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52-603: The company went out of business on the 1st of April 2018, after losing out on a second round of grants from the Department of Energy in January 2016. Hyperion announced in November 2009 that, despite their continued intentions to pursue the self-moderated uranium hydride reactor, an improvement need for a licensable and deployable reactor were causing them to choose another LANL design for initial commercialization. They shifted focus to

104-653: A gold-colored symbolic sun , atom , oil derrick , windmill , and dynamo . It is crested by the white head of an eagle , atop a white rope. Both appear on a blue field surrounded by concentric circles in which the name of the agency, in gold, appears on a green background." "The eagle represents the care in planning and the purposefulness of efforts required to respond to the Nation's increasing demands for energy . The sun , atom , oil derrick , windmill , and dynamo serve as representative technologies whose enhanced development can help meet these demands. The rope represents

156-584: A higher thermal efficiency. The presentation by Hyperion at the ANS 2009 conference mentions the use of the Doppler inherent negative temperature coefficient of reactivity in this reactor as a means of control. Nuclear scientist Alexander Sesonske states that nitride fuels have both received very little development (as of 1973) and seem to have a very favorable combination of physical properties – especially in fast reactors. Whether this carries over to lead-bismuth cooled reactors

208-409: A minimum of one year, and more typically 10 to 20 years, in a spent fuel pool of water before being further processed. However, the heat produced during this time is still only a small fraction (less than 10%) of the heat produced in the first week after shutdown. If no cooling system is working to remove the decay heat from a crippled and newly shut down reactor, the decay heat may cause the core of

260-461: A more conventional Generation IV reactor design : a uranium nitride fueled, lead-bismuth cooled reactor. They believed that using a liquid-metal-cooled fast reactor would speed the time to commercialization over the uranium hydride, self-moderating design that had previously been publicly discussed. According to Hyperion, the uranium nitride fuel incorporated in the design is generally similar in physical characteristics and neutronics to

312-564: A political appointee of the President of the United States . The Energy Secretary is assisted in managing the department by a United States Deputy Secretary of Energy , also appointed by the president, who assumes the duties of the secretary in the secretary's absence. The department also has three under secretaries, each appointed by the president, who oversee the major areas of the department's work. The president also appoints seven officials with

364-619: A specific nuclear device. Wen Ho Lee was accused of stealing nuclear secrets from Los Alamos National Laboratory for the People's Republic of China . Federal officials, including then-Energy Secretary Bill Richardson , publicly named Lee as a suspect before he was charged with a crime. The U.S. Congress held hearings to investigate the Department of Energy's handling of his case. Republican senators thought that an independent agency should be in charge of nuclear weapons and security issues, rather than

416-447: A steady state, this heat from delayed fission product beta decay contributes 6.5% of the normal reactor heat output. When a nuclear reactor has been shut down , and nuclear fission is not occurring at a large scale, the major source of heat production will be due to the delayed beta decay of these fission products (which originated as fission fragments). For this reason, at the moment of reactor shutdown, decay heat will be about 6.5% of

468-557: Is a question not answered in the reviewed literature, though the Soviet Union has worked with this type of reactor before in naval service; in particular, the Alfa class submarine – well known in the West for its high speed operation – was driven by such a lead-bismuth reactor which is known to have worked very effectively. The Hyperion module has sufficient fuel for 3,650 full power days at 70 MWth,

520-542: Is an executive department of the U.S. federal government that oversees U.S. national energy policy and energy production , the research and development of nuclear power , the military's nuclear weapons program , nuclear reactor production for the United States Navy , energy-related research, and energy conservation . The DOE was created in 1977 in the aftermath of the 1973 oil crisis . It sponsors more physical science research than any other U.S. federal agency,

572-488: Is capable of load following, and is meant to be built in pairs; one module can be at power, while another can be under installation or uninstallation at the same time. Hyperion planned to use natural circulation of the lead-bismuth coolant through the reactor module as a means of primary cooling. Coolant temperatures within the primary loop should be approximately 500 °C (932 °F). Powered intermediate heat exchangers , also using lead-bismuth coolant, are located within

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624-504: Is focused on a particular energy challenge. Two of the eight hubs are included in the EERE budget and will focus on integrating smart materials, designs, and systems into buildings to better conserve energy and on designing and discovering new concepts and materials needed to convert solar energy into electricity. Another two hubs, included in the DOE Office of Science budget, were created to tackle

676-538: Is produced as an effect of radiation on materials: the energy of the alpha , beta or gamma radiation is converted into the thermal movement of atoms. Decay heat occurs naturally from decay of long-lived radioisotopes that are primordially present from the Earth's formation. In nuclear reactor engineering, decay heat continues to be generated after the reactor has been shut down (see SCRAM and nuclear chain reactions ) and power generation has been suspended. The decay of

728-505: Is reached; it does not greatly expand or contract when exposed to heat or cold; it has a high heat capacity ; it will naturally circulate through the reactor core without pumps being required – whether during normal operation or as a means of residual decay heat removal; and it will solidify once decay heat from a used reactor has dropped to a low level. See List of small nuclear reactor designs United States Department of Energy The United States Department of Energy ( DOE )

780-439: Is still 6.5% of the previous core power if the reactor has had a long and steady power history . About 1 hour after shutdown, the decay heat will be about 1.5% of the previous core power. After a day, the decay heat falls to 0.4%, and after a week, it will be only 0.2%. Because radioisotopes of all half-life lengths are present in nuclear waste , enough decay heat continues to be produced in spent fuel rods to require them to spend

832-429: Is the reactor power before shutdown, and τ s {\displaystyle \tau _{s}} is the time of reactor shutdown measured from the time of startup (in seconds), so that ( τ − τ s ) {\displaystyle (\tau -\tau _{s})} is the elapsed time since shutdown. For an approach with a more direct physical basis, some models use

884-412: Is usually achieved through several redundant and diverse systems, from which heat is removed via heat exchangers. Water is passed through the secondary side of the heat exchanger via the essential service water system which dissipates the heat into the 'ultimate heat sink', often a sea, river or large lake. In locations without a suitable body of water, the heat is dissipated into the air by recirculating

936-493: The World Institute for Nuclear Security (WINS), an international non-governmental organization designed to provide a forum to share best practices in strengthening the security and safety of nuclear and radioactive materials and facilities. The department announced a reorganization with new names of under secretaries in 2022. The department is under the control and supervision of a United States Secretary of Energy ,

988-466: The beta decay of fission products . About 10 MeV of the energy released from the beta decay of fission products is in the form of neutrinos , and since neutrinos are very weakly interacting, this 10 MeV of energy will not be deposited in the reactor core. This results in 13 MeV (6.5% of the total fission energy) being deposited in the reactor core from delayed beta decay of fission products, at some time after any given fission reaction has occurred. In

1040-519: The earth itself, and gold represents the creation of energy in the release of natural forces. By invoking this symbolism , the color scheme represents the Nation's commitment to meet its energy needs in a manner consistent with the preservation of the natural environment ." The Department of Energy operates a system of national laboratories and technical facilities for research and development, as follows: Other major DOE facilities include: Airstrip: The DOE/ NNSA has federal responsibility for

1092-627: The DOE. All but one of the 59 charges against Lee were eventually dropped because the investigation proved the plans the Chinese obtained could not have come from Lee. Lee filed suit and won a $ 1.6 million settlement against the federal government and news agencies. The episode eventually led to the creation of the National Nuclear Security Administration , a semi-autonomous agency within the department. In 2001, American Solar Challenge

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1144-400: The Department of Energy with the goal of promoting energy conservation and energy independence, and developing alternative sources of energy to reduce the use of fossil fuels . With international energy's future uncertain for America, Carter acted quickly to have the department come into action the first year of his presidency. This was an extremely important issue of the time as the oil crisis

1196-694: The Department of Energy. The new agency, which began operations on October 1, 1977, consolidated the Federal Energy Administration , the Energy Research and Development Administration , the Federal Power Commission , and programs of various other agencies. Former Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger , who served under Presidents Nixon and Ford during the Vietnam War , was appointed as the first secretary. President Carter proposed

1248-458: The Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy would be lowered to $ 696 million under the plan, down from $ 1.3 billion in fiscal year 2017. Overall, the department's energy and related programs would be cut by $ 1.9 billion. Energy Savings Performance Contracts (ESPCs) are contracts under which a contractor designs, constructs, and obtains the necessary financing for an energy savings project, and

1300-613: The United States at the time the guarantee is issued". In loan guarantees, a conditional commitment requires to meet an equity commitment, as well as other conditions, before the loan guarantee is completed. In September 2008, the DOE, the Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI), the Institute of Nuclear Materials Management (INMM), and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) partnered to develop and launch

1352-548: The challenges of devising advanced methods of energy storage and creating fuels directly from sunlight without the use of plants or microbes. Yet another hub was made to develop "smart" materials to allow the electrical grid to adapt and respond to changing conditions. In 2012, the DOE awarded $ 120 million to the Ames Laboratory to start a new EIH, the Critical Materials Institute, which will focus on improving

1404-470: The classical use of power generation, further uses for the heated working fluid can include desalinization , process heat, and district heating and cooling. The thermal hydraulics of the lead-bismuth reactor are dictated by the high heat capacity and properties of the lead-bismuth eutectic coolant. This coolant is opaque to gamma radiation , but transparent to neutron flux ; it melts at a low temperature, but does not boil until an extremely high temperature

1456-449: The cohesiveness in the development of the technologies and their link to our future capabilities. The lightning bolt represents the power of the natural forces from which energy is derived and the Nation's challenge in harnessing the forces." "The color scheme is derived from nature, symbolizing both the source of energy and the support of man's existence. The blue field represents air and water , green represents mineral resources and

1508-464: The core and upon their respective half-lives .   An approximation for the decay heat curve valid from 10 seconds to 100 days after shutdown is where τ {\displaystyle \tau } is the time since reactor startup, P ( τ ) {\displaystyle P(\tau )} is the power at time τ {\displaystyle \tau } , P 0 {\displaystyle P_{0}}

1560-462: The decay of daughter products will have a greater effect longer after shutdown. The removal of the decay heat is a significant reactor safety concern, especially shortly after normal shutdown or following a loss-of-coolant accident . Failure to remove decay heat may cause the reactor core temperature to rise to dangerous levels and has caused nuclear accidents , including the nuclear accidents at Three Mile Island and Fukushima I . The heat removal

1612-470: The design, testing and production of all nuclear weapons. NNSA in turn uses contractors to carry out its responsibilities at the following government owned sites: On May 7, 2009 President Barack Obama unveiled a $ 26.4 billion budget request for DOE for fiscal year (FY) 2010, including $ 2.3 billion for the DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE). That budget aimed to substantially expand

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1664-433: The federal agency makes payments over time to the contractor from the savings in the agency's utility bills. The contractor guarantees the energy improvements will generate savings, and after the contract ends, all continuing cost savings accrue to the federal agency. Energy Innovation Hubs are multi-disciplinary , meant to advance highly promising areas of energy science and technology from their early stages of research to

1716-486: The fundamental concept of radioactive decay . Used nuclear fuel contains a large number of different isotopes that contribute to decay heat, which are all subject to the radioactive decay law, so some models consider decay heat to be a sum of exponential functions with different decay constants and initial contribution to the heat rate. A more accurate model would consider the effects of precursors, since many isotopes follow several steps in their radioactive decay chain , and

1768-464: The heating provided by radioactive products from the decay of nickel and cobalt into iron ( Type Ia light curve ). In a typical nuclear fission reaction, 187 MeV of energy are released instantaneously in the form of kinetic energy from the fission products, kinetic energy from the fission neutrons, instantaneous gamma rays , or gamma rays from the capture of neutrons. An additional 23 MeV of energy are released at some time after fission from

1820-533: The majority of which is conducted through its system of National Laboratories . The DOE also directs research in genomics , with the Human Genome Project originating from a DOE initiative. The department is headed by the secretary of energy , who reports directly to the president of the United States and is a member of the Cabinet . The current secretary of energy is Jennifer Granholm , who has served in

1872-457: The new Nuclear Regulatory Commission , which was charged with regulating the nuclear power industry, and the Energy Research and Development Administration , which was assigned to manage the nuclear weapon, naval reactor, and energy development programs. The 1973 oil crisis called attention to the need to consolidate energy policy. In 1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law the Department of Energy Organization Act , which established

1924-493: The point that the risk level will be low enough for industry to commercialize the technologies. The Consortium for Advanced Simulation of Light Water Reactors (CASL) was the first DOE Energy Innovation Hub established in July 2010, for the purpose of providing advanced modeling and simulation (M&S) solutions for commercial nuclear reactors. The 2009 DOE budget includes $ 280 million to fund eight Energy Innovation Hubs, each of which

1976-633: The position since February 2021. The department's headquarters are in southwestern Washington, D.C. , in the James V. Forrestal Building , with additional offices in Germantown, Maryland . In 1942, during World War II , the United States started the Manhattan Project to develop the atomic bomb under the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . After the war, in 1946, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)

2028-409: The previous core power if the reactor has had a long and steady power history . About 1 hour after shutdown, the decay heat will be about 1.5% of the previous core power. After a day, the decay heat falls to 0.4%, and after a week it will be only 0.2%. The decay heat production rate will continue to slowly decrease over time; the decay curve depends upon the proportions of the various fission products in

2080-497: The rank of Assistant Secretary of Energy who have line management responsibility for major organizational elements of the department. The Energy Secretary assigns their functions and duties. Excerpt from the Code of Federal Regulations , in Title 10: Energy : The official seal of the Department of Energy "includes a green shield bisected by a gold-colored lightning bolt, on which is emblazoned

2132-404: The reactor and run an intermediate loop going to a third ex-reactor heat exchanger (the steam generator ), where heat is transferred to the working fluid , heating it to approximately 480 °C (896 °F). Two schemes of power generation exist at this point: either using superheated steam or supercritical carbon dioxide to drive Rankine cycle or Brayton cycle turbines . In addition to

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2184-500: The reactor to reach unsafe temperatures within a few hours or days, depending upon the type of core. These extreme temperatures can lead to minor fuel damage (e.g. a few fuel particle failures (0.1 to 0.5%) in a graphite-moderated, gas-cooled design ) or even major core structural damage ( meltdown ) in a light water reactor or liquid metal fast reactor. Chemical species released from the damaged core material may lead to further explosive reactions (steam or hydrogen) which may further damage

2236-472: The reactor. Naturally occurring decay heat is a significant input to Earth's internal heat budget . Radioactive isotopes of uranium , thorium and potassium are the primary contributors to this decay heat, and this radioactive decay is the primary source of heat from which geothermal energy derives. Decay heat has significant importance in astrophysical phenomena. For example, the light curves of Type Ia supernovae are widely thought to be powered by

2288-404: The short-lived radioisotopes such as iodine-131 created in fission continues at high power for a time after shut down . The major source of heat production in a newly shut down reactor is due to the beta decay of new radioactive elements recently produced from fission fragments in the fission process. Quantitatively, at the moment of reactor shutdown, decay heat from these radioactive sources

2340-469: The standard ceramic uranium oxide fuel that is used at present in modern light water nuclear reactors . However, it has certain beneficial traits – higher thermal conductivity – and thus less retained heat energy – that make it preferable over oxide fuels when used at temperature regimes that are greater than the 250 to 300 °C (482 to 572 °F) temperatures found in light water reactors. By operating at higher temperatures, steam plants can operate at

2392-513: The stimulus spending was in the form of grants and contracts. For fiscal year 2013, each of the operating units of the Department of Energy operated with the following budgets: In March 2018, Energy Secretary Rick Perry testified to a Senate panel about the Trump administration's DOE budget request for fiscal year 2019. The budget request prioritized nuclear security while making large cuts to energy efficiency and renewable energy programs. The proposal

2444-563: The supply of rare earth elements . ARPA-E was officially created by the America COMPETES Act , authored by Congressman Bart Gordon , within the United States Department of Energy (DOE) in 2007, though without a budget. The initial budget of about $ 400 million was a part of the economic stimulus bill of February 2009. Decay heat Decay heat is the heat released as a result of radioactive decay . This heat

2496-557: The use of renewable energy sources while improving energy transmission infrastructure. It also proposed significant investments in hybrids and plug-in hybrids , smart grid technologies, and scientific research and innovation. As part of the $ 789 billion economic stimulus package in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, Congress provided Energy with an additional $ 38.3 billion for fiscal years 2009 and 2010, adding about 75 percent to Energy's annual budgets. Most of

2548-494: Was a $ 500 million increase in funds over fiscal year 2017. It "promotes innovations like a new Office of Cybersecurity, Energy Security, and Emergency Response (CESER) and gains for the Office of Fossil Energy. Investments would be made to strengthen the National Nuclear Security Administration and modernize the nuclear force, as well as in weapons activities and advanced computing." However, the budget for

2600-605: Was causing shortages and inflation . With the Three Mile Island accident , Carter was able to intervene with the help of the department. Through the DOE, Carter was able to make changes within the Nuclear Regulatory Commission , including improving management and procedures, since nuclear energy and weapons are responsibilities of the department. In December 1999, the FBI was investigating how China obtained plans for

2652-497: Was created to control the future of the project. The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 also created the framework for the first National Laboratories . Among other nuclear projects, the AEC produced fabricated uranium fuel cores at locations such as Fernald Feed Materials Production Center in Cincinnati, Ohio . The Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 split the responsibilities of the AEC into

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2704-516: Was sponsored by the DOE and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory . After the 2005 race, the DOE discontinued its sponsorship. Title XVII of Energy Policy Act of 2005 authorizes the DOE to issue loan guarantees to eligible projects that "avoid, reduce, or sequester air pollutants or anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases " and "employ new or significantly improved technologies as compared to technologies in service in

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