Misplaced Pages

#824175

92-487: The Hytort process is an above-ground shale oil extraction process developed by the Institute of Gas Technology . It is classified as a reactive fluid process, which produces shale oil by hydrogenation . The Hytort process has advantages when processing oil shales containing less hydrogen, such as the eastern United States Devonian oil shales . In this process, oil shale is processed at controlled heating rates in

184-512: A bed of shale moves from top to bottom by gravity. Horizontal retorts are usually horizontal rotating drums or screws where shale moves from one end to the other. As a general rule, vertical retorts process lumps using a gas heat carrier, while horizontal retorts process fines using solid heat carrier. By complexity of technology : In situ technologies are usually classified either as true in situ processes or modified in situ processes. True in situ processes do not involve mining or crushing

276-556: A common law trademark of Unocal.com, which redirects to the Chevron webpage. In April 2005, the United States oil company Chevron made an offer to acquire Unocal for US$ 16.6 billion, which was followed, after the companies had agreed to the transaction, by a competing unsolicited bid from the Chinese firm CNOOC Limited of US$ 18.5 billion on June 22. The final Chevron offer of $ 17.9 billion

368-414: A conventional oil refinery . Particulates in the raw oil clog downstream processes; sulfur and nitrogen create air pollution . Sulfur and nitrogen, along with the arsenic and iron that may be present, also destroy the catalysts used in refining. Olefins form insoluble sediments and cause instability. The oxygen within the oil, present at higher levels than in crude oil , lends itself to

460-439: A diameter of less than 10 millimeters (0.4 in); some technologies use particles even smaller than 2.5 millimeters (0.10 in). The recycled particles are heated in a separate chamber or vessel to about 800 °C (1,470 °F) and then mixed with the raw oil shale to cause the shale to decompose at about 500 °C (932 °F). Oil vapour and shale oil gas are separated from the solids and cooled to condense and collect

552-576: A fifty-six acre site in Kandahar, not far from bin Laden's compounds. ... Gouttiere traveled in and out of Afghanistan and met with Taliban leaders. ... In December 1997 Gouttiere worked with Miller to arrange for another Taliban delegation to visit the United States. ... Unocal seems to have had a deeper role. Intelligence " whistleblower " Julie Sirrs claimed that anti-Taliban leader Ahmad Shah Massoud told her he had "proof that Unocal had provided money that helped

644-442: A given area of land than conventional ex situ processing technologies, as the wells can reach greater depths than surface mines. They present an opportunity to recover shale oil from low-grade deposits that traditional mining techniques could not extract. John Fell experimented with in situ extraction, at Newnes , In Australia, during 1921, with some success, but his ambitions were well ahead of technologies available at

736-503: A gradual increase in output after the start of commercial production, the analysis projects a gradual reduction in processing costs to $ 30–40 per barrel ($ 190–250/m ) after achieving the milestone of 1 billion barrels (160 × 10 ^  m ). The United States Department of Energy estimates that the ex-situ processing would be economic at sustained average world oil prices above $ 54 per barrel and in-situ processing would be economic at prices above $ 35 per barrel. These estimates assume

828-403: A high-pressure hydrogen environment, which allows a carbon conversion rate of around 80%. Hydrogen reacts with coke precursors (a chemical structure in the oil shale that is prone to form char during retorting but has not yet done so). In the case of Eastern US Devonian shales, the reaction roughly doubles the yield of oil, depending on the characteristics of the oil shale and process. In 1980,

920-506: A high-temperature stack of fuel cells . The cells, placed in the oil shale formation, are fueled by natural gas during a warm-up period and afterward by oil shale gas generated by its own waste heat . Externally generated hot gas in situ technologies use hot gases heated above-ground and then injected into the oil shale formation. The Chevron CRUSH process, which was researched by Chevron Corporation in partnership with Los Alamos National Laboratory , injects heated carbon dioxide into

1012-426: A lower-temperature heating method similar to in situ processes by operating within the confines of an earthen structure. A hot gas circulated through parallel pipes heats the oil shale rubble. An installation within the empty space created by mining would permit rapid reclamation of the topography. A general drawback of conduction through a wall technologies is that the retorts are more costly when scaled-up due to

SECTION 10

#1732887626825

1104-463: A mild carcinogenic potential which is comparable to some intermediate refinery products, while upgraded shale oil has lower carcinogenic potential as most of the polycyclic aromatics are believed to broken down by hydrogenation. Although raw shale oil can be immediately burnt as a fuel oil, many of its applications require that it be upgraded. The differing properties of the raw oils call for correspondingly various pre-treatments before it can be sent to

1196-678: A need to cut costs in addition to regional instability. Unocal was also the third-largest member of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean Sea . Unocal entered the Indonesian market in 1961. Under the leadership of Henry L. Brandon (VP of International Development), Union Oil was the first US oil company to sign a production sharing agreement (contract of work) with President Suharto . Union Oil

1288-618: A return rate of 15%. Royal Dutch Shell announced in 2006 that its Shell ICP technology would realize a profit when crude oil prices are higher than $ 30 per barrel ($ 190/m ), while some technologies at full-scale production assert profitability at oil prices even lower than $ 20 per barrel ($ 130/m ). To increase the efficiency of oil shale retorting and by this the viability of the shale oil production, researchers have proposed and tested several co-pyrolysis processes, in which other materials such as biomass , peat , waste bitumen , or rubber and plastic wastes are retorted along with

1380-513: A source of energy, and the heat contained in hot spent oil shale and oil shale ash may be used to pre-heat the raw oil shale. For ex situ processing, oil shale is crushed into smaller pieces, increasing surface area for better extraction. The temperature at which decomposition of oil shale occurs depends on the time-scale of the process. In ex situ retorting processes, it begins at 300 °C (570 °F) and proceeds more rapidly and completely at higher temperatures. The amount of oil produced

1472-533: A speech on Indonesian Independence Day in August 1961, then president Sukarno talked at some length about "production sharing", which included language written into the contract by Union executives. The company expanded to national status in 1965, when Union Oil merged with the Pure Oil Company, headquartered in what was then Palatine, Illinois , and now Schaumburg, Illinois . Over the next two decades, Union became

1564-452: A strange sheen on the ocean surface, and dead seals and sea lions began washing up onto the beach. Although Unocal denied having any problems, records discovered by state fish and game officers disclosed that Unocal had long been aware of the leaks. Unocal has been actively cleaning up the site since the mid-90s, receiving praise from the Sierra Club for their habitat restoration work. In

1656-596: Is a California Historical Landmark and museum. About 1910, Union Oil made a strategic alliance with the Independent Producers Agency, a group of small oil producers, to build pipelines from the Kern County oil fields to Union Oil facilities on the Pacific coast. This gave the independent producers an alternative to what they perceived as the low prices paid by Standard Oil and the high freight rates charged by

1748-465: Is a by-product of coal mining such as at Fushun China, produce specialty chemicals as by Viru Keemia Grupp in Estonia, co-generate electricity from the waste heat and process high grade oil shale that yields more oil per shale processed. Unocal Corporation Union Oil Company of California , and its holding company Unocal Corporation , together known as Unocal / ˈ juː n oʊ k æ l /

1840-403: Is conducted by pyrolysis , hydrogenation , or thermal dissolution . The efficiencies of extraction processes are often evaluated by comparing their yields to the results of a Fischer Assay performed on a sample of the shale. The oldest and the most common extraction method involves pyrolysis (also known as retorting or destructive distillation ). In this process, oil shale is heated in

1932-449: Is controlled by P.D.V.S.A. In 1997, Unocal sold its western United States refining and marketing operations to Tosco Corporation , including the rights to the Union 76 brand for refining and marketing (except in states where Uno-Ven operated). Tosco was later acquired by Phillips Petroleum , which later merged with Conoco to form ConocoPhillips . As of February 2024, Chevron still maintains

SECTION 20

#1732887626825

2024-485: Is diluted by combustion gases and particles smaller than 10 millimeters (0.4 in) can not be processed. Uneven distribution of gas across the retort can result in blockages when hot spots cause particles to fuse or disintegrate. Hot recycled solids technologies deliver heat to the oil shale by recycling hot solid particles—typically oil shale ash. These technologies usually employ rotating kiln or fluidized bed retorts, fed by fine oil shale particles generally having

2116-427: Is done above or below ground, and classifies the technologies broadly as ex situ (displaced) or in situ (in place). In ex situ processing, also known as above-ground retorting , the oil shale is mined either underground or at the surface and then transported to a processing facility. In contrast, in situ processing converts the kerogen while it is still in the form of an oil shale deposit, following which it

2208-453: Is no longer an operating station, but the building continues to stand, serving as an event space. The 76 logo is often seen in other Major League Baseball and National Football League stadiums on the west coast. In 1969, a blowout on the ocean bottom near Union Oil's Platform "A" on the Dos Cuadras field leaked between 80,000 and 100,000 barrels (16,000 m ) of oil into the water of

2300-445: Is not diluted with combustion exhaust gas. Another advantage is that there is no limit on the smallest particles that the retort can process, thus allowing all the crushed feed to be used. One disadvantage is that more water is used to handle the resulting finer shale ash. These technologies transfer heat to the oil shale by conducting it through the retort wall. The shale feed usually consists of fine particles. Their advantage lies in

2392-408: Is passed, and vertical wells, which provide both vertical heat transfer through refluxing of converted shale oil and a means to collect the produced hydrocarbons. Heat is supplied by combustion of natural gas or propane in the initial phase and by oil shale gas at a later stage. The Geothermic Fuels Cells Process (IEP GFC) proposed by Independent Energy Partners extracts shale oil by exploiting

2484-428: Is processing without using water. In situ technologies heat oil shale underground by injecting hot fluids into the rock formation, or by using linear or planar heating sources followed by thermal conduction and convection to distribute heat through the target area. Shale oil is then recovered through vertical wells drilled into the formation. These technologies are potentially able to extract more shale oil from

2576-430: Is the highest when the temperature ranges between 480 and 520 °C (900 and 970 °F). The ratio of oil shale gas to shale oil generally increases along with retorting temperatures. For a modern in situ process, which might take several months of heating, decomposition may be conducted at temperatures as low as 250 °C (480 °F). Temperatures below 600 °C (1,110 °F) are preferable, as this prevents

2668-423: Is then extracted via oil wells , where it rises in the same way as conventional crude oil. Unlike ex situ processing, it does not involve mining or spent oil shale disposal aboveground as spent oil shale stays underground. By heating method : The method of transferring heat from combustion products to the oil shale may be classified as direct or indirect. While methods that allow combustion products to contact

2760-477: Is tightly bound to the shale and resists dissolution by most solvents . Despite this constraint, extraction using especially reactive fluids has been tested, including those in a supercritical state. Reactive fluid technologies are suitable for processing oil shales with a low hydrogen content. In these technologies, hydrogen gas (H 2 ) or hydrogen donors (chemicals that donate hydrogen during chemical reactions) react with coke precursors (chemical structures in

2852-503: The Indian Ocean , at a time after the Taliban siege of Kabul in 1996. On August 10, 2005, Unocal merged its entire upstream petroleum business with Chevron and became a wholly-owned subsidiary . Unocal then ceased operations as an independent company, but continues to conduct many operations as Union Oil Company of California, a Chevron company . The Union Oil Company of California

Hytort process - Misplaced Pages Continue

2944-503: The Santa Barbara Channel , near Santa Barbara, California . The event led to widespread criticism of both Union Oil and the offshore oil drilling industry, and was one of the events leading to the passage of the 1970 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). Oil pipes under Avila Beach, California , leaked from the 1950s until 1996. A real estate firm determined the soil to be contaminated in 1989 and Unocal agreed to clean up

3036-663: The Taliban were in the process of taking control of the country. Unocal rented a house in central Kandahar directly across the street from one of [Osama] bin Laden's new compounds. They did not choose this location deliberately. Most of the decent houses in town straddled the Herat Bazaar Road. Also near was the Pakistani consulate, which housed officers from [the Pakistani military Inter-Services Intelligence , the] ISI. In 1997, Robert Oakley [ex-US ambassador to Pakistan, now on Unocal's ad hoc advisory board] advised Miller to reach

3128-574: The United Nations . In the 1980s, CIA chief Bill Casey had revived the agency's practice of gaining intelligence from traveling businessmen. Marty Miller, one of Unocal's top executives, conducted negotiations in several Central Asian countries from 1995, and voluntarily provided information gained on these trips to the CIA's Houston station. In 1996, Unocal opened an office in Kandahar , Afghanistan, while

3220-464: The endothermic kerogen decomposition reactions require a source of energy. Some technologies burn other fossil fuels such as natural gas, oil, or coal to generate this heat and experimental methods have used electricity, radio waves , microwaves , or reactive fluids for this purpose. Two strategies are used to reduce, and even eliminate, external heat energy requirements: the oil shale gas and char by-products generated by pyrolysis may be burned as

3312-428: The hydraulic fractures created in the oil shale formation which then forms a heating element. Heating wells are placed in a parallel row with a second horizontal well intersecting them at their toe. This allows opposing electrical charges to be applied at either end. The Illinois Institute of Technology developed the concept of oil shale volumetric heating using radio waves (radio frequency processing) during

3404-664: The oil shale industry from the coal industry. China ( Manchuria ), Estonia, New Zealand , South Africa , Spain , Sweden , and Switzerland began extracting shale oil in the early 20th century. However, crude oil discoveries in Texas during the 1920s and in the Middle East in the mid 20th century brought most oil shale industries to a halt. In 1944, the US recommenced shale oil extraction as part of its Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program . These industries continued until oil prices fell sharply in

3496-646: The 10th century, the Assyrian physician Masawaih al-Mardini (Mesue the Younger) wrote of his experiments in extracting oil from "some kind of bituminous shale". The first shale oil extraction patent was granted by the English Crown in 1684 to three people who had "found a way to extract and make great quantities of pitch, tarr, and oyle out of a sort of stone". Modern industrial extraction of shale oil originated in France with

3588-576: The 1980s. The last oil shale retort in the US, operated by Unocal Corporation , closed in 1991. The US program was restarted in 2003, followed by a commercial leasing program in 2005 permitting the extraction of oil shale and oil sands on federal lands in accordance with the Energy Policy Act of 2005 . As of 2010 , shale oil extraction is in operation in Estonia, Brazil, and China. In 2008, their industries produced about 930,000  tonnes (17,700 barrels per day) of shale oil. Australia,

3680-604: The HYCRUDE Corporation was established to commercialize the Hytort technology. The feasibility study was conducted by HYCRUDE Corporation, Phillips Petroleum Company , Bechtel Group and the Institute of Gas Technology. Shale oil extraction Shale oil extraction is usually performed above ground ( ex situ processing) by mining the oil shale and then treating it in processing facilities . Other modern technologies perform

3772-527: The Taliban by working through Pakistan's government [then led by Benazir Bhutto ]. He also suggested that Unocal hire Thomas Gouttiere, an Afghan specialist at the University of Nebraska at Omaha, to develop a job training program in Kandahar that would teach Pashtuns the technical skills needed to build a pipeline. ... Unocal agreed to pay $ 900,000 via the University of Nebraska to set up a Unocal training facility on

Hytort process - Misplaced Pages Continue

3864-500: The Taliban take Kabul [in 1996]". And French journalist Richard Labeviere said, referring to the later 1990s, "The CIA and Unocal's security forces ... provided military weapons and instructors to several Taleban militia[s] ..." US State Department officials openly promoted the pipeline, and former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger served as a Unocal consultant. The Taliban and Unocal were in negotiations in Texas to discuss arrangements for

3956-448: The US, and Canada have tested shale oil extraction techniques via demonstration projects and are planning commercial implementation; Morocco and Jordan have announced their intent to do the same. Only four processes are in commercial use: Kiviter , Galoter , Fushun , and Petrosix . Shale oil extraction process decomposes oil shale and converts its kerogen into shale oil—a petroleum -like synthetic crude oil. The process

4048-479: The United States. The first modified in situ oil shale experiment in the United States was conducted by Occidental Petroleum in 1972 at Logan Wash, Colorado. Newer technologies are being explored that use a variety of heat sources and heat delivery systems. Wall conduction in situ technologies use heating elements or heating pipes placed within the oil shale formation. The Shell in situ conversion process (Shell ICP) uses electrical heating elements for heating

4140-442: The absence of oxygen until its kerogen decomposes into condensable shale oil vapors and non-condensable combustible oil shale gas . Oil vapors and oil shale gas are then collected and cooled, causing the shale oil to condense . In addition, oil shale processing produces spent oil shale, which is a solid residue. Spent shale consists of inorganic compounds ( minerals ) and char —a carbonaceous residue formed from kerogen. Burning

4232-524: The additional cost and complexity of hydrogen production and high-pressure retort vessels. Several experimental tests have been conducted for the oil-shale gasification by using plasma technologies. In these technologies, oil shale is bombarded by radicals ( ions ). The radicals crack kerogen molecules forming synthetic gas and oil. Air, hydrogen or nitrogen are used as plasma gas and processes may operate in an arc , plasma arc , or plasma electrolysis mode. The main benefit of these technologies

4324-564: The assets acquired was Mountain Pass rare earth mine , then the world's largest producer of rare earth elements . In 1989, Unocal placed its midwest refining and marketing assets, including Union's 150,000-barrel-per-day (24,000 m /d) Lemont Refinery in Lemont, Illinois , into a 50/50 joint venture with Petróleos de Venezuela, S.A. (P.D.V.S.A.). The joint venture, known as the Uno-Ven Company,

4416-623: The beginning of the 21st century have led to renewed interest, accompanied by the development and testing of newer technologies. As of 2010, major long-standing extraction industries are operating in Estonia , Brazil , and China . Its economic viability usually requires a lack of locally available crude oil. National energy security issues have also played a role in its development. Critics of shale oil extraction pose questions about environmental management issues, such as waste disposal, extensive water use, waste water management, and air pollution. In

4508-408: The char off the spent shale produces oil shale ash. Spent shale and shale ash can be used as ingredients in cement or brick manufacture. The composition of the oil shale may lend added value to the extraction process through the recovery of by-products, including ammonia , sulfur , aromatic compounds , pitch , asphalt , and waxes . Heating the oil shale to pyrolysis temperature and completing

4600-582: The composition of the parent oil shale and the extraction technology used. Like conventional oil, shale oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, and it is characterized using bulk properties of the oil. Shale oil usually contains large quantities of olefinic and aromatic hydrocarbons. Shale oil can also contain significant quantities of heteroatoms . A typical shale oil composition includes 0.5–1% of oxygen , 1.5–2% of nitrogen and 0.15–1% of sulfur , and some deposits contain more heteroatoms. Mineral particles and metals are often present as well. Generally,

4692-411: The decomposition of limestone and dolomite in the rock and thereby limits carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption. Hydrogenation and thermal dissolution (reactive fluid processes) extract the oil using hydrogen donors , solvents , or a combination of these. Thermal dissolution involves the application of solvents at elevated temperatures and pressures, increasing oil output by cracking

SECTION 50

#1732887626825

4784-462: The dissolved organic matter. Different methods produce shale oil with different properties. Industry analysts have created several classifications of the technologies used to extract shale oil from oil shale. By process principles : Based on the treatment of raw oil shale by heat and solvents the methods are classified as pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution. By location : A frequently used distinction considers whether processing

4876-524: The fact that retort vapors are not combined with combustion exhaust. The Combustion Resources process uses a hydrogen–fired rotating kiln, where hot gas is circulated through an outer annulus . The Oil-Tech staged electrically heated retort consists of individual inter-connected heating chambers, stacked atop each other. Its principal advantage lies in its modular design , which enhances its portability and adaptability. The Red Leaf Resources EcoShale In-Capsule Process combines surface mining with

4968-437: The formation of destructive free radicals . Hydrodesulfurization and hydrodenitrogenation can address these problems and result in a product comparable to benchmark crude oil . Phenols can be first be removed by water extraction. Upgrading shale oil into transport fuels requires adjusting hydrogen–carbon ratios by adding hydrogen ( hydrocracking ) or removing carbon ( coking ). Before World War II , most shale oil

5060-750: The formation via drilled wells and to heat the formation through a series of horizontal fractures through which the gas is circulated. General Synfuels International has proposed the Omnishale process involving injection of super-heated air into the oil shale formation. Mountain West Energy 's In Situ Vapor Extraction process uses similar principles of injection of high-temperature gas. ExxonMobil 's in situ technology ( ExxonMobil Electrofrac ) uses electrical heating with elements of both wall conduction and volumetric heating methods. It injects an electrically conductive material such as calcined petroleum coke into

5152-612: The gas pipeline from Turkmenistan to Pakistan in 1997 although it faced competition with from the Argentine Bridas Corporation . While no deal was ultimately agreed with either company, the Taliban were leaning toward making a deal with Unocal as of August 1998. The company suspended work on the project following the U.S. cruise missile strikes on Afghanistan in response to the 1998 U.S. Embassy bombings and completely pulled out in December 1998 citing low oil prices and

5244-586: The grounds that its implications for national security needed to be reviewed. Unocal was one of the key players in the CentGas consortium, an attempt to build the Trans-Afghanistan Pipeline to run from the Caspian area, through Afghanistan and probably Pakistan , to the Indian Ocean . One of the consultants to Unocal at that time was Zalmay Khalilzad , former US ambassador to Afghanistan , Iraq , and

5336-557: The implementation of a process invented by Alexander Selligue in 1838, improved upon a decade later in Scotland using a process invented by James Young . During the late 19th century, plants were built in Australia, Brazil, Canada, and the United States. The 1894 invention of the Pumpherston retort , which was much less reliant on coal heat than its predecessors, marked the separation of

5428-478: The late 1970s. This technology was further developed by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . Oil shale is heated by vertical electrode arrays . Deeper volumes could be processed at slower heating rates by installations spaced at tens of meters. The concept presumes a radio frequency at which the skin depth is many tens of meters, thereby overcoming the thermal diffusion times needed for conductive heating. Its drawbacks include intensive electrical demand and

5520-471: The lighter hydrocarbons used in gasoline. The dominant question for shale oil production is under what conditions shale oil is economically viable. According to the United States Department of Energy , the capital costs of a 100,000 barrels per day (16,000 m /d) ex-situ processing complex are $ 3–10 billion. The various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have succeeded only when

5612-796: The major oil producer in southern Alaska and a major natural gas producer in the Gulf of Mexico . The company was reorganized in 1983, and Union Oil Company of California became an operating subsidiary of a new Delaware-based holding company, Unocal Corporation. In 1985, Mesa Petroleum, controlled by billionaire T. Boone Pickens , attempted a takeover of Unocal Corp. that resulted in the Delaware Supreme Court landmark decision Unocal v. Mesa Petroleum , which upheld Unocal's takeover defense. Virtually all operations are conducted by Union Oil Company of California (Union Oil). In 1977, Unocal acquired The Molybdenum Corporation of America (now Molycorp ). Among

SECTION 60

#1732887626825

5704-439: The oil is less fluid than crude oil, becoming pourable at temperatures between 24 and 27 °C (75 and 81 °F), while conventional crude oil is pourable at temperatures between −60 and 30 °C (−76 and 86 °F); this property affects shale oil's ability to be transported in existing pipelines. Shale oil contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons which are carcinogenic . It has been described that raw shale oil has

5796-461: The oil shale formation. The microwave heating process was tested by Global Resource Corporation . Electro-Petroleum proposes electrically enhanced oil recovery by the passage of direct current between cathodes in producing wells and anodes located either at the surface or at depth in other wells. The passage of the current through the oil shale formation results in resistive Joule heating . The properties of raw shale oil vary depending on

5888-477: The oil shale in a dryer before mixing with hot ash. The TOSCO II process uses ceramic balls instead of shale ash as the hot recycled solids. The distinguishing feature of the Alberta Taciuk Process (ATP) is that the entire process occurs in a single rotating multi–chamber horizontal vessel. Because the hot recycle solids are heated in a separate furnace, the oil shale gas from these technologies

5980-413: The oil shale layer to between 340 and 370 °C (650 and 700 °F) over a period of approximately four years. The processing area is isolated from surrounding groundwater by a freeze wall consisting of wells filled with a circulating super-chilled fluid. Disadvantages of this process are large electrical power consumption, extensive water use, and the risk of groundwater pollution . The process

6072-778: The oil shale that are prone to form char during retorting but have not yet done so). Reactive fluid technologies include the IGT Hytort (high-pressure H 2 ) process, donor solvent processes, and the Chattanooga fluidized bed reactor . In the IGT Hytort oil shale is processed in a high-pressure hydrogen environment. The Chattanooga process uses a fluidized bed reactor and an associated hydrogen-fired heater for oil shale thermal cracking and hydrogenation. Laboratory results indicate that these technologies can often obtain significantly higher oil yields than pyrolysis processes. Drawbacks are

6164-747: The oil shale within the retort are classified as direct , methods that burn materials external to the retort to heat another material that contacts the oil shale are described as indirect By heat carrier : Based on the material used to deliver heat energy to the oil shale, processing technologies have been classified into gas heat carrier, solid heat carrier, wall conduction, reactive fluid, and volumetric heating methods. Heat carrier methods can be sub-classified as direct or indirect. The following table shows extraction technologies classified by heating method, heat carrier and location ( in situ or ex situ ). By raw oil shale particle size : The various ex situ processing technologies may be differentiated by

6256-445: The oil shale. Some modified technologies propose combining a fluidized bed retort with a circulated fluidized bed furnace for burning the by-products of pyrolysis (char and oil shale gas) and thereby improving oil yield, increasing throughput, and decreasing retorting time. Other ways of improving the economics of shale oil extraction could be to increase the size of the operation to achieve economies of scale , use oil shale that

6348-552: The oil shale. Modified in situ processes involve drilling and fracturing the target oil shale deposit to create voids in the deposit. The voids enable a better flow of gases and fluids through the deposit, thereby increasing the volume and quality of the shale oil produced. Internal combustion technologies burn materials (typically char and oil shale gas) within a vertical shaft retort to supply heat for pyrolysis. Typically raw oil shale particles between 12 millimetres (0.5 in) and 75 millimetres (3.0 in) in size are fed into

6440-473: The oil. Heat recovered from the combustion gases and shale ash may be used to dry and preheat the raw oil shale before it is mixed with the hot recycle solids. In the Galoter and Enefit processes, the spent oil shale is burnt in a separate furnace and the resulting hot ash is separated from the combustion gas and mixed with oil shale particles in a rotating kiln. Combustion gases from the furnace are used to dry

6532-466: The possibility that groundwater or char would absorb undue amounts of the energy. Radio frequency processing in conjunction with critical fluids is being developed by Raytheon together with CF Technologies and tested by Schlumberger . Microwave heating technologies are based on the same principles as radio wave heating, although it is believed that radio wave heating is an improvement over microwave heating because its energy can penetrate farther into

6624-479: The potential heat of combusting the char on the spent shale and thus must burn more valuable fuels. However, due to the lack of combustion of the spent shale, the oil shale does not exceed 500 °C (932 °F) and significant carbonate mineral decomposition and subsequent CO 2 generation can be avoided for some oil shales. Also, these technologies tend to be the more stable and easier to control than internal combustion or hot solid recycle technologies. Kerogen

6716-480: The processing underground (on-site or in situ processing) by applying heat and extracting the oil via oil wells . The earliest description of the process dates to the 10th century. In 1684, England granted the first formal extraction process patent. Extraction industries and innovations became widespread during the 19th century. The industry shrank in the mid-20th century following the discovery of large reserves of conventional oil , but high petroleum prices at

6808-667: The railroads to move crude oil. It gave Union access to a large volume of crude oil. The situation was later fictionalized in the 2007 film There Will Be Blood . In 1919, the Union Oil Company of Delaware was incorporated as a holding company for the Union Oil Company of California. In 1920, Union Oil purchased the Central Petroleum Company from the Texas Company . In 1922, the Union Oil Associates, Inc.,

6900-590: The resulting large amount of heat conducting walls made of high-temperature alloys. In general, externally generated hot gas technologies are similar to internal combustion technologies in that they also process oil shale lumps in vertical shaft kilns. Significantly, though, the heat in these technologies is delivered by gases heated outside the retort vessel, and therefore the retort vapors are not diluted with combustion exhaust. The Petrosix and Paraho Indirect employ this technology. In addition to not accepting fine particles as feed, these technologies do not utilize

6992-512: The retort and a pump moves it upward. In the Superior Direct process, oil shale is processed in a horizontal, segmented, doughnut-shaped traveling-grate retort . Internal combustion technologies such as the Paraho Direct are thermally efficient , since combustion of char on the spent shale and heat recovered from the shale ash and evolved gases can provide all the heat requirements of

7084-403: The retort. In the lower part of the retort, air is injected for the combustion which heats the spent oil shale and gases to between 700 °C (1,292 °F) and 900 °C (1,650 °F). Cold recycled gas may enter the bottom of the retort to cool the shale ash. The Union A and Superior Direct processes depart from this pattern. In the Union A process, oil shale is fed through the bottom of

7176-406: The retort. These technologies can achieve 80–90% of Fischer assay yield. Two well-established shale oil industries use internal combustion technologies: Kiviter process facilities have been operated continuously in Estonia since the 1920s, and a number of Chinese companies operate Fushun process facilities. Common drawbacks of internal combustion technologies are that the combustible oil shale gas

7268-527: The shale-oil production cost in a given region is lower than the price of petroleum or its other substitutes. According to a survey conducted by the RAND Corporation , the cost of producing shale oil at a hypothetical surface retorting complex in the United States (comprising a mine, retorting plant, upgrading plant , supporting utilities, and spent oil shale reclamation), would be in a range of $ 70–95 per barrel ($ 440–600/m ), adjusted to 2005 values. Assuming

7360-494: The size of the oil shale particles that are fed into the retorts. As a rule, gas heat carrier technologies process oil shale lumps varying in diameter from 10 to 100 millimeters (0.4 to 3.9 in), while solid heat carrier and wall conduction technologies process fines which are particles less than 10 millimeters (0.4 in) in diameter. By retort orientation : "Ex-situ" technologies are sometimes classified as vertical or horizontal. Vertical retorts are usually shaft kilns where

7452-629: The soil they contaminated. To clean up the massive spill, the crew had to excavate enough soil to fill a football field up to 60 feet (18 m) high. Between the mid-1950s and 1994, Unocal leaked 18 million US gallons (68,000 m ) of diluent —a petroleum derivative pumped into heavy oil fields to make the oil flow freely—under the Guadalupe-Nipomo Dunes and nearby ocean water, the largest oil spill in California's history. The pipelines had leaks in at least 90 places. Locals had noticed

7544-527: The time. During World War II a modified in situ extraction process was implemented without significant success in Germany. One of the earliest successful in situ processes was underground gasification by electrical energy ( Ljungström method)—a process exploited between 1940 and 1966 for shale oil extraction at Kvarntorp in Sweden. Prior to the 1980s, many variations of the in situ process were explored in

7636-419: The top of the retort and are heated by the rising hot gases, which pass through the descending oil shale, thereby causing decomposition of the kerogen at about 500 °C (932 °F) . Shale oil mist, evolved gases and cooled combustion gases are removed from the top of the retort then moved to separation equipment. Condensed shale oil is collected, while non-condensable gas is recycled and used to carry heat up

7728-536: Was a major petroleum explorer and marketer in the late 19th century, through the 20th century, and into the early 21st century. It was headquartered in El Segundo , California , United States. Unocal was involved in domestic and global energy projects. Unocal was one of the key players in the CentGas consortium, which attempted to build the Trans-Afghanistan Pipeline to run from the Caspian area, through Afghanistan, to

7820-537: Was an initial sponsor of the Los Angeles Dodgers when the team relocated from Brooklyn in 1958. The 76 logo was the only corporate sponsorship visible in Dodger Stadium for many years after it opened in 1962. 76 logos currently adorn the batter's on-deck circles and the logo is atop the two large scoreboards in right and left field. A 76 gas station was located in the Dodger Stadium parking lot for decades. It

7912-582: Was approved by Unocal shareholders on August 10. The final CNOOC bid was nearly 5% greater than that of Chevron, but faced significant political opposition from the United States Congress and was finally withdrawn by CNOOC August 2 citing the associated political uncertainty. Following a vote in the United States House of Representatives , the CNOOC bid was referred to President George W. Bush , on

8004-767: Was founded on October 17, 1890, in Santa Paula, California , by Lyman Stewart , Thomas Bard , and Wallace Hardison . It was a merger of three Southern Californian oil companies: the Sespe Oil Company and the Torrey Canyon Oil Company (both owned by Bard) and the Hardison and Stewart Oil Company. All three were notable as being completely unaffiliated with Standard Oil . Union Oil moved its headquarters to Los Angeles in 1901. The original headquarters in Santa Paula

8096-516: Was headquartered in Arlington Heights, Illinois , and primarily comprising employees from Union Oil's then Schaumburg, Illinois , division headquarters and Lemont, Illinois , refinery. The joint venture was dissolved in 1997, with P.D.V.S.A. receiving full ownership. During the life of the joint venture, the familiar Union 76 brand name continued in full force. At the termination of the joint venture, most stations were converted to Citgo , which

8188-421: Was incorporated in California as a holding company to prevent control of the Union Oil Company of California passing to foreign interests after the merger of the Union Oil Company of Delaware with Royal Dutch Company . In 1961, Union entered the Indonesian oil market. Henry L. Brandon , Union's vice president of international development wrote a "contract of work" arrangement, which was a first for Indonesia. In

8280-619: Was tested since the early 1980s at the Mahogany test site in the Piceance Basin . 270 cubic meters (1,700 bbl) of oil were extracted in 2004 at a 9-by-12-meter (30 by 40 ft) testing area. In the CCR Process proposed by American Shale Oil , superheated steam or another heat transfer medium is circulated through a series of pipes placed below the oil shale layer to be extracted. The system combines horizontal wells, through which steam

8372-522: Was the sponsor of the Major Burnham Bowling Trophy, an annual California bowling event supported by the Boy Scouts of America and named after Major Frederick Russell Burnham . 76 was the official fuel and motor oil of NASCAR from the sport's inaugural season in 1948 until the end of the 2003 season when Sunoco became the official fuel and Mobil 1 became the official motor oil. 76

8464-517: Was upgraded for use as transport fuels. Afterwards, it was used as a raw material for chemical intermediates, pure chemicals and industrial resins, and as a railroad wood preservative . As of 2008, it is primarily used as a heating oil and marine fuel, and to a lesser extent in the production of various chemicals. Shale oil's concentration of high-boiling point compounds is suited for the production of middle distillates such as kerosene , jet fuel and diesel fuel . Additional cracking can create

#824175