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82-584: This medal is awarded by the IEEE on a yearly basis to nominees in the fields of materials science and device technologies. Sponsor of this award is the Federation of Electric Power Companies, Japan. The following have won the award: This engineering-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Materials science Materials science is an interdisciplinary field of researching and discovering materials . Materials engineering

164-446: A phenolic resin . After curing at high temperature in an autoclave , the laminate is pyrolized to convert the resin to carbon, impregnated with furfuryl alcohol in a vacuum chamber, and cured-pyrolized to convert the furfuryl alcohol to carbon. To provide oxidation resistance for reusability, the outer layers of the RCC are converted to silicon carbide . Other examples can be seen in

246-420: A body of matter or radiation. It states that the behavior of those variables is subject to general constraints common to all materials. These general constraints are expressed in the four laws of thermodynamics. Thermodynamics describes the bulk behavior of the body, not the microscopic behaviors of the very large numbers of its microscopic constituents, such as molecules. The behavior of these microscopic particles

328-531: A broad range of topics; the following non-exhaustive list highlights a few important research areas. Nanomaterials describe, in principle, materials of which a single unit is sized (in at least one dimension) between 1 and 1000 nanometers (10 meter), but is usually 1 nm – 100 nm. Nanomaterials research takes a materials science based approach to nanotechnology , using advances in materials metrology and synthesis, which have been developed in support of microfabrication research. Materials with structure at

410-560: A cooperation among Bell Labs , General Electric and MIT , which DARPA supported by funding Project MAC at MIT with an initial two-million-dollar grant. DARPA supported the evolution of the ARPANET (the first wide-area packet switching network), Packet Radio Network, Packet Satellite Network and ultimately, the Internet and research in the artificial intelligence fields of speech recognition and signal processing, including parts of Shakey

492-445: A drug over an extended period of time. A biomaterial may also be an autograft , allograft or xenograft used as an organ transplant material. Semiconductors, metals, and ceramics are used today to form highly complex systems, such as integrated electronic circuits, optoelectronic devices, and magnetic and optical mass storage media. These materials form the basis of our modern computing world, and hence research into these materials

574-472: A few. The basis of materials science is studying the interplay between the structure of materials, the processing methods to make that material, and the resulting material properties. The complex combination of these produce the performance of a material in a specific application. Many features across many length scales impact material performance, from the constituent chemical elements, its microstructure , and macroscopic features from processing. Together with

656-776: A large number of identical components linked together like chains. Polymers are the raw materials (the resins) used to make what are commonly called plastics and rubber . Plastics and rubber are the final product, created after one or more polymers or additives have been added to a resin during processing, which is then shaped into a final form. Plastics in former and in current widespread use include polyethylene , polypropylene , polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene , nylons , polyesters , acrylics , polyurethanes , and polycarbonates . Rubbers include natural rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, chloroprene , and butadiene rubber . Plastics are generally classified as commodity , specialty and engineering plastics . Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

738-437: A metal oxide fused with silica. At the high temperatures used to prepare glass, the material is a viscous liquid which solidifies into a disordered state upon cooling. Windowpanes and eyeglasses are important examples. Fibers of glass are also used for long-range telecommunication and optical transmission. Scratch resistant Corning Gorilla Glass is a well-known example of the application of materials science to drastically improve

820-418: A natural function. Such functions may be benign, like being used for a heart valve , or may be bioactive with a more interactive functionality such as hydroxylapatite -coated hip implants . Biomaterials are also used every day in dental applications, surgery, and drug delivery. For example, a construct with impregnated pharmaceutical products can be placed into the body, which permits the prolonged release of

902-641: A number of new technologies that were developed within the framework of the GXV-T program. The goal of this program is to create a lightly armored combat vehicle of not very large dimensions, which, due to maneuverability and other tricks, can successfully resist modern anti-tank weapon systems. In September 2020, DARPA and the US Air Force announced that the Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC) are ready for free-flight tests within

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984-428: A range of temperatures. Cast iron is defined as an iron–carbon alloy with more than 2.00%, but less than 6.67% carbon. Stainless steel is defined as a regular steel alloy with greater than 10% by weight alloying content of chromium . Nickel and molybdenum are typically also added in stainless steels. DARPA The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ) is a research and development agency of

1066-876: A single crystal, but in polycrystalline form, as an aggregate of small crystals or grains with different orientations. Because of this, the powder diffraction method , which uses diffraction patterns of polycrystalline samples with a large number of crystals, plays an important role in structural determination. Most materials have a crystalline structure, but some important materials do not exhibit regular crystal structure. Polymers display varying degrees of crystallinity, and many are completely non-crystalline. Glass , some ceramics, and many natural materials are amorphous , not possessing any long-range order in their atomic arrangements. The study of polymers combines elements of chemical and statistical thermodynamics to give thermodynamic and mechanical descriptions of physical properties. Materials, which atoms and molecules form constituents in

1148-553: A whole series of X planes over the next 10 years. Between 2014 and 2016, DARPA shepherded the first machine-to-machine computer security competition, the Cyber Grand Challenge (CGC), bringing a group of top-notch computer security experts to search for security vulnerabilities , exploit them, and create fixes that patch those vulnerabilities in a fully automated fashion. It is one of DARPA prize competitions to spur innovations. In June 2018, DARPA leaders demonstrated

1230-464: Is Stefanie Tompkins . As of 2021 , their mission statement is "to make pivotal investments in breakthrough technologies for national security". The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was suggested by the President's Scientific Advisory Committee to President Dwight D. Eisenhower in a meeting called after the launch of Sputnik. ARPA was formally authorized by President Eisenhower in 1958 for

1312-507: Is an engineering field of finding uses for materials in other fields and industries. The intellectual origins of materials science stem from the Age of Enlightenment , when researchers began to use analytical thinking from chemistry , physics , maths and engineering to understand ancient, phenomenological observations in metallurgy and mineralogy . Materials science still incorporates elements of physics, chemistry, and engineering. As such,

1394-443: Is an engineering plastic which is used extensively as the glide rails for industrial equipment and the low-friction socket in implanted hip joints . The alloys of iron ( steel , stainless steel , cast iron , tool steel , alloy steels ) make up the largest proportion of metals today both by quantity and commercial value. Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low , mid and high carbon steels . An iron-carbon alloy

1476-519: Is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with biological systems . Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering, and materials science. Biomaterials can be derived either from nature or synthesized in a laboratory using a variety of chemical approaches using metallic components, polymers , bioceramics , or composite materials . They are often intended or adapted for medical applications, such as biomedical devices which perform, augment, or replace

1558-432: Is based on the empirical makeup and atomic structure of the solid materials, and most solids fall into one of these broad categories. An item that is often made from each of these materials types is the beverage container. The material types used for beverage containers accordingly provide different advantages and disadvantages, depending on the material used. Ceramic (glass) containers are optically transparent, impervious to

1640-586: Is credited with boosting the development of the fledgling personal computer industry. Some young computer scientists left the universities to startups and private research laboratories such as Xerox PARC . Between 1976 and 1981, DARPA's major projects were dominated by air, land, sea, and space technology, tactical armor and anti-armor programs, infrared sensing for space-based surveillance, high-energy laser technology for space-based missile defense, antisubmarine warfare, advanced cruise missiles, advanced aircraft, and defense applications of advanced computing. Many of

1722-465: Is derived from cemented carbides with the metal phase of cobalt and nickel typically added to modify properties. Ceramics can be significantly strengthened for engineering applications using the principle of crack deflection . This process involves the strategic addition of second-phase particles within a ceramic matrix, optimizing their shape, size, and distribution to direct and control crack propagation. This approach enhances fracture toughness, paving

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1804-438: Is described by, and the laws of thermodynamics are derived from, statistical mechanics . The study of thermodynamics is fundamental to materials science. It forms the foundation to treat general phenomena in materials science and engineering, including chemical reactions, magnetism, polarizability, and elasticity. It explains fundamental tools such as phase diagrams and concepts such as phase equilibrium . Chemical kinetics

1886-479: Is important in the study of kinetics as this is the most common mechanism by which materials undergo change. Kinetics is essential in processing of materials because, among other things, it details how the microstructure changes with application of heat. Materials science is a highly active area of research. Together with materials science departments, physics , chemistry , and many engineering departments are involved in materials research. Materials research covers

1968-441: Is necessary to differentiate between the number of dimensions on the nanoscale . Nanotextured surfaces have one dimension on the nanoscale, i.e., only the thickness of the surface of an object is between 0.1 and 100 nm. Nanotubes have two dimensions on the nanoscale, i.e., the diameter of the tube is between 0.1 and 100 nm; its length could be much greater. Finally, spherical nanoparticles have three dimensions on

2050-402: Is of vital importance. Semiconductors are a traditional example of these types of materials. They are materials that have properties that are intermediate between conductors and insulators . Their electrical conductivities are very sensitive to the concentration of impurities, which allows the use of doping to achieve desirable electronic properties. Hence, semiconductors form the basis of

2132-494: Is only considered steel if the carbon level is between 0.01% and 2.00% by weight. For steels, the hardness and tensile strength of the steel is related to the amount of carbon present, with increasing carbon levels also leading to lower ductility and toughness. Heat treatment processes such as quenching and tempering can significantly change these properties, however. In contrast, certain metal alloys exhibit unique properties where their size and density remain unchanged across

2214-407: Is studied in the following levels. Atomic structure deals with the atoms of the material, and how they are arranged to give rise to molecules, crystals, etc. Much of the electrical, magnetic and chemical properties of materials arise from this level of structure. The length scales involved are in angstroms ( Å ). The chemical bonding and atomic arrangement (crystallography) are fundamental to studying

2296-417: Is the study of the rates at which systems that are out of equilibrium change under the influence of various forces. When applied to materials science, it deals with how a material changes with time (moves from non-equilibrium state to equilibrium state) due to application of a certain field. It details the rate of various processes evolving in materials including shape, size, composition and structure. Diffusion

2378-514: Is used to protect the surface of the shuttle from the heat of re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. One example is reinforced Carbon-Carbon (RCC), the light gray material, which withstands re-entry temperatures up to 1,510 °C (2,750 °F) and protects the Space Shuttle's wing leading edges and nose cap. RCC is a laminated composite material made from graphite rayon cloth and impregnated with

2460-436: Is widely used, inexpensive, and annual production quantities are large. It lends itself to a vast array of applications, from artificial leather to electrical insulation and cabling, packaging , and containers . Its fabrication and processing are simple and well-established. The versatility of PVC is due to the wide range of plasticisers and other additives that it accepts. The term "additives" in polymer science refers to

2542-634: The Bronze Age and Iron Age and is studied under the branch of materials science named physical metallurgy . Chemical and physical methods are also used to synthesize other materials such as polymers , ceramics , semiconductors , and thin films . As of the early 21st century, new methods are being developed to synthesize nanomaterials such as graphene . Thermodynamics is concerned with heat and temperature , and their relation to energy and work . It defines macroscopic variables, such as internal energy , entropy , and pressure , that partly describe

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2624-580: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) and the military space programs to the individual services. This allowed ARPA to concentrate its efforts on the Project Defender (defense against ballistic missiles), Project Vela (nuclear test detection), and Project AGILE ( counterinsurgency R&D) programs, and to begin work on computer processing, behavioral sciences , and materials sciences. The DEFENDER and AGILE programs formed

2706-667: The United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the military. Originally known as the Advanced Research Projects Agency ( ARPA ), the agency was created on February 7, 1958, by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik 1 in 1957. By collaborating with academia, industry, and government partners, DARPA formulates and executes research and development projects to expand

2788-621: The material's properties and performance. The understanding of processing structure properties relationships is called the materials paradigm. This paradigm is used for advanced understanding in a variety of research areas, including nanotechnology , biomaterials , and metallurgy . Materials science is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis  – investigating materials, products, structures or their components, which fail or do not function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. Such investigations are key to understanding. For example,

2870-668: The personal computer and the internet on the list of innovations for which DARPA can claim at least partial credit." Its track record of success has inspired governments around the world to launch similar research and development agencies. DARPA is independent of other military research and development and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management. DARPA comprises approximately 220 government employees in six technical offices, including nearly 100 program managers, who together oversee about 250 research and development programs. The agency's current director, appointed in March 2021,

2952-495: The "plastic" casings of television sets, cell-phones and so on. These plastic casings are usually a composite material made up of a thermoplastic matrix such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) in which calcium carbonate chalk, talc , glass fibers or carbon fibers have been added for added strength, bulk, or electrostatic dispersion . These additions may be termed reinforcing fibers, or dispersants, depending on their purpose. Polymers are chemical compounds made up of

3034-600: The Adaptive Suspension Vehicle (ASV) nicknamed the "Walker" at the Ohio State University , under a research contract from DARPA. The vehicle was 17 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 10.5 feet high, and had six legs to support its three-ton aluminum body, in which it was designed to carry cargo over difficult terrains. However, DARPA lost interest in the ASV, after problems with cold-weather tests. On February 4, 2004,

3116-798: The Agency was centered on information processing and aircraft-related programs, including the National Aerospace Plane (NASP) or Hypersonic Research Program. The Strategic Computing Program enabled DARPA to exploit advanced processing and networking technologies and to rebuild and strengthen relationships with universities after the Vietnam War . In addition, DARPA began to pursue new concepts for small, lightweight satellites ( LIGHTSAT ) and directed new programs regarding defense manufacturing, submarine technology, and armor/anti-armor. In 1981, two engineers, Robert McGhee and Kenneth Waldron, started to develop

3198-494: The United States was catalyzed in part by the Advanced Research Projects Agency , which funded a series of university-hosted laboratories in the early 1960s, " to expand the national program of basic research and training in the materials sciences ." In comparison with mechanical engineering, the nascent materials science field focused on addressing materials from the macro-level and on the approach that materials are designed on

3280-641: The agency shut down its so called "LifeLog Project". The project's aim would have been, "to gather in a single place just about everything an individual says, sees or does". On October 28, 2009, the agency broke ground on a new facility in Arlington County, Virginia a few miles from The Pentagon . In fall 2011, DARPA hosted the 100-Year Starship Symposium with the aim of getting the public to start thinking seriously about interstellar travel. On June 5, 2016, NASA and DARPA announced that it planned to build new X-planes with NASA 's plan setting to create

3362-494: The agency's research portfolio, and two additional offices that manage special projects. All offices report to the DARPA director, including: A 1991 reorganization created several offices which existed throughout the early 1990s: A 2010 reorganization merged two offices: A list of DARPA's active and archived projects is available on the agency's website. Because of the agency's fast pace, programs constantly start and stop based on

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3444-436: The atomic scale, all the way up to the macro scale. Characterization is the way materials scientists examine the structure of a material. This involves methods such as diffraction with X-rays , electrons or neutrons , and various forms of spectroscopy and chemical analysis such as Raman spectroscopy , energy-dispersive spectroscopy , chromatography , thermal analysis , electron microscope analysis, etc. Structure

3526-584: The basis of knowledge of behavior at the microscopic level. Due to the expanded knowledge of the link between atomic and molecular processes as well as the overall properties of materials, the design of materials came to be based on specific desired properties. The materials science field has since broadened to include every class of materials, including ceramics, polymers , semiconductors, magnetic materials, biomaterials, and nanomaterials , generally classified into three distinct groups- ceramics, metals, and polymers. The prominent change in materials science during

3608-496: The causes of various aviation accidents and incidents . The material of choice of a given era is often a defining point. Phases such as Stone Age , Bronze Age , Iron Age , and Steel Age are historic, if arbitrary examples. Originally deriving from the manufacture of ceramics and its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering and applied sciences. Modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy , which itself evolved from

3690-569: The chemicals and compounds added to the polymer base to modify its material properties. Polycarbonate would be normally considered an engineering plastic (other examples include PEEK , ABS). Such plastics are valued for their superior strengths and other special material properties. They are usually not used for disposable applications, unlike commodity plastics. Specialty plastics are materials with unique characteristics, such as ultra-high strength, electrical conductivity, electro-fluorescence, high thermal stability, etc. The dividing lines between

3772-436: The desired micro-nanostructure. A material cannot be used in industry if no economically viable production method for it has been developed. Therefore, developing processing methods for materials that are reasonably effective and cost-efficient is vital to the field of materials science. Different materials require different processing or synthesis methods. For example, the processing of metals has historically defined eras such as

3854-501: The early explorers' discoveries. TRANSIT, sponsored by the Navy and developed under the leadership of Richard Kirschner at Johns Hopkins, was the first satellite positioning system." During the late 1960s, with the transfer of these mature programs to the Services, ARPA redefined its role and concentrated on a diverse set of relatively small, essentially exploratory research programs. The agency

3936-658: The effects of the crystalline arrangement of atoms is often easy to see macroscopically, because the natural shapes of crystals reflect the atomic structure. Further, physical properties are often controlled by crystalline defects. The understanding of crystal structures is an important prerequisite for understanding crystallographic defects . Examples of crystal defects consist of dislocations including edges, screws, vacancies, self interstitials, and more that are linear, planar, and three dimensional types of defects. New and advanced materials that are being developed include nanomaterials , biomaterials . Mostly, materials do not occur as

4018-456: The exploration of space. Materials science has driven, and been driven by the development of revolutionary technologies such as rubbers , plastics , semiconductors , and biomaterials . Before the 1960s (and in some cases decades after), many eventual materials science departments were metallurgy or ceramics engineering departments, reflecting the 19th and early 20th-century emphasis on metals and ceramics. The growth of material science in

4100-443: The field was long considered by academic institutions as a sub-field of these related fields. Beginning in the 1940s, materials science began to be more widely recognized as a specific and distinct field of science and engineering, and major technical universities around the world dedicated schools for its study. Materials scientists emphasize understanding how the history of a material ( processing ) influences its structure, and also

4182-446: The final properties of the materials produced. For example, steels are classified based on 1/10 and 1/100 weight percentages of the carbon and other alloying elements they contain. Thus, the extracting and purifying methods used to extract iron in a blast furnace can affect the quality of steel that is produced. Solid materials are generally grouped into three basic classifications: ceramics, metals, and polymers. This broad classification

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4264-563: The first scientist to administer ARPA, managed to raise its budget to $ 250 million. It was Ruina who hired J. C. R. Licklider as the first administrator of the Information Processing Techniques Office , which played a vital role in creation of ARPANET , the basis for the future Internet. Additionally, the political and defense communities recognized the need for a high-level Department of Defense organization to formulate and execute R&D projects that would expand

4346-633: The foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance , and directed energy R&D, particularly in the study of radar , infrared sensing, and x-ray / gamma ray detection. ARPA at this point (1959) played an early role in Transit (also called NavSat) a predecessor to the Global Positioning System (GPS). "Fast-forward to 1959 when a joint effort between DARPA and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory began to fine-tune

4428-540: The frontiers of technology and science, often beyond immediate U.S. military requirements. The name of the organization first changed from its founding name, ARPA, to DARPA, in March 1972, changing back to ARPA in February 1993, then reverted to DARPA in March 1996. The Economist has called DARPA "the agency that shaped the modern world," with technologies like " Moderna's COVID-19 vaccine ... weather satellites , GPS , drones , stealth technology , voice interfaces ,

4510-596: The frontiers of technology beyond the immediate and specific requirements of the Military Services and their laboratories. In pursuit of this mission, DARPA has developed and transferred technology programs encompassing a wide range of scientific disciplines that address the full spectrum of national security needs. From 1958 to 1965, ARPA's emphasis centered on major national issues, including space, ballistic missile defense , and nuclear test detection. During 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to

4592-421: The laws of thermodynamics and kinetics materials scientists aim to understand and improve materials. Structure is one of the most important components of the field of materials science. The very definition of the field holds that it is concerned with the investigation of "the relationships that exist between the structures and properties of materials". Materials science examines the structure of materials from

4674-399: The material properties. Macrostructure is the appearance of a material in the scale millimeters to meters, it is the structure of the material as seen with the naked eye. Materials exhibit myriad properties, including the following. The properties of a material determine its usability and hence its engineering application. Synthesis and processing involves the creation of a material with

4756-411: The material scientist or engineer also deals with extracting materials and converting them into useful forms. Thus ingot casting, foundry methods, blast furnace extraction, and electrolytic extraction are all part of the required knowledge of a materials engineer. Often the presence, absence, or variation of minute quantities of secondary elements and compounds in a bulk material will greatly affect

4838-500: The nanoscale (i.e., they form nanostructures) are called nanomaterials. Nanomaterials are the subject of intense research in the materials science community due to the unique properties that they exhibit. Nanostructure deals with objects and structures that are in the 1 – 100 nm range. In many materials, atoms or molecules agglomerate to form objects at the nanoscale. This causes many interesting electrical, magnetic, optical, and mechanical properties. In describing nanostructures, it

4920-404: The nanoscale often have unique optical, electronic, or mechanical properties. The field of nanomaterials is loosely organized, like the traditional field of chemistry, into organic (carbon-based) nanomaterials, such as fullerenes, and inorganic nanomaterials based on other elements, such as silicon. Examples of nanomaterials include fullerenes , carbon nanotubes , nanocrystals, etc. A biomaterial

5002-400: The nanoscale, i.e., the particle is between 0.1 and 100 nm in each spatial dimension. The terms nanoparticles and ultrafine particles (UFP) often are used synonymously although UFP can reach into the micrometre range. The term 'nanostructure' is often used, when referring to magnetic technology. Nanoscale structure in biology is often called ultrastructure . Microstructure is defined as

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5084-622: The needs of the U.S. government. Structured information about some of the DARPA's contracts and projects is publicly available. DARPA is well known as a high-tech government agency, and as such has many appearances in popular fiction. Some realistic references to DARPA in fiction are as "ARPA" in Tom Swift and the Visitor from Planet X (DARPA consults on a technical threat), in episodes of television program The West Wing (the ARPA-DARPA distinction),

5166-641: The next year. Victoria Coleman became the director of DARPA in November 2020. In recent years, DARPA officials have contracted out core functions to corporations. For example, during fiscal year 2020, Chenega ran physical security on DARPA's premises, System High Corp. carried out program security, and Agile Defense ran unclassified IT services. General Dynamics runs classified IT services. Strategic Analysis Inc. provided support services regarding engineering, science, mathematics, and front office and administrative work. DARPA has six technical offices that manage

5248-471: The passage of carbon dioxide as aluminum and glass. Another application of materials science is the study of ceramics and glasses , typically the most brittle materials with industrial relevance. Many ceramics and glasses exhibit covalent or ionic-covalent bonding with SiO 2 ( silica ) as a fundamental building block. Ceramics – not to be confused with raw, unfired clay – are usually seen in crystalline form. The vast majority of commercial glasses contain

5330-501: The passage of carbon dioxide, relatively inexpensive, and are easily recycled, but are also heavy and fracture easily. Metal (aluminum alloy) is relatively strong, is a good barrier to the diffusion of carbon dioxide, and is easily recycled. However, the cans are opaque, expensive to produce, and are easily dented and punctured. Polymers (polyethylene plastic) are relatively strong, can be optically transparent, are inexpensive and lightweight, and can be recyclable, but are not as impervious to

5412-429: The properties and behavior of any material. To obtain a full understanding of the material structure and how it relates to its properties, the materials scientist must study how the different atoms, ions and molecules are arranged and bonded to each other. This involves the study and use of quantum chemistry or quantum physics . Solid-state physics , solid-state chemistry and physical chemistry are also involved in

5494-512: The properties of common components. Engineering ceramics are known for their stiffness and stability under high temperatures, compression and electrical stress. Alumina, silicon carbide , and tungsten carbide are made from a fine powder of their constituents in a process of sintering with a binder. Hot pressing provides higher density material. Chemical vapor deposition can place a film of a ceramic on another material. Cermets are ceramic particles containing some metals. The wear resistance of tools

5576-672: The purpose of forming and executing research and development projects to expand the frontiers of technology and science, and able to reach far beyond immediate military requirements. The two relevant acts are the Supplemental Military Construction Authorization ( Air Force ) (Public Law 85-325) and Department of Defense Directive 5105.15, in February 1958. It was placed within the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) and counted approximately 150 people. Its creation

5658-498: The recent decades is active usage of computer simulations to find new materials, predict properties and understand phenomena. A material is defined as a substance (most often a solid, but other condensed phases can also be included) that is intended to be used for certain applications. There are a myriad of materials around us; they can be found in anything from new and advanced materials that are being developed include nanomaterials , biomaterials , and energy materials to name

5740-646: The robot . DARPA also supported the early development of both hypertext and hypermedia . DARPA funded one of the first two hypertext systems, Douglas Engelbart 's NLS computer system, as well as The Mother of All Demos . DARPA later funded the development of the Aspen Movie Map , which is generally seen as the first hypermedia system and an important precursor of virtual reality . The Mansfield Amendment of 1973 expressly limited appropriations for defense research (through ARPA/DARPA) only to projects with direct military application. The resulting " brain drain "

5822-463: The structure of a prepared surface or thin foil of material as revealed by a microscope above 25× magnification. It deals with objects from 100 nm to a few cm. The microstructure of a material (which can be broadly classified into metallic, polymeric, ceramic and composite) can strongly influence physical properties such as strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, corrosion resistance, high/low temperature behavior, wear resistance, and so on. Most of

5904-526: The study of bonding and structures. Crystallography is the science that examines the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids. Crystallography is a useful tool for materials scientists. One of the fundamental concepts regarding the crystal structure of a material includes the unit cell , which is the smallest unit of a crystal lattice (space lattice) that repeats to make up the macroscopic crystal structure. Most common structural materials include parallelpiped and hexagonal lattice types. In single crystals ,

5986-636: The successful programs were transitioned to the Services, such as the foundation technologies in automatic target recognition , space-based sensing, propulsion, and materials that were transferred to the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO), later known as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO), now titled the Missile Defense Agency (MDA). During the 1980s, the attention of

6068-1091: The time and effort to optimize materials properties for a given application. This involves simulating materials at all length scales, using methods such as density functional theory , molecular dynamics , Monte Carlo , dislocation dynamics, phase field , finite element , and many more. Radical materials advances can drive the creation of new products or even new industries, but stable industries also employ materials scientists to make incremental improvements and troubleshoot issues with currently used materials. Industrial applications of materials science include materials design, cost-benefit tradeoffs in industrial production of materials, processing methods ( casting , rolling , welding , ion implantation , crystal growth , thin-film deposition , sintering , glassblowing , etc.), and analytic methods (characterization methods such as electron microscopy , X-ray diffraction , calorimetry , nuclear microscopy (HEFIB) , Rutherford backscattering , neutron diffraction , small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), etc.). Besides material characterization,

6150-686: The traditional computer. This field also includes new areas of research such as superconducting materials, spintronics , metamaterials , etc. The study of these materials involves knowledge of materials science and solid-state physics or condensed matter physics . With continuing increases in computing power, simulating the behavior of materials has become possible. This enables materials scientists to understand behavior and mechanisms, design new materials, and explain properties formerly poorly understood. Efforts surrounding integrated computational materials engineering are now focusing on combining computational methods with experiments to drastically reduce

6232-510: The traditional materials (such as metals and ceramics) are microstructured. The manufacture of a perfect crystal of a material is physically impossible. For example, any crystalline material will contain defects such as precipitates , grain boundaries ( Hall–Petch relationship ), vacancies, interstitial atoms or substitutional atoms. The microstructure of materials reveals these larger defects and advances in simulation have allowed an increased understanding of how defects can be used to enhance

6314-632: The use of fire. A major breakthrough in the understanding of materials occurred in the late 19th century, when the American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs demonstrated that the thermodynamic properties related to atomic structure in various phases are related to the physical properties of a material. Important elements of modern materials science were products of the Space Race ; the understanding and engineering of metallic alloys , and silica and carbon materials, used in building space vehicles enabling

6396-439: The various types of plastics is not based on material but rather on their properties and applications. For example, polyethylene (PE) is a cheap, low friction polymer commonly used to make disposable bags for shopping and trash, and is considered a commodity plastic, whereas medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) is used for underground gas and water pipes, and another variety called ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE)

6478-505: The way for the creation of advanced, high-performance ceramics in various industries. Another application of materials science in industry is making composite materials . These are structured materials composed of two or more macroscopic phases. Applications range from structural elements such as steel-reinforced concrete, to the thermal insulating tiles, which play a key and integral role in NASA's Space Shuttle thermal protection system , which

6560-550: Was directly attributed to the launching of Sputnik and to U.S. realization that the Soviet Union had developed the capacity to rapidly exploit military technology. Initial funding of ARPA was $ 520 million. ARPA's first director, Roy Johnson, left a $ 160,000 management job at General Electric for an $ 18,000 job at ARPA. Herbert York from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was hired as his scientific assistant. Johnson and York were both keen on space projects, but when NASA

6642-452: Was established later in 1958 all space projects and most of ARPA's funding were transferred to it. Johnson resigned and ARPA was repurposed to do "high-risk", "high-gain", "far out" basic research, a posture that was enthusiastically embraced by the nation's scientists and research universities. ARPA's second director was Brigadier General Austin W. Betts, who resigned in early 1961 and was succeeded by Jack Ruina who served until 1963. Ruina,

6724-552: Was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1972, and during the early 1970s, it emphasized direct energy programs, information processing, and tactical technologies. Concerning information processing, DARPA made great progress, initially through its support of the development of time-sharing . All modern operating systems rely on concepts invented for the Multics system, developed by

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