , al-Tamimi , al-Masihi , Avicenna , Ali ibn Ridwan , Ibn Jumay , Isaac Israeli ben Solomon , Abd-el-latif , Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis . Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution, such as air pollution, water pollution , soil contamination , and

4532-493: The Alkali Order 1958 which placed all major heavy industries that emitted smoke , grit, dust and fumes under supervision. In industrial cities, local experts and reformers, especially after 1890, took the lead in identifying environmental degradation and pollution, and initiating grass-roots movements to demand and achieve reforms. Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society

4635-577: The Catholic Church. After World War II , INGOs began to increase due to the need for economic development or humanitarian needs. Such INGOs include SOS Children's Villages , Oxfam , Catholic Relief Services , Care International , and Lutheran World Relief . However, the influence of INGOs started to extended heavily in the 1980s. Except for incorporation under national laws, no current formal legal status exists for INGOs, which can lead to complications in international law. INGOs have been trying to get

4738-899: The Environment, founded in 1972 in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel . The first national green party in Europe was PEOPLE, founded in Britain in February 1973, which eventually turned into the Ecology Party , and then the Green Party . Protection of the environment also became important in the developing world ; the Chipko movement was formed in India under the influence of Mhatmas Gandhi and they set up peaceful resistance to deforestation by literally hugging trees (leading to

4841-637: The Greensboro sit-ins, a series of protests in 1960 to stop racial segregation, but can also be used in ecoactivism, as in the Dakota Access Pipeline Protest. Before the Syrian civil war , Rojava had been ecologically damaged by monoculture , oil extraction, damming of rivers, deforestation , drought , topsoil loss and general pollution. The DFNS launched a campaign titled 'Make Rojava Green Again' (a parody of Make America Great Again ) which

4944-621: The Human Environment (also known as the Stockholm Conference), was held on 5–16 June 1972. It marked a turning point in the development of international environmental politics. By the mid-1970s, many felt that people were on the edge of environmental catastrophe. The back-to-the-land movement started to form and ideas of environmental ethics joined with anti-Vietnam War sentiments and other political issues. These individuals lived outside normal society and started to take on some of

5047-1101: The Smoke Abatement Act to include other emissions, such as soot, ash, and gritty particles, and to empower local authorities to impose their own regulations. It was only under the impetus of the Great Smog of 1952 in London, which almost brought the city to a standstill and may have caused upward of 6,000 deaths, that the Clean Air Act 1956 was passed and airborne pollution in the city was first tackled. Financial incentives were offered to householders to replace open coal fires with alternatives (such as installing gas fires) or those who preferred, to burn coke instead (a byproduct of town gas production) which produces minimal smoke. 'Smoke control areas' were introduced in some towns and cities where only smokeless fuels could be burnt and power stations were relocated away from cities. The act formed an important impetus to modern environmentalism and caused

5150-645: The United States began in the late 19th century, out of concerns for protecting the natural resources of the West, with individuals such as John Muir and Henry David Thoreau making key philosophical contributions. Thoreau was interested in peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book Walden , which argues that people should become intimately close with nature. Muir came to believe in nature's inherent right, especially after spending time hiking in Yosemite Valley and studying both

5253-590: The United States. In the 1970s, the environmental movement gained rapid speed around the world as a productive outgrowth of the counterculture movement. The world's first political parties to campaign on a predominantly environmental platform were the United Tasmania Group of Tasmania, Australia , and the Values Party of New Zealand. The first green party in Europe was the Popular Movement for

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5356-462: The World Bank under McNamara's tenure "sold" states poverty reduction "through a mixture of persuasion and coercion." The development of a country has been associated with different concepts but generally encompasses economic growth through higher productivity, political systems that represent as accurately as possible the preferences of its citizens, The extension of rights to all social groups and

5459-528: The World Bank, he introduced key changes, most notably, shifting the Bank's economic development policies toward targeted poverty reduction. Before his tenure at the World Bank, poverty did not receive substantial attention as part of international and national economic development; the focus of development had been on industrialization and infrastructure. Poverty also came to be redefined as a condition faced by people rather than countries. According to Martha Finnemore,

5562-447: The activities are compared to other charities or potential activities. Moreover, multiple organizations often exist to solve the same problem. Rather than collaborating to address a given situation, organizations frequently interact as competitors, which creates bottlenecks of treatment and supplies. Conflicts typically require organizations to quickly provide aid to regions with conflict. As such, ensuring immediate and future care quality

5665-637: The adverse impacts of industrialization in Western nations and communities. In terms of conservation efforts, there is a widespread view that the conservation movement began as a predominantly elite concern in North America, focusing on the preservation of local natural areas. A less prevailing view, however, attributes the roots of early environmentalism to a growing public concern about the influence of Western economic forces, particularly in connection with colonization , on tropical environments. Richard Grove , in

5768-434: The attainment of a standard of living equivalent to that of industrialized countries . Economic development can also be considered as a static theory that documents the state of an economy at a certain place. According to Schumpeter and Backhaus (2003), the changes in this equilibrium state documented in economic theory can only be caused by intervening factors coming from the outside. Economic development originated in

5871-480: The backdrop of Keynesian economics (advocating government intervention), and neoclassical economics (stressing reduced intervention), with the rise of high-growth countries ( Singapore , South Korea , Hong Kong ) and planned governments ( Argentina , Chile , Sudan , Uganda ), economic development and more generally development economics emerged amidst these mid-20th century theoretical interpretations of how economies prosper. Also, economist Albert O. Hirschman ,

5974-546: The belief that newly "discovered" lands, especially tropical ones, had the potential to be heavenly paradises. In 1962, Silent Spring by American biologist Rachel Carson was published. The book cataloged the environmental impacts of the indiscriminate spraying of DDT in the US and questioned the logic of releasing large amounts of chemicals into the environment without fully understanding their effects on human health and ecology. The book suggested that DDT and other pesticides may cause cancer and that their agricultural use

6077-471: The colour green , but this association has been appropriated by the marketing industries for the tactic known as greenwashing . Environmentalism is opposed by anti-environmentalism , which says that the Earth is less fragile than some environmentalists maintain, and portrays environmentalism as overreacting to the human contribution to climate change or opposing human advancement. Environmentalism denotes

6180-416: The country's efforts to develop. In its broadest sense, policies of economic development encompass three major areas: Contractionary monetary policy is a tool used by central banks to slow down a country's economic growth. An example would be raising interest rates to decrease lending. In the United States, the use of contractionary monetary policy has increased women's unemployment. Seguino and Heintz uses

6283-432: The dawn of the industrial revolution, possibly making him one of the first predictors for climate change. He also observed the damage done from deforestation and hunting. Kropotkin's writings would become influential in the 1970s and became a major inspiration for the intentional community movement as well as his ideas becoming the basis for the theory of social ecology . In 1893 Hill, Hunter and Rawnsley agreed to set up

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6386-458: The destructive impacts of colonization on the environment did not halt the expansion of colonization itself, it did pave the way for a different approach to colonization – one focused on the preservation and protection of foreign natural resources. This phenomenon can be linked to the emergence of Edenic thinking, or the quest for Eden on Earth. This quest to locate Eden gained prominence in the 15th century, coinciding with colonization, and fostered

6489-624: The distance learners must travel to reach them), ability to use hard infrastructure (railways, roads, ports, airports, harbours, etc.), and telecommunications and other soft infrastructure like the Internet . The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) focuses on aggregating various indicators that focus on capturing the economic, political, and professional gains made by women. The GEM is composed of just three variables: income earning power, share in professional and managerial jobs, and share of parliamentary seats. The Gender Development Index (GDI) measures

6592-492: The ecology and geology. He successfully lobbied congress to form Yosemite National Park and went on to set up the Sierra Club in 1892. The conservationist principles as well as the belief in an inherent right of nature were to become the bedrock of modern environmentalism. In the 20th century, environmental ideas continued to grow in popularity and recognition. Efforts were starting to be made to save some wildlife, particularly

6695-659: The economic development goals of specific countries cannot be reached because they lack the State's capabilities to do so. For example, if a nation has little capacity to carry out basic functions like security and policing or core service delivery it is unlikely that a program that wants to foster a free-trade zone (special economic zones) or distribute vaccinations to vulnerable populations can accomplish their goals. This has been something overlooked by multiple international organizations, aid programs and even participating governments who attempt to carry out 'best practices' from other places in

6798-454: The environment should be given priority over economic growth has dropped 10 points; in contrast, those feeling that growth should be given priority "even if the environment suffers to some extent" has risen 12 percent. Nevertheless, a recent National Geographic survey indicated strong desire for commitment across a dozen countries, indicating a majority were in favour of more than half of the Earth's land surface being protected. Tree sitting

6901-487: The environment. Mahavira's teachings on the symbiosis between all living beings—as well as the five elements of earth, water, air, fire, and space—are core to environmental thought today. In West Asia, the Caliph Abu Bakr in the 630s AD commanded his army to "Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire," and to "Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food." Various Islamic medical treatises during

7004-493: The environment. With this new interest in environment came interest in problems such as air pollution and petroleum spills, and environmental interest grew. New pressure groups formed, notably Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth (US) , as well as notable local organisations such as the Wyoming Outdoor Council , which was founded in 1967. From 1962 to 1998, the environmental movement founded 772 national organizations in

7107-459: The environmental and nature-related aspects of green ideology and politics , ecologism combines the ideology of social ecology and environmentalism. Ecologism is more commonly used in continental European languages, while environmentalism is more commonly used in English but the words have slightly different connotations. Environmentalism advocates the preservation, restoration and improvement of

7210-465: The expense of beneficiaries, embezzlement or misdirection of funds to corrupt local officials or dictatorship. Numerous attempts have been made to remedy the accountability of INGOs surrounding where and for what their money is being used. Websites like Charity Navigator and GiveWell attempt to provide transparency as to how much goes to administrative costs, what activities money is spent on, whether more donations would be helpful, and how cost-effective

7313-461: The extraction of oil, uranium, timber and metal from the Lacandon Jungle and stopped the use of pesticides and chemical fertilisers in farming. The CIPO-RFM has engaged in sabotage and direct action against wind farms , shrimp farms , eucalyptus plantations and the timber industry . They have also set up corn and coffee worker cooperatives and built schools and hospitals to help

7416-433: The formation of INGOs. Governments began offering greater support to private, international organizations and NGOs in the 1980s as a way of allowing more time and resources to be spent on national projects. Often, a humanitarian aid organization would clash with a government's approach to tackle a situation. In such cases, INGOs have sought out autonomy to extend help regardless of political or ethnic affiliation. In 1910,

7519-415: The government created a stringent animal-protection law and in 1934, Das Reichsjagdgesetz (The Reich Hunting Law) was enacted which limited hunting. Several Nazis were environmentalists (notably Rudolf Hess ), and species protection and animal welfare were significant issues in the regime. In 1935, the regime enacted the "Reich Nature Protection Act" ( Reichsnaturschutzgesetz ). The concept of

7622-500: The growth of cities, and worsening air and water pollution . Starting with the formation of the Commons Preservation Society in 1865, the movement championed rural preservation against the encroachments of industrialisation. Robert Hunter , solicitor for the society, worked with Hardwicke Rawnsley , Octavia Hill , and John Ruskin to lead a successful campaign to prevent the construction of railways to carry slate from

7725-543: The growth of globalization has linked economic development with trends on international trade and participation in global value chains (GVCs) and international financial markets. The last financial crisis had a huge effect on economies in developing countries. Economist Jayati Ghosh states that it is necessary to make financial markets in developing countries more resilient by providing a variety of financial institutions . This could also add to financial security for small-scale producers. Economic development has evolved into

7828-448: The incentive compatibility problems that can happen to foreign aid donations –that foreign aid granting countries continue to give it to countries with little results of economic growth but with corrupt leaders that are aligned with the granting countries' geopolitical interests and agenda –there are problems of fiscal fragility associated to receiving an important amount of government revenues through foreign aid. Governments that can raise

7931-561: The large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. The first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain's Alkali Acts , passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution ( gaseous hydrochloric acid ) given off by the Leblanc process , used to produce soda ash . An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution. The inspectorate's responsibilities were gradually expanded, culminating in

8034-456: The local populations. They have also created a network of autonomous community radio stations to educate people about dangers to the environment and inform the surrounding communities about new industrial projects that would destroy more land. In 2001, the CIPO-RFM defeated the construction of a highway that was part of Plan Puebla Panama . Economic development In the economics study of

8137-478: The materials economy, transitioning to new accounting paradigms such as ecological economics , renewing and revitalizing our connections with non-human life or even opting to have one less child to reduce consumption and pressure on resources. In various ways (for example, grassroots activism and protests), environmentalists and environmental organisations seek to give the natural world a stronger voice in human affairs. In general terms, environmentalists advocate

8240-706: The mating season led to the formation of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and influenced the passage of the Sea Birds Preservation Act in 1869 as the first nature protection law in the world. During the Spanish Revolution , anarchist-controlled territories undertook several environmental reforms, which were possibly the largest in the world at the time. Daniel Guerin notes that anarchist territories would diversify crops, extend irrigation , initiate reforestation , start tree nurseries and help to establish naturist communities . Once there

8343-468: The mishandling of municipal solid waste . They also included assessments of certain localities' environmental impact. In Europe, King Edward I of England banned the burning and sale of " sea-coal " in 1272 by proclamation in London, after its smoke had become a prevalent annoyance throughout the city. This fuel, common in London due to the local scarcity of wood, was given this early name because it could be found washed up on some shores, from where it

8446-428: The more likely certain conditions are to occur. Hence, all countries do not progress similarly. From the 1940s to the 1960s the state played a large role in promoting industrialization in developing countries, following the idea of modernization theory . This period was followed by a brief period of basic needs development focusing on human capital development and redistribution in the 1970s. Neoliberalism emerged in

8549-585: The more radical environmental theories such as deep ecology . Around this time more mainstream environmentalism was starting to show force with the signing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973 and the formation of CITES in 1975. Significant amendments were also enacted to the United States Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act . In 1979, James Lovelock , a British scientist, published Gaia: A new look at life on Earth , which put forth

8652-562: The newly "discovered" lands. As global trade expanded through colonization, the European concept of nature underwent a transformation, with the foreign tropical environments of their conquests evolving into romantic symbols of idyllic landscapes that required care and protection by Europeans. Examples of this impact of colonization on the Western mindset can be found in prominent cultural references, such as William Shakespeare's play " The Tempest " and Andrew Marvell 's poem "Bermoothes." Although this newfound self-awareness among Europeans about

8755-448: The opportunities to get them and the proper functionality of institutions and organizations that can attend more technically and logistically complex tasks (i.e. raise taxes and deliver public services). These processes describe the State's capabilities to manage its economy, polity, society and public administration. Generally, economic development policies attempt to solve issues in these topics. With this in mind, economic development

8858-420: The people benefiting from INGOs have no way to influence those activities and hold the organizations accountable. (for example by threatening to withhold donations). Some charitable organizations solicit the participation of local communities to avoid problems related to intercultural competence , and avoid unintended consequences due to lack of buy-in or lack of knowledge about local conditions. In March 2015,

8961-461: The people in question and their nation. The UNDP indicates four chief factors in development, especially human development, which are empowerment, equity, productivity, and sustainability. Mansell and Wehn state that economic development has been understood by non-practitioners since the World War II to involve economic growth, namely the increases in per capita income , and (if currently absent)

9064-467: The poet William Wordsworth travelled extensively in the Lake District and wrote that it is a "sort of national property in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy". Systematic efforts on behalf of the environment only began in the late 19th century; it grew out of the amenity movement in Britain in the 1870s, which was a reaction to industrialisation ,

9167-594: The quarries, which would have ruined the unspoiled valleys of Newlands and Ennerdale . This success led to the formation of the Lake District Defence Society (later to become The Friends of the Lake District). Peter Kropotkin wrote about ecology in economics , agricultural science , conservation , ethology , criminology, urban planning, geography, geology and biology. He observed in Swiss and Siberian glaciers that they had been slowly melting since

9270-453: The relative economic advancement of a given region or nation. The World Bank 's "World Development Indicators" are compiled annually from officially recognized international sources and include national, regional and global estimates. GDP per capita is gross domestic product divided by mid-year population. GDP is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product taxes and minus any subsidizes not included in

9373-459: The romantic ideal of modern environmentalism, was advocated by intellectuals such as John Ruskin , William Morris , George Bernard Shaw and Edward Carpenter , who were all against consumerism , pollution and other activities that were harmful to the natural world. The movement was a reaction to the urban conditions of the industrial towns, where sanitation was awful, pollution levels intolerable and housing terribly cramped. Idealists championed

9476-489: The rural life as a mythical utopia and advocated a return to it. John Ruskin argued that people should return to a "small piece of English ground, beautiful, peaceful, and fruitful. We will have no steam engines upon it ... we will have plenty of flowers and vegetables ... we will have some music and poetry; the children will learn to dance to it and sing it." Practical ventures in the establishment of small cooperative farms were even attempted and old rural traditions, without

9579-839: The social services that governments do not provide. International non-governmental organizations are some of the first responders to natural disasters, like hurricanes and floods, or crises that need emergency relief such as the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement . Other organizations, like the International Justice Mission , are working to make judicial systems more effective and legitimate. Other INGOs promote micro-finance and education which directly impact citizens and communities by developing skills and human capital while encouraging citizen empowerment and community involvement. NGOs, in general, account for over 15% of total international development aid, which

9682-517: The suburban middle-classes as well as support from many other influential figures, such as the ornithologist Professor Alfred Newton . By 1900, public support for the organisation had grown, and it had over 25,000 members. The garden city movement incorporated many environmental concerns into its urban planning manifesto; the Socialist League and The Clarion movement also began to advocate measures of nature conservation . The movement in

9785-483: The term "tree huggers"). Their peaceful methods of protest and slogan "ecology is permanent economy" were very influential. Another milestone in the movement was the creation of Earth Day . Earth Day was first observed in San Francisco and other cities on 21 March 1970, the first day of spring. It was created to give awareness to environmental issues. On 21 March 1971, United Nations Secretary-General U Thant spoke of

9888-415: The value of the products. It is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion and degradation of natural resources. Median income is related to real gross national income per capita and income distribution . European development economists have argued that the existence of modern transportation networks- such as high-speed rail infrastructure constitutes

9991-459: The world, throughout history. The earliest ideas of environmental protectionism can be found in Jainism , a religion from ancient India revived by Mahavira in the 6th century BC. Jainism offers a view that is in many ways compatible with core values associated with environmental activism, such as the protection of life by nonviolence , which could form a strong ecological ethos for global protection of

10094-479: The written word for conservation dated back to the creation of Yosemite National Park , when photographs persuaded Abraham Lincoln to preserve the beautiful glacier carved landscape for all time. The Sierra Club Exhibit Format Series galvanised public opposition to building dams in the Grand Canyon and protected many other national treasures. The Sierra Club often led a coalition of many environmental groups including

10197-611: Was a link discovered between air pollution and tuberculosis, the CNT shut down several metal factories. Early interest in the environment was a feature of the Romantic movement in the early 19th century. One of the earliest modern pronouncements on thinking about human industrial advancement and its influence on the environment was written by Japanese geographer, educator, philosopher and author Tsunesaburo Makiguchi in his 1903 publication Jinsei Chirigaku ( A Geography of Human Life ). In Britain

10300-565: Was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds. The resulting public concern led to the creation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 which subsequently banned the agricultural use of DDT in the US in 1972. The limited use of DDT in disease vector control continues to this day in certain parts of the world and remains controversial. The book's legacy was to produce a far greater awareness of environmental issues and interest into how people affect

10403-636: Was also tasked with promoting forestry and the production of timber for trade. During the 1920s the Commission focused on acquiring land to begin planting out new forests; much of the land was previously used for agricultural purposes. By 1939 the Forestry Commission was the largest landowner in Britain. During the 1930s the Nazis had elements that were supportive of animal rights, zoos and wildlife, and took several measures to ensure their protection. In 1933

10506-557: Was carted away on a wheelbarrow. At the advent of steam and electricity the muse of history holds her nose and shuts her eyes ( H. G. Wells 1918). The origins of the environmental movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution . The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900

10609-511: Was formed in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond , frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke. This law's provisions were extended in 1926 with

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