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98-567: The school traces its origin to 1056, when a school was established in Skálholt , and it remains one of the oldest institutions in Iceland. The school was moved to Reykjavík in 1786, but poor housing conditions forced it to move again in 1805 to Bessastaðir near Reykjavík. In 1846 the school was moved to its current location, and a new building was erected for it in Reykjavík. This was the largest building in

196-503: A monastery . Along with dormitories and quarters for teachers and servants, the town made up a sizable gathering of structures. Adam of Bremen , writing circa 1075, described Skálholt ( Scaldholz ) as the "largest city" in Iceland. First the diocese of Skálholt was a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen . When in 1104 the Diocese of Lund was elevated to an archdiocese, Lund became

294-455: A Nerd club (which merged and became known as The Academy), Traveller's club, Sport's club, Riding club, Science club, Novelist club, Chess club and the Rowing club (which was historically a club for rowing, but is now a male/female-cheerleading team). Every year at the end of spring semester the students of MR organize a fight in the halls of the main building. A bell is placed on the ground floor of

392-488: A bay or inlet) appears in the Imperial era as a loose over-fold, slung from beneath the left arm, downwards across the chest, then upwards to the right shoulder. Early examples were slender, but later forms were much fuller; the loop hangs at knee-length, suspended there by draping over the crook of the right arm. The umbo (literally "knob") was a pouch of the toga's fabric pulled out over the balteus (the diagonal section of

490-473: A boy came of age (usually at puberty) he adopted the plain white toga virilis ; this meant that he was free to set up his own household, marry, and vote. Young girls who wore the praetexta on formal occasions put it aside at menarche or marriage, and adopted the stola . Even the whiteness of the toga virilis was subject to class distinction. Senatorial versions were expensively laundered to an exceptional, snowy white; those of lower ranking citizens were

588-454: A client whose patron was another's client, the potential for shame was still worse. Even as a satirical analogy, the equation of togate client and slave would have shocked those who cherished the toga as a symbol of personal dignity and auctoritas – a meaning underlined during the Saturnalia festival, when the toga was "very consciously put aside", in a ritualised, strictly limited inversion of

686-630: A copy was made in 1690 by Þórður Þorláksson (also known by his Latinized name, Thorlacius), the Bishop of Skálholt , and is now in the collection of the Danish Royal Library . Numerous other copies were made by Scandinavian scholars. By matching latitudes with the British Isles , the map shows the northern tip of "Vinland" as being at about 51 degrees north, the same latitude as the southern tip of Ireland and Bristol, England . When this information

784-442: A dinner. When the patron left his house to conduct his business of the day at the law courts, forum or wherever else, escorted (if a magistrate) by his togate lictors , his clients must form his retinue. Each togate client represented a potential vote: to impress his peers and inferiors, and stay ahead in the game, a patron should have as many high-quality clients as possible; or at least, he should seem to. Martial has one patron hire

882-421: A distinctive garment of Ancient Rome , was a roughly semicircular cloth, between 12 and 20 feet (3.7 and 6.1 m) in length, draped over the shoulders and around the body. It was usually woven from white wool , and was worn over a tunic . In Roman historical tradition , it is said to have been the favored dress of Romulus , Rome's founder; it was also thought to have originally been worn by both sexes, and by

980-432: A duller shade, more cheaply laundered. Citizenship carried specific privileges, rights and responsibilities. The formula togatorum ("list of toga-wearers") listed the various military obligations that Rome's Italian allies were required to supply to Rome in times of war. Togati , "those who wear the toga", is not precisely equivalent to "Roman citizens", and may mean more broadly " Romanized ". In Roman territories,

1078-598: A foundation for their progress to high civil office (see cursus honorum ). The Romans believed that in Rome's earliest days, its military had gone to war in togas, hitching them up and back for action by using what became known as the " Gabine cinch ". In 206 BC, Scipio Africanus was sent 1,200 togas and 12,000 tunics for his operations in North Africa. As part of a peace settlement of 205 BC, two formerly rebellious Spanish tribes provided Roman troops with togas and heavy cloaks. In

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1176-495: A herd ( grex ) of fake clients in togas, then pawn his ring to pay for his evening meal. The emperor Marcus Aurelius , rather than wear the "dress to which his rank entitled him" at his own salutationes , chose to wear a plain white citizen's toga instead; an act of modesty for any patron, unlike Caligula , who wore a triumphal toga picta or any other garment he chose, according to whim; or Nero , who caused considerable offence when he received visiting senators while dressed in

1274-487: A little way, the failure to replace it is a sign of indifference, or sloth, or sheer ignorance of the way in which clothes should be worn". By the time he had presented his case, the orator was likely to be hot and sweaty; but even this could be employed to good effect. Roman moralists "placed an ideological premium on the simple and the frugal". Aulus Gellius claimed that the earliest Romans, famously tough, virile and dignified, had worn togas with no undergarment; not even

1372-530: A long-sleeved, "effeminate" tunic, or woven too fine and thin, near transparent. Appian 's history of Rome finds its strife-torn Late Republic tottering at the edge of chaos; most seem to dress as they like, not as they ought: "For now the Roman people are much mixed with foreigners, there is equal citizenship for freedmen, and slaves dress like their masters. With the exception of the Senators, free citizens and slaves wear

1470-412: A military career to any Roman citizen or freedman of good reputation. A soldier who showed the requisite "disciplined ferocity" in battle and was held in esteem by his peers and superiors could be promoted to higher rank: a plebeian could achieve equestrian status. Non-citizens and foreign-born auxiliaries given honourable discharge were usually granted citizenship, land or stipend, the right to wear

1568-471: A more-or-less vestigial balteus then descends to the upper shin. As in other forms, the sinus itself is hung over the crook of the right arm. If its full-length representations are accurate, it would have severely constrained its wearer's movements. Dressing in a toga contabulata would have taken some time, and specialist assistance. When not in use, it required careful storage in some form of press or hanger to keep it in shape. Such inconvenient features of

1666-506: A mutually competitive oligarchy, reserving the greatest power, wealth and prestige for their class. The commoners who made up the vast majority of the Roman electorate had limited influence on politics, unless barracking or voting en masse , or through representation by their tribunes . The Equites (sometimes loosely translated as "knights") occupied a broadly mobile, mid-position between the lower senatorial and upper commoner class. Despite often extreme disparities of wealth and rank between

1764-514: A part of the millennial celebrations of the episcopal see. The other Scandinavian churches celebrated this along with the Icelandic church and many of the new cathedral's items are gifts of theirs; for example, Gerður Helgadóttir 's extensive stained glass windows are a gift from the Danes . In the late 16th century Sigurd Stefánsson, a young teacher from Skálholt and grandson of a Skálholt bishop, used

1862-426: A patron prepared to commend them. Clients seeking patronage had to attend the patron's early-morning formal salutatio ("greeting session"), held in the semi-public, grand reception room ( atrium ) of his family house ( domus ). Citizen-clients were expected to wear the toga appropriate to their status, and to wear it correctly and smartly or risk affront to their host. Martial and his friend Juvenal suffered

1960-483: A poor man's "little toga" (both togula ), but the poorest probably had to make do with a shabby, patched-up toga, if he bothered at all. Conversely, the costly, full-length toga seems to have been a rather awkward mark of distinction when worn by "the wrong sort". The poet Horace writes "of a rich ex-slave 'parading from end to end of the Sacred Way in a toga three yards long' to show off his new status and wealth." In

2058-470: A request to step down. Cicero, having lost Pompey's ever-wavering support, was driven to exile. In reality, arms rarely yielded to civilian power. During the early Roman Imperial era, members of the Praetorian Guard (the emperor's personal guard as "First Citizen", and a military force under his personal command), concealed their weapons under white, civilian-style togas when on duty in the city, offering

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2156-550: A simple, practical work-garment, the toga became more voluminous, complex, and costly, increasingly unsuited to anything but formal and ceremonial use. It was and is considered ancient Rome's "national costume"; as such, it had great symbolic value; however even among Romans, it was hard to put on, uncomfortable and challenging to wear correctly, and never truly popular. When circumstances allowed, those otherwise entitled or obliged to wear it opted for more comfortable, casual garments. It gradually fell out of use, firstly among citizens of

2254-407: A single piece of fabric, the toga of a high status Roman in the late Republic would have required a piece approximately 12 ft (3.7 m) in length; in the Imperial era, around 18 ft (5.5 m), a third more than its predecessor, and in the late Imperial era around 8 ft (2.4 m) wide and up to 18–20 ft (5.5–6.1 m) in length for the most complex, pleated forms. The toga

2352-697: A skimpy tunic. Towards the end of the Republic, the arch-conservative Cato the Younger favoured the shorter, ancient Republican type of toga; it was dark and "scanty" ( exigua ), and Cato wore it without tunic or shoes; all this would have been recognised as an expression of his moral probity. Die-hard Roman traditionalists deplored an ever-increasing Roman appetite for ostentation, "un-Roman" comfort and luxuries, and sartorial offences such as Celtic trousers, brightly coloured Syrian robes and cloaks. The manly toga itself could signify corruption, if worn too loosely, or worn over

2450-401: A top-quality Roman. Rome's abundant public and private statuary reinforced the notion that all Rome's great men wore togas, and must always have done so. Traditionalists idealised Rome's urban and rustic citizenry as descendants of a hardy, virtuous, toga-clad peasantry, but the toga's bulk and complex drapery made it entirely impractical for manual work or physically active leisure. The toga

2548-405: A tunic embroidered with flowers, topped off with a muslin neckerchief. In oratory, the toga came into its own. Quintilian 's Institutio Oratoria (circa 95 AD) offers advice on how best to plead cases at Rome's law-courts, before the watching multitude's informed and critical eye. Effective pleading was a calculated artistic performance, but must seem utterly natural. First impressions counted;

2646-578: A variety of colourful garments, with few togas in evidence. Only a higher-class Roman, a magistrate, would have had lictors to clear his way, and even then, wearing a toga was a challenge. The toga's apparent natural simplicity and "elegant, flowing lines" were the result of diligent practice and cultivation; to avoid an embarrassing disarrangement of its folds, its wearer had to walk with measured, stately gait, yet with virile purpose and energy. If he moved too slowly, he might seem aimless, "sluggish of mind" - or, worst of all, "womanly". Vout (1996) suggests that

2744-496: Is a historical site in the south of Iceland , at the river Hvítá . Skálholt was, through eight centuries, one of the most important places in Iceland. A bishopric was established in Skálholt in 1056. Until 1785, it was one of Iceland's two episcopal sees , along with Hólar , making it a cultural and political center. Iceland's first official school, Skálholtsskóli [ˈskaulˌhɔl̥(t)sˌskouːlɪ] (now Reykjavík Gymnasium, MR ),

2842-587: Is called " Ratatoskur ", named after the famous squirrel from Nordic mythology. One day in October each year, the students of MR and its rival school, Verzlunarskóli Íslands ( Commercial College of Iceland ) or "Verzlo" as it is often referred to as, meet in the "Hljómskálagarður" park, located in downtown Reykjavík, where various games and competitions are held. These include: sprinting, soccer, rowing, giant-chess (later replaced with ordinary chess), screaming, tug-o-war, competitive eating, arm wrestling, car stuffing and

2940-406: Is called "fourth form" and so on. However, in 2016 the school was shortened even more to only three years, with the first three-years graduates graduating May 2019 along with the last round of graduates in the four years system. The number of students has grown rapidly since the founding of the school. This has led to the expanding of the school's housing. The flagship and main building of the school

3038-467: Is ploughing his field when emissaries of the Senate arrive, and ask him to put on his toga. His wife fetches it and he puts it on. Then he is told that he has been appointed dictator . He promptly heads for Rome. Donning the toga transforms Cincinnatus from rustic, sweaty ploughman – though a gentleman nevertheless, of impeccable stock and reputation – into Rome's leading politician, eager to serve his country;

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3136-920: Is still the front house, Gamli Skóli (literally: The Old School), which was built in 1846. Several houses and additions have been built since. These buildings include: 1846-1851: Sveinbjörn Egilsson 1851-1867: Bjarni Jónsson 1867-1872: Jens Sigurðsson 1872-1895: Jón Þorkelsson 1895-1904: Björn M. Ólsen 1904-1913: Steingrímur Thorsteinsson 1913-1928: Geir Zoëga 1928-1929: Þorleifur H. Bjarnason 1929-1956: Pálmi Hannesson 1956-1965: Kristinn Ármannsson 1965-1970: Einar Magnússon 1970-1996: Guðni Guðmundsson 1996-2001: Ragnheiður Torfadóttir 2001-2012: Yngvi Pétursson 2012-2013: Linda Rós Michaelsdóttir 2013-2017: Yngvi Pétursson 2017-2022: Elísabet Siemsen 2022-present: Sólveig Guðrún Hannesdóttir Sk%C3%A1lholt Skálholt ( Modern Icelandic : [ˈskaulˌhɔl̥t] ; Old Norse : Skálaholt [ˈskɑːlɑˌholt] )

3234-515: Is the Summer Concerts program in July, in which prominent classical musicians , choirs and other musicians are invited to perform. The current cathedral at Skálholt is relatively large in comparison to most Icelandic churches; its span from door to apse is approximately 30 meters. Some of its predecessors were even longer, reaching up to 50 m in length. The new cathedral was built from 1956 to 1963 as

3332-434: The atrium . Augustus was particularly proud that his wife and daughter had set the best possible example to other Roman women by, allegedly, spinning and weaving his clothing. Hand-woven cloth was slow and costly to produce, and compared to simpler forms of clothing, the toga used an extravagant amount of it. To minimise waste, the smaller, old-style forms of toga may have been woven as a single, seamless, selvedged piece;

3430-488: The stola , which they wore over a full-length, usually long-sleeved tunic. Higher-class female prostitutes ( meretrices ) and women divorced for adultery were denied the stola . Meretrices might have been expected or perhaps compelled, at least in public, to wear the "female toga" ( toga muliebris ). This use of the toga appears unique; all others categorised as "infamous and disreputable" were explicitly forbidden to wear it. In this context, modern sources understand

3528-632: The Latin title Schola Reykjavicensis ; it received its present name in 1937. Menntaskólinn í Reykjavík offers a three-year course of study. It usually ends with a degree ( stúdentspróf ) which gives the graduating student the right to advance to an Icelandic university . Many Icelandic politicians, including the first prime minister Hannes Hafstein , former Prime Minister Davíð Oddsson , former President of Iceland , Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson and current president, Guðni Th. Jóhannesson all attended MR. Almost every Prime Minister of Iceland has been educated at

3626-538: The aediles ban anyone not wearing the toga from the Forum and its environs – Rome's "civic heart". Augustus's reign saw the introduction of the toga rasa , an ordinary toga whose rough fibres were teased from the woven nap, then shaved back to a smoother, more comfortable finish. By Pliny 's day (circa 70 AD) this was probably standard among the elite. Pliny also describes a glossy, smooth, lightweight but dense fabric woven from poppy-stem fibres and flax, in use from at least

3724-478: The gens togata ('toga-wearing race'). There were many kinds of toga, each reserved by custom to a particular usage or social class. The toga's most distinguishing feature was its semi-circular shape, which sets it apart from other cloaks of antiquity like the Greek himation or pallium . To Rothe, the rounded form suggests an origin in the very similar, semi-circular Etruscan tebenna . Norma Goldman believes that

3822-496: The otium (cultured leisure) claimed as a right by the elite. Rank, reputation and Romanitas were paramount, even in death, so almost invariably, a male citizen's memorial image showed him clad in his toga. He wore it at his funeral, and it probably served as his shroud. Despite the overwhelming quantity of Roman togate portraits at every social level, and in every imaginable circumstance, at most times Rome's thoroughfares would have been crowded with citizens and non-citizens in

3920-498: The stola may have paralleled the increasing identification of the toga with citizen men, but this seems to have been a far from straightforward process. An equestrian statue , described by Pliny the Elder as "ancient", showed the early Republican heroine Cloelia on horseback, wearing a toga. The unmarried daughters of respectable, reasonably well-off citizens sometimes wore the toga praetexta until puberty or marriage, when they adopted

4018-466: The sulcus primigenius undertaken at the founding of new colonies —could employ the "Gabine cinch" or "robe" ( cinctus Gabinus ) or "rite" ( ritus Gabinus ) which tied the toga back. This style, later said to have been part of Etruscan priestly dress , was associated by the Romans with their early wars with nearby Gabii and was thus used during Roman declarations of war . The traditional toga

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4116-567: The "universal citizenship" of Caracalla 's Constitutio Antoniniana (212 AD), probably further reduced whatever distinctive value the toga still held for commoners, and accelerated its abandonment among their class. Meanwhile, the office-holding aristocracy adopted ever more elaborate, complex, costly and impractical forms of toga. The toga nevertheless remained the formal costume of the Roman senatorial elite. A law issued by co-emperors Gratian , Valentinian II and Theodosius I in 382 AD ( Codex Theodosianus 14.10.1) states that while senators in

4214-469: The Macedonian campaign of 169 BC, the army was sent 6,000 togas and 30,000 tunics. From at least the mid-Republic on, the military reserved their togas for formal leisure and religious festivals; the tunic and sagum (heavy rectangular cloak held on the shoulder with a brooch) were used or preferred for active duty. Late republican practice and legal reform allowed the creation of standing armies, and opened

4312-479: The available documentary evidence to mark the sites of the ancient Norse discoveries in the western Atlantic, including Vinland , on a map. After studying at the University of Copenhagen , Sigurd became a teacher at the former monastery of Skálholt, which remained the religious and educational centre in Iceland even after Protestantism was introduced in 1551. The 1570 original of Sigurd's Map no longer survives, but

4410-416: The building and the seniors aim to reach that bell and ring it while other students try to fight them and prevent them from doing so. Should the seniors succeed in their task, the younger students are to attend next class. During the fight, some or all senior students are covered in dirt. This event was cancelled permanently after the 2008-2009 Inspector Platearum (a senior student who is responsible for ringing

4508-600: The cathedral until it too was destroyed in 1550, when his mortal remains were strewn about the cathedral grounds. Although no longer episcopal sees, Skálholt and Hólar are still the cathedra of the Church of Iceland's two suffragan bishops , and therefore the old cathedrals still serve as such. Skálholt also receives many visitors each year. Hospitality is a branch of Skálholtsskóli's work and visitors can stay in its dormitories, single rooms, and cottages. Many cultural events such as concerts are held in Skálholt. Foremost of these

4606-421: The citizen classes, the toga identified them as a singular and exclusive civic body. Togas were relatively uniform in pattern and style but varied significantly in the quality and quantity of their fabric, and the marks of higher rank or office. The highest-status toga, the solidly purple, gold-embroidered toga picta could be worn only at particular ceremonies by the highest-ranking magistrates . Tyrian purple

4704-496: The citizen-military. As Roman women gradually adopted the stola , the toga was recognized as formal wear for male Roman citizens . Women found guilty of adultery and women engaged in prostitution might have provided the main exceptions to this rule. The type of toga worn reflected a citizen's rank in the civil hierarchy. Various laws and customs restricted its use to citizens, who were required to wear it for public festivals and civic duties. From its probable beginnings as

4802-521: The city of Rome may wear the paenula in daily life, they must wear the toga when attending their official duties. Failure to do so would result in the senator being stripped of rank and authority, and of the right to enter the Curia Julia . Byzantine Greek art and portraiture show the highest functionaries of court, church and state in magnificently wrought, extravagantly exclusive court dress and priestly robes; some at least are thought to be versions of

4900-531: The country at the time and can be seen on the 500 Icelandic krona bill. It was used initially when Althing began to meet again in Reykjavík after a few years hiatus and thus it is in this building where Icelandic independence leader Jón Sigurðsson led the MPs in their famous phrase, Vér mótmælum allir . The school has previously been known as Lærði skólinn (The Learned School), Latínuskólinn (The Latin School) and by

4998-544: The dance. It was only held once, although in 1992 it was resurrected by Dagur B. Eggertsson , inspector scholae. It is now an annual event for graduating students. The two student bodies maintain a number of periodic publications. Amongst them are: Framtíðin, the oldest student body in Iceland, is a member of Mælsku- og rökræðukeppni framhaldsskóla á Íslandi (MorfÍs, The Icelandic Junior College Debating Society), which holds an annual debating competition between Icelandic junior colleges. Since its foundation in 1983, MR has won

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5096-486: The dominance of Rome's togate elect. Senators sat at the very front, equites behind them, common citizens behind equites ; and so on, through the non-togate mass of freedmen, foreigners, and slaves. Imposters were sometimes detected and evicted from the equestrian seats. Various anecdotes reflect the toga's symbolic value. In Livy 's history of Rome , the patrician hero Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus , retired from public life and clad (presumably) in tunic or loincloth,

5194-483: The earliest forms of all these garments would have been simple, rectangular lengths of cloth that served as both body-wrap and blanket for peasants, shepherds and itinerant herdsmen. Roman historians believed that Rome's legendary founder and first king, the erstwhile shepherd Romulus , had worn a toga as his clothing of choice; the purple-bordered toga praetexta was supposedly used by Etruscan magistrates, and introduced to Rome by her third king, Tullus Hostilius . In

5292-550: The early 2nd century AD, the satirist Juvenal claimed that "in a great part of Italy, no-one wears the toga, except in death"; in Martial's rural idyll there is "never a lawsuit, the toga is scarce, the mind at ease". Most citizens who owned a toga would have cherished it as a costly material object, and worn it when they must for special occasions. Family, friendships and alliances, and the gainful pursuit of wealth through business and trade would have been their major preoccupations, not

5390-458: The finals eight times. The students of MR regularly hold debating competitions among themselves. These competitions are held very often and a lot of traditions have evolved around them. "Framtíðin" administers the debating society for MR students and it is also one of the oldest clubs in Iceland (founded in 1883). Sólbjartur is an annual debating competition in which each class of MR is free to send one or more teams to debate. The winning team receives

5488-401: The infamous Mexican-run. The night of that day, a debating competition between the two schools is held. MR is renowned for its traditional and classical style of education. MR offers two separate "paths" which students choose when enrolling in the school. These are a natural science path and a language path. The natural science path divides into a biology department and a physics department on

5586-406: The late 2nd century AD and was distinguished by its broad, smooth, slab-like panels or swathes of pleated material, more or less correspondent with umbo , sinus and balteus , or applied over the same. On statuary, one swathe of fabric rises from low between the legs, and is laid over the left shoulder; another more or less follows the upper edge of the sinus ; yet another follows the lower edge of

5684-404: The later toga are confirmed by Tertullian , who preferred the pallium . High-status (consular or senatorial) images from the late 4th century show a further ornate variation, known as the "Broad Eastern Toga"; it hung to the mid-calf, was heavily embroidered, and was worn over two pallium -style undergarments, one of which had full length sleeves. Its sinus was draped over the left arm. In

5782-423: The later, larger versions may have been made from several pieces sewn together; size seems to have counted for a lot. More cloth signified greater wealth and usually, though not invariably, higher rank. The purple-red border of the toga praetexta was woven onto the toga using a process known as " tablet weaving "; such applied borders are a feature of Etruscan dress. Modern sources broadly agree that if made from

5880-408: The latter as " togati ". He employs the phrase cedant arma togae ("let arms yield to the toga"), meaning "may peace replace war", or "may military power yield to civilian power", in the context of his own uneasy alliance with Pompey . He intended it as metonym, linking his own "power to command" as consul ( imperator togatus ) with Pompey's as general ( imperator armatus ); but it was interpreted as

5978-523: The law forbade her remarriage to a Roman citizen. In the public gaze, she was aligned with the meretrix . When worn by a woman in this later era, the toga would have been a "blatant display" of her "exclusion from the respectable Roman hierarchy". However, the view that a convicted adulteress ( moecha damnata ) actually wore a toga in public has been challenged; Radicke believes that the only prostitutes who could be made to wear particular items of clothing were unfree, compelled by their owners or pimps to wear

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6076-563: The lawyer must present himself as a Roman should: "virile and splendid" in his toga, with statuesque posture and "natural good looks". He should be well groomed – but not too well; no primping of the hair, jewellery or any other "feminine" perversions of a Roman man's proper appearance. Quintilian gives precise instructions on the correct use of the toga – its cut, style, and the arrangements of its folds. Its fabric could be old-style rough wool, or new and smoother if preferred – but definitely not silk. The orator's movements should be dignified, and to

6174-538: The long term, the toga saw both a gradual transformation and decline, punctuated by attempts to retain it as an essential feature of true Romanitas . It was never a popular garment; in the late 1st century, Tacitus could disparage the urban plebs as a vulgus tunicatus ("tunic-wearing crowd"). Hadrian issued an edict compelling equites and senators to wear the toga in public; the edict did not mention commoners. The extension of citizenship, from around 6 million citizens under Augustus to between 40 and 60 million under

6272-493: The lower class, then those of the middle class. Eventually, it was worn only by the highest classes for ceremonial occasions. The toga was an approximately semi-circular woollen cloth, usually white, worn draped over the left shoulder and around the body: the word "toga" probably derives from tegere , to cover. It was considered formal wear and was generally reserved for citizens. The Romans considered it unique to themselves, thus their poetic description by Virgil and Martial as

6370-425: The master-slave relationship. Patrons were few, and most had to compete with their peers to attract the best, most useful clients. Clients were many, and those of least interest to the patron had to scrabble for notice among the "togate horde" ( turbae togatae ). One in a dirty or patched toga would likely be subject to ridicule; or he might, if sufficiently dogged and persistent, secure a pittance of cash, or perhaps

6468-464: The metropolitan of Skálholt, and in 1153 Skálholt became a part of the province of Nidaros . Continuing as the episcopal see after the Reformation to Lutheranism , the end of Catholicism in Iceland was marked in 1550 when the last Catholic bishop, Jón Arason of Hólar, was executed in Skálholt along with his two sons. The sacred reliquary of St. Thorlac (sixth bishop of Skálholt) was maintained at

6566-438: The most honourable seats, front of house, for senators and equites ; this was how it had always been, before the chaos of the civil wars; or rather, how it was supposed to have been. Infuriated by the sight of a darkly clad throng of men at a public meeting, he sarcastically quoted Virgil at them, " Romanos, rerum dominos, gentemque togatam " ("Romans, lords of the world and the toga-wearing people"), then ordered that in future,

6664-448: The officiant priest covered his head with a fold of his toga, drawn up from the back: the ritual was thus performed capite velato (with covered head). This was believed a distinctively Roman form, in contrast to Etruscan, Greek and other foreign practices. The Etruscans seem to have sacrificed bareheaded ( capite aperto ). In Rome, the so-called ritus graecus ("Greek rite") was used for deities believed Greek in origin or character;

6762-437: The officiant, even if a Roman citizen, wore Greek-style robes with wreathed or bare head, not the toga. It has been argued that the Roman expression of piety capite velato influenced Paul 's prohibition against Christian men praying with covered heads: "Any man who prays or prophesies with his head covered dishonors his head." An officiant capite velato who needed free use of both hands to perform ritual—as while plowing

6860-400: The point; he should move only as he must, to address a particular person, a particular section of the audience. He should employ to good effect that subtle "language of the hands" for which Roman oratory was famed; no extravagant gestures, no wiggling of the shoulders, no moving "like a dancer". To a great extent, the toga itself determined the orator's style of delivery: "we should not cover

6958-632: The position. The former President of Iceland, Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson , was also the president of the main student body, Framtíðin . School traditions include a hall fight and the singing of the Brevitate Vitae. Six dances are held every year, including the costume-ball and the freshman-ball. Many clubs have been founded in MR, these include: An Art club (with five divisions for: Visual art, music, dancing, literature and films), Herranótt acting guild (the oldest theatric club in northern Europe), Computer academy and

7056-467: The reassuring illusion that they represented a traditional Republican, civilian authority, rather than the military arm of an Imperial autocracy. Citizens attending Rome's frequent religious festivals and associated games were expected to wear the toga. The toga praetexta was the normal garb for most Roman priesthoods, which tended to be the preserve of high status citizens. When offering sacrifice, libation and prayer, and when performing augury ,

7154-505: The relatively shorter, "skimpy", less costly toga exigua , more revealing, easily opened and thus convenient to their profession. Until the so-called " Marian reforms " of the Late Republic, the lower ranks of Rome's military forces were "farmer-soldiers", a militia of citizen smallholders conscripted for the duration of hostilities, expected to provide their own arms and armour. Citizens of higher status served in senior military posts as

7252-462: The same costume." The Augustan Principate brought peace, and declared its intent as the restoration of true Republican order, morality and tradition. Augustus was determined to bring back "the traditional style" (the toga). He ordered that any theatre-goer in dark (or coloured or dirty) clothing be sent to the back seats, traditionally reserved for those who had no toga; ordinary or common women, freedmen, low-class foreigners and slaves. He reserved

7350-546: The school apart from Halldór Ásgrímsson , Ólafur Jóhannesson , Sigurður Ingi Jóhannsson , Þorsteinn Pálsson , Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir and Katrín Jakobsdóttir . Geir H. Haarde , Davíð's successor as chairman of the Independence Party and former Prime Minister, also took over from him as chairman of student body, Skólafélagið ( inspector scholae ). In 1879 Hannes Hafstein was the school's first inspector scholae, and in 1940 his grandson Einar Ragnarsson Kvaran achieved

7448-502: The school bells and is furthermore the leader of the seniors in the Hall Fight) broke his neck in the fight, resulting in a 9 million ISK lawsuit. One day in the first weeks of school is a special day for newcomers (Icelandic: busadagur), this day is held in all junior colleges in the country and is not only the tradition of Menntaskólinn í Reykjavík, although the traditions regarding this day vary greatly between schools. The day starts with

7546-406: The second year, while the language path divides into modern language department and a classical language department. MR is the only school in Iceland which teaches mandatory Latin in some form and the only one which teaches Ancient Greek. In earlier years the school offered a six years course of study before it was shortened into four years. Thus the first year is called "third form", the second year

7644-419: The seniors dressing up in white toga cloaks and painting their faces. The seniors then march around the school and gather the newcomers out to the school grounds where they are then thrown high into the air. The tradition of throwing newcomers into the air is old - but the part of dressing up in toga was added by seniors in 1991 (graduating in 1992). On this day (and the next few days after) students tend to sing

7742-420: The shoulder and the whole of the throat, otherwise our dress will be unduly narrowed and will lose the impressive effect produced by breadth at the chest. The left arm should only be raised so far as to form a right angle at the elbow, while the edge of the toga should fall in equal lengths on either side." If, on the other hand, the "toga falls down at the beginning of our speech, or when we have only proceeded but

7840-404: The social or economic scale, or more rarely, his equal or superior. A good client canvassed political support for his patron, or his patron's nominee; he advanced his patron's interests using his own business, family and personal connections. Freedmen with an aptitude for business could become extremely wealthy; but to negotiate citizenship for themselves, or more likely their sons, they had to find

7938-410: The song " De Brevitate Vitae ." The following night a freshman ball is held. The violin dance is by many described as a fancy promenade ball where live violin music is played and students wear their best garments while dancing elegantly. The tradition was started in the 1960s and was meant to be an iconoclasm to the hippie culture at the time. Reverend Geir Waage is rumored to have been the originator of

8036-431: The system as clients for years, and found the whole business demeaning. A client had to be at his patron's beck and call, to perform whatever "togate works" were required; and the patron might even expect to be addressed as " domine " (lord, or master); a citizen-client of the equestrian class , superior to all lesser mortals by virtue of rank and costume, might thus approach the shameful condition of dependent servitude. For

8134-651: The time of the Punic Wars. Though probably appropriate for a "summer toga", it was criticised for its improper luxuriance. Some Romans believed that in earlier times, both genders and all classes had worn the toga. Radicke (2002) claims that this belief goes back to a Late Antique scholiast misreading of earlier Roman writings. Women could also be citizens, but by the mid-to-late Republican era, respectable women were stolatae ( stola -wearing), expected to embody and display an appropriate set of female virtues: Vout cites pudicitia and fides as examples. Women's adoption of

8232-435: The title "Sólbjartur" (Literally: Sun-bright) and the best debater of the winning team receives the title "Orator Scholae" (Latin: Spokesman of the school). Another annual competition is held, called "Orator Minor" (Latin: The next-best spokesman). Orator Minor is a competition where people debate about randomly selected subjects in one-on-one battles and only have ten minutes to prepare their speeches. However, Orator Minor, from

8330-499: The toga across the chest) in imperial-era forms of the toga. Its added weight and friction would have helped (though not very effectively) secure the toga's fabric onto the left shoulder. As the toga developed, the umbo grew in size. The most complex togas appear on high-quality portrait busts and imperial reliefs of the mid-to-late Empire, probably reserved for emperors and the highest civil officials. The so-called "banded" or "stacked" toga (Latinised as toga contabulata ) appeared in

8428-457: The toga was brought to Italy from Mycenaean Greece , its name based on Mycenaean Greek te-pa , referring to a heavy woollen garment or fabric. Roman society was strongly hierarchical, stratified and competitive. Landowning aristocrats occupied most seats in the senate and held the most senior magistracies . Magistrates were elected by their peers and "the people"; in Roman constitutional theory, they ruled by consent. In practice, they were

8526-447: The toga was explicitly forbidden to non-citizens; to foreigners, freedmen, and slaves; to Roman exiles; and to men of "infamous" career or shameful reputation; an individual's status should be discernable at a glance. A freedman or foreigner might pose as a togate citizen, or a common citizen as an equestrian; such pretenders were sometimes ferreted out in the census . Formal seating arrangements in public theatres and circuses reflected

8624-492: The toga – or perhaps merely the description of particular women as togata – as an instrument of inversion and realignment; a respectable (thus stola -clad) woman should be demure, sexually passive, modest and obedient, morally impeccable. The archetypical meretrix of Roman literature dresses gaudily and provocatively. Edwards (1997) describes her as "antithetical to the Roman male citizen". An adulterous matron betrayed her family and reputation; and if found guilty, and divorced,

8722-589: The toga's most challenging qualities as garment fitted the Romans' view of themselves and their civilization. Like the empire itself, the peace that the toga came to represent had been earned through the extraordinary and unremitting collective efforts of its citizens, who could therefore claim "the time and dignity to dress in such a way". Patronage was a cornerstone of Roman politics, business and social relationships. A good patron offered advancement, security, honour, wealth, government contracts and other business opportunities to his client, who might be further down in

8820-464: The toga, and an obligation to the patron who had granted these honours; usually their senior officer. A dishonourable discharge meant infamia . Colonies of retired veterans were scattered throughout the Empire. In literary stereotype, civilians are routinely bullied by burly soldiers, inclined to throw their weight around. Though soldiers were citizens, Cicero typifies the former as " sagum wearing" and

8918-491: The wider context of classical Greco-Roman fashion, the Greek enkyklon ( Greek : ἔγκυκλον , "circular [garment]") was perhaps similar in shape to the Roman toga, but never acquired the same significance as a distinctive mark of citizenship. The 2nd-century diviner Artemidorus Daldianus in his Oneirocritica derived the toga's form and name from the Greek tebennos (τήβεννος), supposedly an Arcadian garment invented by and named after Temenus. Emilio Peruzzi claims that

9016-446: The year 2007, is held more than once every year, even up to five times. MR has been the most successful school on RÚV 's academic quiz competition Gettu betur ; it has been champion in 22 series of the programme, with its most recent occurring in 2022. This included an 11-year winning streak from 1993 to 2003. An annual quiz competition is held, for which each class sends in one or more teams to compete against others. This competition

9114-440: Was draped, rather than fastened, around the body, and was held in position by the weight and friction of its fabric. Supposedly, no pins or brooches were employed. The more voluminous and complex the style, the more assistance would have been required to achieve the desired effect. In classical statuary, draped togas consistently show certain features and folds, identified and named in contemporary literature. The sinus (literally,

9212-517: Was founded at Skálholt in 1056 to educate clergy. In 1992 the seminary in Skálholt was re-instituted under the old name and now serves as the education and information center of the Church of Iceland . Throughout the Middle Ages there was significant activity in Skálholt; alongside the bishop's office, the cathedral, and the school, there was extensive farming, a smithy , and, while Catholicism lasted,

9310-400: Was heavy, "unwieldy, excessively hot, easily stained, and hard to launder". It was best suited to stately processions, public debate and oratory, sitting in the theatre or circus, and displaying oneself before one's peers and inferiors while "ostentatiously doing nothing". Every male Roman citizen was entitled to wear some kind of toga – Martial refers to a lesser citizen's "small toga" and

9408-437: Was made of wool, which was thought to possess powers to avert misfortune and the evil eye ; the toga praetexta (used by magistrates, priests and freeborn youths) was always woollen. Wool-working was thought a highly respectable occupation for Roman women. A traditional, high-status mater familias demonstrated her industry and frugality by placing wool-baskets, spindles and looms in the household's semi-public reception area,

9506-499: Was supposedly reserved for the toga picta , the border of the toga praetexta , and elements of the priestly dress worn by the inviolate Vestal Virgins . It was colour-fast, extremely expensive and the "most talked-about colour in Greco-Roman antiquity". Romans categorised it as a blood-red hue, which sanctified its wearer. The purple-bordered praetexta worn by freeborn youths acknowledged their vulnerability and sanctity in law. Once

9604-702: Was transferred to more modern maps, it indicated, among other things, that Sigurd had marked the promontory of Vinland at the same position as the northern promontory of Newfoundland , which was one of the factors that encouraged successful archaeological investigations by Anne Stine and Helge Ingstad in the 1960s at L'Anse aux Meadows , which is located at 51°35′47″N 55°32′00″W  /  51.59639°N 55.53333°W  / 51.59639; -55.53333 . 64°07′32″N 20°31′27″W  /  64.12556°N 20.52417°W  / 64.12556; -20.52417 Toga The toga ( / ˈ t oʊ ɡ ə / , Classical Latin : [ˈt̪ɔ.ɡa] ),

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