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73-529: The Hébertists were ardent supporters of the dechristianization of France and of extreme measures in service of the Terror, including the Law of Suspects enacted in 1793. They favoured the direct intervention of the state in economic matters in order to ensure the adequate supply of commodities, advocating the national requisition of wine and grain. The leaders went to the guillotine on 24 March 1794. The rise in power of

146-417: A power struggle between competing interest groups . In such a model, revolutions happen when two or more groups cannot come to terms within the current political system 's normal decision-making process, and when they possess the required resources to employ force in pursuit of their goals. The second-generation theorists regarded the development of revolutionary situations as a two-step process: "First,

219-501: A change in social and political institutions. Jeff Goodwin offers two definitions. First, a broad one, including "any and all instances in which a state or a political regime is overthrown and thereby transformed by a popular movement in an irregular, extraconstitutional or violent fashion". Second, a narrow one, in which "revolutions entail not only mass mobilization and regime change , but also more or less rapid and fundamental social, economic or cultural change, during or soon after

292-501: A few days later, followed by Hébert's widow Marie Marguerite Françoise Hébert . Other Hébertists, including Joseph Le Bon , Jean-Baptiste Carrier , François Chabot and François Hanriot , were to also fall victim to the guillotine on various dates in 1794 and 1795. Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution The aim of a number of separate policies conducted by various governments of France during

365-465: A focus on political behavior "from below", but also a recognition of moments where "high and low" are relativized, subverted, or made irrelevant, and where the micro and macro levels fuse together in critical conjunctions. Economist Douglass North raised a note of caution about revolutionary change, how it "is never as revolutionary as its rhetoric would have us believe". While the "formal rules" of laws and constitutions can be changed virtually overnight,

438-528: A foreign plot in which Stanislas-Marie Maillard and Anacharsis Cloots , among others, were implicated as agents. This succeeded in casting suspicion on the Hébertist faction. However, Fabre himself was rapidly revealed to have been acting in part as part of an elaborate attempt to conceal his own involvement in a scandal surrounding the liquidation of the French East India Company and his credibility

511-555: A new Roman Republic , and also imprisoned Pope Pius VI , who would die in captivity in Valence , France in August 1799. However, after Napoleon seized control of the government in late 1799, France entered into year-long negotiations with new Pope Pius VII , resulting in the Concordat of 1801 . This formally ended the dechristianization period and established the rules for a relationship between

584-412: A pattern of events arises that somehow marks a break or change from previous patterns. This change then affects some critical variable—the cognitive state of the masses, the equilibrium of the system, or the magnitude of conflict and resource control of competing interest groups. If the effect on the critical variable is of sufficient magnitude, a potentially revolutionary situation occurs." Once this point

657-816: A recent military defeat, or economic chaos, or an affront to national pride and identity, or pervasive repression and corruption. Revolutions typically trigger counter-revolutions which seek to halt revolutionary momentum, or to reverse the course of an ongoing revolutionary transformation. Notable revolutions in recent centuries include the American Revolution (1775–1783), French Revolution (1789–1799), Haitian Revolution (1791–1804), Spanish American wars of independence (1808–1826), Revolutions of 1848 in Europe, Mexican Revolution (1910–1920), Xinhai Revolution in China in 1911, Revolutions of 1917–1923 in Europe (including

730-595: A return to some form of religion-based faith was beginning to take shape and a law passed on 21 February 1795 legalized public worship, albeit with strict limitations. The ringing of church bells, religious processions and displays of the Christian cross were still forbidden. As late as 1799, priests were still being imprisoned or deported to penal colonies. Persecution only worsened after the French army led by General Louis Alexandre Berthier captured Rome in early 1798, declared

803-696: Is a rapid, fundamental transformation of a society's class, state, ethnic or religious structures. According to sociologist Jack Goldstone , all revolutions contain "a common set of elements at their core: (a) efforts to change the political regime that draw on a competing vision (or visions) of a just order, (b) a notable degree of informal or formal mass mobilization , and (c) efforts to force change through noninstitutionalized actions such as mass demonstrations , protests, strikes, or violence." Revolutions have occurred throughout human history and varied in their methods, durations and outcomes. Some revolutions started with peasant uprisings or guerrilla warfare on

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876-599: Is reached, a negative incident (a war, a riot, a bad harvest) that in the past might not have been enough to trigger a revolt, will now be enough. However, if authorities are cognizant of the danger, they can still prevent revolution through reform or repression. In his influential 1938 book The Anatomy of Revolution , historian Crane Brinton established a convention by choosing four major political revolutions— England (1642) , Thirteen Colonies of America (1775) , France (1789) , and Russia (1917) —for comparative study. He outlined what he called their "uniformities", although

949-455: The American Revolution deviated somewhat from the pattern. As a result, most later comparative studies of revolution substituted China (1949) in their lists, but they continued Brinton's practice of focusing on four. In subsequent decades, scholars began to classify hundreds of other events as revolutions (see List of revolutions and rebellions ). Their expanded notion of revolution engendered new approaches and explanations. The theories of

1022-717: The Civil Constitution of the Clergy that subordinated the Catholic Church in France to the French government. It was never accepted by the Pope and other high-ranking clergy in Rome . The programme of dechristianization waged against Catholicism, and eventually against all forms of Christianity, included: An especially notable event that took place in the course of France’s dechristianization

1095-504: The Concordat of 1801 , formed the basis of the later and less radical laïcité policies. The French Revolution initially began with attacks on Church corruption and the wealth of the higher clergy, an action with which even many Christians could identify, since the Gallican Church held a dominant role in pre-revolutionary France . During a one-year period known as the Reign of Terror ,

1168-561: The French Republic into disrepute through his writings, claiming that "when the tyrants of Europe wish[ed] to vilify the Republic, to make their slaves believe that France is covered with the darkness of barbarism, that Paris [...] is peopled with Vandals", they reprinted Le Père Duchesne . He also mocked Hébert for having pretended to be a "man of the people" and a representative of the sans-culottes—when in fact he had profited handsomely from

1241-536: The French Revolution ranged from the appropriation by the government of the great landed estates and the large amounts of money held by the Catholic Church to the termination of Christian religious practice and of the religion itself. There has been much scholarly debate over whether the movement was popularly motivated or motivated by a small group of revolutionary radicals. These policies, which ended with

1314-563: The Gregorian Calendar was reimplemented in 1795. Anti-clerical parades were held, and the Archbishop of Paris , Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel , was forced to resign his duties and made to replace his mitre with the red " Cap of Liberty ". Street and place names with any sort of religious connotation were changed, such as the town of St. Tropez , which became Héraclée. Religious holidays were banned and replaced with holidays to celebrate

1387-585: The Legislative Assembly and its successor, the National Convention , as well as by département councils throughout the country. Many of the acts of dechristianization in 1793 were motivated by the seizure of Church gold and silver to finance the war effort. In November 1793, the département council of Indre-et-Loire abolished the word dimanche (English: Sunday ). The Gregorian calendar , an instrument decreed by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582,

1460-517: The National Convention in an attempt to force its accession to their demands, namely the dissolution of the Commission of Twelve, the arrest of a list of Girondin deputies, a tax on the rich and the restriction of suffrage to sans-culottes. The Commission was abolished, but on 2 June 1793 the crowds—now supported by National Guard forces headed by Hébertist and newly appointed Commandant-General François Hanriot —returned. Hanriot threatened to set fire to

1533-519: The Russian Revolution and German Revolution ), Chinese Communist Revolution (1927–1949), decolonization of Africa (mid-1950s to 1975), Cuban Revolution in 1959, Iranian Revolution and Nicaraguan Revolution in 1979, worldwide Revolutions of 1989 , and Arab Spring in the early 2010s. The French noun revolucion traces back to the 13th century, and the English equivalent "revolution" to

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1606-494: The September Massacres . Priests were among those drowned in mass executions ( noyades ) for treason under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Carrier ; priests and nuns were among the mass executions at Lyons , for separatism , on the orders of Joseph Fouché and Collot d'Herbois . Hundreds more priests were imprisoned and made to suffer in abominable conditions in the port of Rochefort . Anti-Church laws were passed by

1679-526: The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Large minorities of French Protestants, mostly Huguenots and German Lutherans , and Jews still lived in France. The Edict of Versailles , commonly known as the Edict of Tolerance, had been signed by Louis XVI on 7 November 1787. It did not give non-Catholics in France the right to openly practice their religions but only the rights to legal and civil status, which included

1752-540: The tithes gathered by the Catholic clergy. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789 proclaimed freedom of religion across France in these terms: Article IV – Liberty consists of doing anything which does not harm others: thus, the exercise of the natural rights of each man has only those borders which assure other members of the society the enjoyment of these same rights. These borders can be determined only by

1825-599: The violent Islamic revolution in Afghanistan . At the same time, this definition is strong enough to exclude coups, revolts, civil wars, and rebellions that make no effort to transform institutions or the justification for authority." Goldstone's definition excludes peaceful transitions to democracy through plebiscite or free elections , as occurred in Spain after the death of Francisco Franco , or in Argentina and Chile after

1898-490: The "slow revolution" type identified by Tocqueville. Political and socioeconomic revolutions have been studied in many social sciences , particularly sociology , political science and history . Scholars of revolution differentiate four generations of theoretical research on the subject of revolution. Theorists of the first generation, including Gustave Le Bon , Charles A. Ellwood , and Pitirim Sorokin , were mainly descriptive in their approach, and their explanations of

1971-440: The Catholic Church and the French state. Victims of the Reign of Terror totaled somewhere between 20,000 and 40,000. According to one estimate, among those condemned by the revolutionary tribunals about 8 percent were aristocrats , 6 percent clergy, 14 percent middle class, and 70 percent were workers or peasants accused of hoarding, evading the draft, desertion, rebellion, and other purported crimes. Of these social groupings,

2044-594: The Church also had an enormous income from the collection of compulsory tithes . Since the Church kept the registry of births, deaths, and marriages and was the only institution that provided hospitals and education in most parts of the country, it influenced all citizens. A milestone event of the Revolution was the abolition of the privileges of the First and Second Estate on the night of 4 August 1789 . In particular, it abolished

2117-575: The Church. An ever-increasing view that the Church was a counter-revolutionary force exacerbated the social and economic grievances and violence erupted in towns and cities across France. In Paris , over a forty-eight-hour period beginning on 2 September 1792, as the Legislative Assembly (successor to the National Constituent Assembly ) dissolved into chaos, three Church bishops and more than two hundred priests were massacred by angry mobs; this constituted part of what would become known as

2190-529: The Constitution, resulting in a split in the French Catholic Church . Over fifty percent became abjuring priests ("jurors"), also known as " constitutional clergy ", and nonjuring priests as "refractory clergy". In September 1792, the Legislative Assembly legalized divorce , contrary to Catholic doctrine. At the same time, the state took control of the birth, death, and marriage registers away from

2263-659: The Convention if the offending Girondin deputies were not expelled. Ultimately, the arrest of twenty-nine Girondins was decreed, marking the end of the Girondin faction's political power. Following the assassination of Jean-Paul Marat by a Girondin sympathizer in July 1793, Hébert positioned himself as Marat's natural successor in the affections of those who had shared the dead man's ultra-revolutionary beliefs. The Hébertists' popularity grew. Their evident and increasingly destabilizing influence

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2336-603: The Czar, followed by a rural revolution, followed by the Bolshevik coup in November. Katz also cross-classified revolutions as follows: A further dimension to Katz's typology is that revolutions are either against (anti-monarchy, anti-dictatorial, anti-communist, anti-democratic) or for (pro-fascism, pro-communism, pro-nationalism, etc.). In the latter cases, a transition period is generally necessary to decide which direction to take to achieve

2409-627: The Hébertists can be largely attributed to the popularity of Hébert's newspaper, Le Père Duchesne . This newspaper, which purported to present the frank opinions of Père Duchesne, a fictional working-class furnace-maker, had a large following amongst the sans-culottes . The government-funded distribution of Le Père Duchesne to the French armies, a policy arranged by the Hébertist Minister of War Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte in 1793, widened support and sympathy for Hébertist ideas. On 24 May 1793,

2482-451: The Polity data series—which evaluates the degree of democratic or autocratic authority in a state's governing institutions based on the openness of executive recruitment, constraints on executive authority, and political competition—is inadequate because it measures democratization, not revolution, and doesn't account for regimes which come to power by revolution but fail to change the structure of

2555-553: The Supreme Being , without the alleged "superstitions" of Catholicism, supplanted both Catholicism and the rival Cult of Reason . Both new religions were short-lived. Just six weeks before his arrest, on 8 June 1794, the still-powerful Robespierre personally led a vast procession through Paris to the Tuileries garden in a ceremony to inaugurate the new faith. His execution occurred shortly afterward, on 28 July 1794. By early 1795,

2628-461: The Supreme Being were scheduled. New forms of moral religion emerged, including the deistic Cult of the Supreme Being and the atheistic Cult of Reason , with the revolutionary government briefly mandating observance of the former in April 1794. In 18th-century France , the vast majority of the population adhered to the Catholic Church , the only religion officially allowed in the kingdom since

2701-494: The causes and implications of revolution. The initial fourth-generation books and journal articles generally relied on the Polity data series on democratization . Such analyses, like those by A. J. Enterline, Zeev Maoz , and Edward D. Mansfield and Jack Snyder, identified a revolution by a significant change in the country's score on Polity's autocracy-to-democracy scale. Since the 2010s, scholars like Jeff Colgan have argued that

2774-884: The clergy of the Catholic Church suffered proportionately the greatest loss. Anti-Church laws were passed by the Legislative Assembly and its successor, the National Convention , as well as by département councils throughout the country. The Concordat of 1801 endured for more than a century until it was abrogated by the government of the Third Republic, which established a policy of laïcité on 11 December 1905. Under threat of death, imprisonment, military conscription, and loss of income, about twenty thousand constitutional priests were forced to abdicate and hand over their letters of ordination, and six thousand to nine thousand of them agreed or were coerced to marry . Many abandoned their pastoral duties altogether. Nonetheless, some of those who had abdicated continued covertly to minister to

2847-502: The contracts his follower Bouchotte had secured to distribute Le Père Duchesne to the armies. In turn, Hébert accused Desmoulins of hypocrisy, pointing out that his current opposition to violence and extremism (in addition to attacking ultra-revolutionary excesses, Desmoulins had called for an end to the Terror) stood in sharp contrast to his support for such tactics in a 1789 pamphlet, Discours de la lanterne aux Parisiens, which had advocated

2920-427: The demise of their military juntas . Early scholars often debated the distinction between revolution and civil war. They also questioned whether a revolution is purely political (i.e., concerned with the restructuring of government) or whether "it is an extensive and inclusive social change affecting all the various aspects of the life of a society, including the economic, religious, industrial, and familial as well as

2993-478: The desired form of government. Other types of revolution, created for other typologies, include proletarian or communist revolutions (inspired by the ideas of Marxism that aim to replace capitalism with communism ); failed or abortive revolutions (that are not able to secure power after winning temporary victories or amassing large-scale mobilizations); or violent vs. nonviolent revolutions . The term revolution has also been used to denote great changes outside

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3066-566: The dominance of the third generation's theories. The old theories were also dealt a significant blow by a series of revolutionary events that they could not readily explain. The Iranian and Nicaraguan Revolutions of 1979, the 1986 People Power Revolution in the Philippines , and the 1989 Autumn of Nations in Europe, Asia and Africa saw diverse opposition movements topple seemingly powerful regimes amidst popular demonstrations and mass strikes in nonviolent revolutions . For some historians,

3139-701: The downfall of the Girondins. On 4 March 1794, Carrier and Hébert veiled the bust of Liberty at the Cordeliers Club, declaring according to ritual a state of insurrection. They had hoped to demand that the National Convention expel Robespierre and his Montagnard supporters. However, the city of Paris did not rise and the Paris Commune failed to provide military support for the coup. The Hébertists were denounced by Louis Antoine de Saint-Just and Robespierre, and

3212-465: The episodes of anti-clericalism became some the most violent of any in modern European history . The new revolutionary authorities suppressed the Church, abolished the Catholic monarchy, nationalized Church property, exiled 30,000 priests, and killed hundreds more. In October 1793, the Christian calendar was replaced with one reckoned from the date of the Revolution, and Festivals of Liberty, Reason, and

3285-553: The execution of those opposed to revolution . The vitriolic exchange continued throughout the winter of 1793–1794, ultimately contributing to the downfall of both Desmoulins and Hébert. Following the February 1794 recall of Hébertist deputy Jean-Baptiste Carrier from Nantes, where he had been engaged in mass executions to suppress the Vendéen revolts , the Hébertists attempted to stage a popular revolt, hoping to mimic that which had led to

3358-404: The first category. They utilized theories of cognitive psychology and frustration-aggression theory to link the cause of revolution to the state of mind of the masses. While these theorists varied in their approach as to what exactly incited the people to revolt (e.g., modernization, recession, or discrimination), they agreed that the primary cause for revolution was a widespread frustration with

3431-501: The harvest and other non-religious symbols. Many churches were converted into "temples of reason", in which Deistic services were held. Local people often resisted this dechristianisation and forced members of the clergy who had resigned to conduct Mass again. Maximilien Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety denounced the dechristianizers as foreign enemies of the Revolution, and established their own new religion. This Cult of

3504-417: The late 14th century. The word was limited then to mean the revolving motion of celestial bodies. "Revolution" in the sense of abrupt change in a social order was first recorded in the mid-15th century. By 1688, the political meaning of the word was familiar enough that the replacement of James II with William III was termed the " Glorious Revolution ". "Revolution" is now employed most often to denote

3577-403: The law. Article X – No one may be disturbed for his opinions, even religious ones, provided that their manifestation does not trouble the public order established by the law. On 10 October 1789, the National Constituent Assembly seized the properties and land held by the Catholic Church and decided to sell them to fund the assignat Revolutionary currency. On 12 July 1790, the assembly passed

3650-515: The leaders of the faction were arrested on 13 March 1794. Some twenty of them, including Anacharsis Cloots , Pierre-Ulric Dubuisson , Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel , Jean Conrad de Kock , Antoine-François Momoro , Charles-Philippe Ronsin , François-Nicolas Vincent and Hébert himself were tried before the Revolutionary Tribunal and convicted on 24 March 1794. They went to the guillotine that same evening. Pierre Gaspard Chaumette followed

3723-406: The likelihood of international disputes. Revolutions have been further examined from an anthropological perspective. Drawing on Victor Turner's writings on ritual and performance, Bjorn Thomassen suggested that revolutions can be understood as "liminal" moments: modern political revolutions very much resemble rituals and can therefore be studied within a process approach. This would imply not only

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3796-507: The newly appointed Commission of Twelve ordered the arrest of Hébert, who had been using Le Père Duchesne to incite violence against members of the Girondin faction. The tremendous public outcry and civil unrest which ensued rapidly resulted in Hébert's release. However, rioting continued, culminating in a series of insurrections . On 31 May 1793, a large crowd of sans-culotte agitators surrounded

3869-596: The people. By the end of the decade, approximately thirty thousand priests had been forced to leave France, and several hundred who did not leave were executed. Most French parishes were left without the services of a priest and deprived of the sacraments . Any non-juring priest faced the guillotine or deportation to French Guiana . By Easter 1794, few of France's forty thousand churches remained open; many had been closed, sold, destroyed, or converted to other uses. Victims of revolutionary violence, whether religious or not, were popularly treated as Christian martyrs, and

3942-445: The periphery of a country; others started with urban insurrection aimed at seizing the country's capital city. Revolutions can be inspired by the rising popularity of certain political ideologies , moral principles, or models of governance such as nationalism , republicanism , egalitarianism , self-determination , human rights , democracy , liberalism , fascism , or socialism . A regime may become vulnerable to revolution due to

4015-509: The phenomena of revolutions were usually related to social psychology , such as Le Bon's crowd psychology theory. The second generation sought to develop detailed frameworks, grounded in social behavior theory, to explain why and when revolutions arise. Their work can be divided into three categories: psychological, sociological and political. The writings of Ted Robert Gurr , Ivo K. Feierbrand, Rosalind L. Feierbrand, James A. Geschwender, David C. Schwartz , and Denton E. Morrison fall into

4088-438: The places where they were killed became pilgrimage destinations. Catechising in the home, folk religion , syncretic and heterodox practices all became more common. The long-term effects on religious practice in France were significant. Many who were dissuaded from their traditional religious practices never resumed them. Revolution In political science , a revolution ( Latin : revolutio , 'a turn around')

4161-541: The political sphere. Such revolutions, often labeled social revolutions , are recognized as major transformations in a society's culture, philosophy, or technology, rather than in its political system . Some social revolutions are global in scope, while others are limited to single countries. Commonly cited examples of social revolution are the Industrial Revolution , Scientific Revolution , Commercial Revolution , and Digital Revolution . These revolutions also fit

4234-503: The political". There are numerous typologies of revolution in the social science literature. Alexis de Tocqueville differentiated between: One of the Marxist typologies divides revolutions into: Charles Tilly , a modern scholar of revolutions, differentiated between: Mark Katz identified six forms of revolution: These categories are not mutually exclusive; the Russian Revolution of 1917 began with an urban revolution to depose

4307-464: The psychological school, they differed in their definitions of what causes disequilibrium, but agreed that it is a state of severe disequilibrium that is responsible for revolutions. The third group, including writers such as Charles Tilly , Samuel P. Huntington , Peter Ammann , and Arthur L. Stinchcombe , followed a political science path and looked at pluralist theory and interest group conflict theory . Those theories view events as outcomes of

4380-478: The right to contract marriages without having to convert to the Catholic faith. At the same time, libertine thinkers had popularized atheism and anti-clericalism . The Ancien Régime institutionalised the authority of the clergy in its status as the First Estate of the realm . As the largest landowner in the country, the Catholic Church controlled vast properties and extracted massive revenues from its tenants;

4453-458: The rise of a third generation of theories, put forth by writers such as Theda Skocpol , Barrington Moore , Jeffrey Paige, and others expanding on the old Marxist class-conflict approach. They turned their attention to "rural agrarian-state conflicts, state conflicts with autonomous elites, and the impact of interstate economic and military competition on domestic political change." In particular, Skocpol's States and Social Revolutions (1979)

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4526-411: The second generation came under criticism for being too limited in geographical scope, and for lacking a means of empirical verification. Also, while second-generation theories may have been capable of explaining a specific revolution, they could not adequately explain why revolutions failed to occur in other societies experiencing very similar circumstances. The criticism of the second generation led to

4599-408: The socio-political situation. The second group, composed of academics such as Chalmers Johnson , Neil Smelser , Bob Jessop , Mark Hart , Edward A. Tiryakian, and Mark Hagopian, drew on the work of Talcott Parsons and the structural-functionalist theory in sociology. They saw society as a system in equilibrium between various resources, demands, and subsystems (political, cultural, etc.). As in

4672-462: The state and society sufficiently to yield a notable difference in the Polity score. Instead, Colgan offered a new data set to single out governments that "transform the existing social, political, and economic relationships of the state by overthrowing or rejecting the principal existing institutions of society." This data set has been employed to make empirically based contributions to the literature on revolution by finding links between revolution and

4745-488: The state cancelled the taxing power of the Church. The issue of Church property became central to the policies of the new revolutionary government. Declaring that all Church property in France belonged to the nation, confiscations were ordered and Church properties were sold at public auction . In July 1790, the National Constituent Assembly published the Civil Constitution of the Clergy that stripped clerics of their special rights—the clergy were to be made employees of

4818-447: The state, elected by their parish or bishopric, and the number of bishoprics was to be reduced—and required all priests and bishops to swear an oath of fidelity to the new order or face dismissal, deportation or death. French priests had to receive Papal approval to sign such an oath, and Pius VI spent almost eight months deliberating on the issue. On 13 April 1791, the Pope denounced

4891-455: The struggle for state power". Jack Goldstone defines a revolution thusly: "[Revolution is] an effort to transform the political institutions and the justifications for political authority in society, accompanied by formal or informal mass mobilization and noninstitutionalized actions that undermine authorities. This definition is broad enough to encompass events ranging from the relatively peaceful revolutions that toppled communist regimes to

4964-617: The traditional paradigm of revolutions as class struggle -driven conflicts centered in Europe, and involving a violent state versus its discontented people, was no longer sufficient to account for the multi-class coalitions toppling dictators around the world. Consequently, the study of revolutions began to evolve in three directions. As Goldstone describes it, scholars of revolution: The fourth generation increasingly turned to quantitative techniques when formulating its theories. Political science research moved beyond individual or comparative case studies towards large-N statistical analysis assessing

5037-413: Was a landmark book of the third generation. Skocpol defined revolution as "rapid, basic transformations of society's state and class structures ... accompanied and in part carried through by class-based revolts from below", and she attributed revolutions to "a conjunction of multiple conflicts involving state, elites and the lower classes". In the late 1980s, a new body of academic work started questioning

5110-419: Was disturbing to many less extreme revolutionary politicians, including leading Montagnard figures such as Georges Danton and Maximilien Robespierre —the latter of whom especially disapproved of the Hébertists' atheism . Over the course of October 1793, a number of accusations were leveled against prominent Hébertists by Fabre d'Églantine , a friend and supporter of Danton. Fabre claimed to have discovered

5183-542: Was replaced by the French Republican Calendar which abolished the sabbath , saints' days and any references to the Church. The seven-day week became ten days instead. It soon became clear, however, that nine consecutive days of work were too much, and that international relations could not be carried out without reverting to the Gregorian system, which was still in use everywhere outside of France. Consequently,

5256-634: Was the Festival of Reason , which was held in Notre Dame Cathedral on 10 November 1793. The dechristianization campaign can be seen as the logical extension of the materialist philosophies of some leaders of the Enlightenment such as Voltaire , while for others with more prosaic concerns it provided an opportunity to unleash resentments against the Catholic Church (in the spirit of conventional anti-clericalism ) and its clergy. In August 1789,

5329-589: Was thereby diminished. In December 1793, the journalist Camille Desmoulins —whose political opinions had long been aligned with those of Danton and Robespierre—began publishing a journal, Le Vieux Cordelier , aimed in part at the discrediting of the Hébertist faction. The journal's title alluded to the fact that the Cordeliers Club , formerly a moderate revolutionary society dominated by the policies of Danton, had become overrun by sans-culotte Hébertists and their sympathizers. Desmoulins attacked Hébert for bringing

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