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Institute of Philosophy, KU Leuven

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The Institute of Philosophy ( Dutch : Hoger Instituut voor Wijsbegeerte ) is the faculty of philosophy at the KU Leuven in the Belgian city of Leuven . It was founded in 1968 when the Institut supérieur de Philosophie - Hoger Instituut voor Wijsbegeerte of the Catholic University of Leuven (1835–1968) was split into a Dutch -speaking entity and a French-speaking entity . Its main buildings are located in the center of Leuven at the Kardinaal Mercier Square, named for the founder of the original institute.

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50-583: The Institut supérieur de Philosophie was founded by Cardinal Mercier on 8 November 1889 with the intent to be a beacon of Neo-Thomist philosophy , although Philosophy and Theology have been taught at the universities of Leuven since 1425. The institute initially taught programs in French and started courses in Dutch in 1933. After the language split of 1968 , the Hoger Instituut voor Wijsbegeerte became part of

100-650: A Dutch-language philosophy journal, called the Tijdschrift voor Filosofie , an interdisciplinary journal in both Dutch : Ethische Perspectieven and English: Ethical Perspectives and the Bibliographical Directory of Philosophy (published jointly with the UCLouvain 's Institut supérieur de Philosophie ). It also organizes several major publication efforts, including the Husserliana (Husserl-Archives),

150-404: A contemporary revival of traditional neo-scholastic Thomistic metaphysics in response to modern philosophy. Francisco de Vitoria Francisco de Vitoria OP ( c.  1483 – 12 August 1546; also known as Francisco de Victoria ) was a Spanish Roman Catholic philosopher , theologian , and jurist of Renaissance Spain. He is the founder of the tradition in philosophy known as

200-606: A document read to the Indians before the commencement of any hostilities. The "Requerimiento", declared the universal authority of the Pope, and the authority the Spanish monarchs had received from the Pope over this part of the New World for the purpose of colonizing and evangelizing it. The Indians had to accept the sovereignty of the Spanish monarchs or be compelled to submit by force. Vitoria denied

250-427: A process of growth, of becoming: whatever is actually in it now was potentially in it from the beginning. Its vital functions go on unceasingly (accidental change); but the tree itself will die, and out of its decayed trunk other substances will come forth (substantial change). The theory of matter and form is simply an interpretation of the substantial changes which bodies undergo. The union of matter and form constitutes

300-418: A second conclusion is that they may be forcibly restrained from hindering the missionaries of the faith, and from insulting Christ and Christians." Throughout his lecture, "On the evangelization of unbelievers", Francisco de Vitoria employed the concept of what was considered Spanish Christian Universalism . Spanish Christian Universalism was the belief that all matters, arguments, and events were connected in

350-421: Is both real and knowable." Neo-scholasticism sought to restore the fundamental doctrines embodied in the scholasticism of the 13th century, which may be summarized as follows: 1. God is pure actuality and absolute perfection, substantially distinct from every finite thing. He alone can create and preserve all beings other than Himself. His infinite knowledge includes all that was, is, or shall be, and all that

400-541: Is possible. 2. As to our knowledge of the material world: whatever exists is itself, an incommunicable, individual substance. To the core of self-sustaining reality, in the oak -tree for instance, other realities (accidents) are added—size, form, roughness, and so on. All oak-trees are identical in respect of certain constituent elements. Considering this likeness and even identity, our human intelligence groups them into one species and again, in view of their common characteristics, it ranges various species under one genus. Such

450-504: Is the Aristotelean solution of the problem of universals . Each substance is in its nature fixed and determined; and Scholasticism excludes a theory of evolution which would regard even the essences of things as products of change. But this static conception requires as its complement a moderate dynamism, supplied by the central concepts of act and potency. Whatsoever changes is, just for that reason, limited. The oak-tree passes through

500-504: Is the foundation of logic and of the theory of knowledge, the justification of our judgments and syllogisms . Upon knowledge follows the appetitive process, sensory or intellectual according to the sort of knowledge. The will ( appetitus intellectualis ) in certain conditions is free , and thanks to this liberty man is the master of his destiny. Like all other beings, we have an end to attain and we are morally obliged, though not compelled, to attain it. Natural happiness would result from

550-545: The Aristoteles Latinus (De Wulf-Mansion centre), the Latin editions of Aristotle 's works known to the medieval philosophers. Internationally renowned professors who have lectured at the institute: 50°52′34″N 4°42′24″E  /  50.87599°N 4.70667°E  / 50.87599; 4.70667 Neo-Thomist Neo-scholasticism (also known as neo-scholastic Thomism or neo-Thomism because of

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600-463: The Modernism inspired by thinkers such as René Descartes , Immanuel Kant and Georg Hegel , whose principles were perceived to conflict with Christian dogma. Theological Modernism never coalesced into an authoritative doctrine; perhaps it was most clearly defined by Pius X in1907 , when he condemned it as ‘the sum of all heresies’. However, the most consistent threads of Modernist thought include: (1)

650-497: The School of Salamanca , which laid the groundwork for early free-market economics and individual rights , influencing the development of libertarian thought . Vitoria's work on natural law and the freedom of exchange contributed to later Austrian School economists' emphasis on the moral basis for voluntary commerce. Noted especially for his concept of just war and international law , his defense of individual property rights and

700-514: The 16th and 17th centuries and enriched Scholastic literature with many eminent contributions, in addition to adapting scholastic thought to modern problems and synthesizing the currents of thought of various authors of medieval scholasticism, such as Thomism, Scotism or nominalism. Francisco de Vitoria (1483-1546), Thomas de Vio Cajetan (1469–1534), Gabriel Vásquez (1551–1604), Toletus (1532–1596), Fonseca (1528–1599), and especially Francisco Suárez (1548–1617) were profound thinkers, worthy of

750-476: The 1920s until the 1950s. Gilson and Maritain in particular taught and lectured throughout Europe and North America, influencing a generation of English-speaking Catholic philosophers. Historical investigation into Thomas's thought led some to believe that neo-Thomism did not always reflect the thought of Thomas Aquinas himself, as argued by writers such as Étienne Gilson , Marie-Dominique Chenu , and Henri de Lubac . At Vatican II , traditional neo-Thomist thought

800-741: The 1920s, neo-scholasticism gradually established itself as exclusive and all-pervading. On October 15, 1879, Leo XIII created the Pontifical Academy of St. Thomas Aquinas , and ordered the publication of the critical "Leonine Edition", of Aquinas' complete works. The pope expanded Thomist studies in the Collegium Divi Thomae de Urbe (the future Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum ), founding its Faculty of Philosophy in 1882 and its Faculty of Canon Law in 1896. The thought of Thomas Aquinas gained papal ascendency over all other ‘modern’ systems of thought. In particular,

850-568: The Aristotelianism of Thomas preferred to the thought of Kant . Other ‘modern’ forms of thought, including ontologism , traditionalism , the dualism of Anton Günther , and the thought of Descartes , were also seen as flawed in comparison to Thomism. The movement spread outside Italy, finding supporters in Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, England, Switzerland, France, Hungary,

900-641: The Dutch legal philosopher Hugo Grotius was significant. Relectiones Theologicae was published posthumously several times (Lyon, 1557; Salamanca, 1565; Ingolstadt, 1580; Lyon, 1586 & 1587; Venice, 1626; Venice, 1640; Cologne & Frankfurt, 1696; and Madrid, 1765). Francisco de Vitoria's writings have been interpreted by various scholars to support contrary policies. Antony Anghie and others argue that Vitoria's humanitarianism legitimized conquest. Francisco de Vitoria presented strict interpretation of baptism of desire : When we postulate invincible ignorance on

950-436: The Indians against other forms of harm which were being proposed, such as indirectly coercing the Indians into Christianity, "by taxes and levies by which they may be encouraged to become converts to the faith." He argued, "but as for tributes which cannot also be demanded of the faithful, I assert that they cannot be demanded of unbelievers with the intention of making them convert. Unbelievers cannot be deprived of their goods on

1000-512: The Spaniard's rights of travel, trade and exploitation, or infringing upon the Pope's right to spread Christianity, can be used to justify a "just war" of the Spaniards against the indigenous inhabitants, ending in Spanish rule over the territories in question. Vitoria's works are known only from his lecture notes, as he has published nothing in his lifetime. Nevertheless, his influence such as that on

1050-713: The United States, Argentina, Mexico, Brazil and Australia. At Louvain in Belgium (then still a francophone university), Leo XIII in 1891 established the Institut de philosophie to teach the doctrine of Aquinas together with history and the natural sciences. It was endorsed by four Catholic Congresses : Paris (1891), Brussels (1895), Freiburg (1897), and Munich (1900). In the early 20th century, neo-Thomism became official Catholic doctrine, and became increasingly defined in opposition to Modernism. In July 1907, Pope Pius X issued

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1100-565: The aborigines undoubtedly had true dominion in both public and private matters, just like Christians, and that neither their princes nor private persons could be despoiled of their property on the ground of their not being true owners." Vitoria denied that the native peoples could be understood as slaves by nature in Aristotelian terms. He adopted from Aquinas the Roman law concept of ius gentium ("the law of nations"). His defense of American Indians

1150-409: The abstract and universal (the oak). All our intellectual activity rests on sensory function; but through the active intellect (intellectus agens) an abstract representation of the sensible object is provided for the intellectual possibility. Hence the characteristic of the idea, its non-materiality, and on this is based the principal argument for the spirituality and immortality of the soul. Here, too,

1200-516: The belief that revelation continues up to the present day and did not stop after the apostles; (2) the belief that dogmas are not immutable, and their formulas could change both in interpretation and content; (3) the use of the historical-critical method in biblical exegesis. For many thinkers, the dangers of Modernism could only be overcome by a complete restoration of scholastic theology which culminated in Aquinas. His writings were increasingly viewed as

1250-452: The central tenets of neo-scholasticism to be taught in all colleges as fundamental elements of philosophy; and in 1916, these 24 propositions were confirmed as normative. In 1917, the Church's new Code of Canon Law ( Codex Iuris Canonici ) insisted that the doctrine, methods, and principles of Thomas should be used in teaching philosophy and theology. Thomist thought therefore became the basis of

1300-666: The death of St. Thomas, as well as the Constitutions of the Order, required all Dominicans to teach the doctrine of St. Thomas both in philosophy and in theology." A further idea of the longstanding historic continuity of Dominican scholasticism and neo-scholasticism may be derived from the list of people associated with the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas . In the mid-19th century, interest in scholastic thought began once again to flourish, in large part in reaction against

1350-448: The decree Lamentabili sane exitu , which condemned 65 Modernist propositions. Two months later, he issued the encyclical Pascendi Dominici Gregis , in which he unequivocally condemned the agnosticism, immanentism, and relativism of Modernism as the 'synthesis of all heresies'. The anti-Modernist oath of 1910 was very important; this remained in force until 1966. In 1914, Pius X issued a list of 24 philosophical propositions summarising

1400-497: The essence of concrete being, and this essence is endowed with existence. Throughout all change and becoming there runs a rhythm of finality; the activities of the countless substances of the universe converge towards an end which is known to God; finality involves optimism. 3. Man, a compound of body (matter) and of soul (form), puts forth activities of a higher order—knowledge and volition. Through his senses he perceives concrete objects, e.g. this oak; through his intellect he knows

1450-421: The full development of our powers of knowing and loving. We should find and possess God in this world since the corporeal world is the proper object of our intelligence. But above nature is the order of grace and our supernatural happiness will consist in the direct intuition of God, the beatific vision. Here philosophy ends and theology begins. In the period from the publication of Aeterni Patris in 1879 until

1500-677: The great influence of the writings of Thomas Aquinas on the movement) is a revival and development of medieval scholasticism in Catholic theology and philosophy which began in the second half of the 19th century. During the medieval period, scholasticism became the standard accepted method of philosophy and theology. The Scholastic method declined with the advent of humanism in the 15th and 16th centuries, after which time it came to be viewed by some as rigid and formalistic. "Scholastic philosophy did not, however, completely disappear. An important movement of Scholastic revival took place during

1550-771: The great masters whose principles they had adopted." Moreover, as J. A. Weisheipl emphasizes, within the Dominican Order Thomistic scholasticism has been continuous since the time of Aquinas: "Thomism was always alive in the Dominican Order, small as it was after the ravages of the Reformation, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic occupation. Repeated legislation of the General Chapters, beginning after

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1600-554: The grounds of their unbelief, any more than other Christians, because they possess true right of ownership over their own property." A supporter of the just war theory , in De iure belli Francisco pointed out that the underlying predicate conditions for a "just war" were "wholly lacking in the Indies". The only area where he saw justification for Spanish intervention in native affairs was to protect victims seized for human sacrifice, and because of

1650-583: The home of the Husserl Archives , the research center responsible for the publication of the philosophical work of Edmund Husserl . After the death of the founder of the phenomenological movement , fearing for the destruction of his Nachlass at the hands of the Nazis , Father Herman Van Breda ( Franciscan ), PhD student at the institute, saved Husserl's manuscripts, library and widow and smuggled them to Leuven via diplomatic channels. The Institute publishes

1700-430: The inherent human dignity of the victims themselves—whose rights were being violated and thus in need of defense. Thomas E. Woods goes on to describe how some wished to argue that the natives lacked reason, but the evidence was against this because the natives had obvious customs, laws, and a form of government. The Spaniards were in the practice of invoking in their American conquests the so-called " Requerimiento ",

1750-473: The legitimacy of this document. Vitoria follows the arguments against Spanish rule of South-American territories by arguments that justify the Spanish practices, which are grounded in natural law. He asserts the right of the Spaniards to travel freely, and to trade, which includes searching for, mining, and exporting the abundant natural resources they find in South America. Unlawful resistance infringing upon

1800-667: The manuals and textbooks in Catholic colleges and seminaries before Vatican II , and was promoted also to the laity. Writers such as Edouard Hugon , Réginald Garrigou-Lagrange , and Henri Grenier maintained the tradition of the manuals. Others varied in their interpretation, including Martin Grabmann (1875–1949), Amato Masnovo (1880–1955), Francesco Olgiati (1886–1962), and Antonin-Dalmace Sertillanges (1863–1948). Authors such as Étienne Gilson , Jacques Maritain , and Joseph Maréchal investigated alternative interpretations of Aquinas from

1850-524: The metaphysics of Scholasticism, and less on the empirical sciences or the history of philosophy. Papal support for such trends began under Pope Pius IX , who praised the movement in various letters. The dogma of the Immaculate Conception (1854), the Syllabus of Errors (1864) and the proclamation of papal infallibility (1870) all heralded a move away from Modernist ideas. The most decisive impetus

1900-894: The newly independent Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven , offering programmes in Dutch with little and at times no content taught in French, while the French-speaking Institut supérieur de Philosophie of the Université catholique de Louvain continued in the new city of Louvain-la-Neuve . In 1993, the institute became the faculty of philosophy. The institute offers both taught and research degrees (B.A., M.A., MPhil and PhD) as well as pre-doc and post-doc programs, both in Dutch and English. Students can take classes in both languages if desired. The Institute, together with its French-speaking counterpart in Louvain-la-Neuve , are well known as

1950-556: The notion of liberty in trade were pivotal in shaping ideas about non-intervention and economic freedom . He has in the past been described by scholars as the "father of international law", along with Alberico Gentili and Hugo Grotius . American jurist Arthur Nussbaum noted Vitoria's influence on international law as it pertained to the right to trade overseas. Later this was interpreted as "freedom of commerce". His emphasis on voluntary exchange and opposition to monopolistic practices foreshadowed later free-market economics. Vitoria

2000-414: The pope nor Charles V had a rightful claim over Indian lives or property. No violent action could be taken against them, nor could their lands or property be seized, unless the Indians had caused harm or injury to the Spanish by violating the latter's lawful rights. In one of his lectures, "On the evangelization of unbelievers", Vitoria establishes that firstly, Indians, "should not be forcibly converted; but

2050-451: The subject of baptism or of the Christian faith, it does not follow that a person can be saved without baptism or the Christian faith. For the aborigines to whom no preaching of the faith or Christian religion has come will be damned for mortal sins or for idolatry, but not for the sin of unbelief. As St. Thomas says, however, if they do what in them lies, accompanied by a good life according to

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2100-503: The ultimate expression of orthodox philosophy and theology, to which all Catholic thought must remain faithful. This was particularly vigorous at first in Italy. "The direct initiator of the neo-Scholastic movement in Italy was Gaetano Sanseverino (1811–1865), a canon at Naples." The influential German Jesuit Joseph Kleutgen (1811–83), who taught at Rome, argued that post-Cartesian philosophy undermined Catholic theology, and that its remedy

2150-499: The world, and Vitoria "visualized a universal society in the world into which any number of independent states might fit and foster relationships." Francisco de Vitoria argued that forcible conversion of the Indians would, "cause great provocation and unrest among the heathen." Secondly, "instead of the benevolent and proper affection required for belief, forcible conversion would generate immense hate in them, and that in turn would give rise to pretense and hypocrisy." Vitoria defended

2200-430: Was Pope Leo XIII 's encyclical Aeterni Patris of 4 August 1879, which set out and strongly endorsed the principles of neo-scholasticism, calling for "Christian philosophy to be restored according to the spirit of St Thomas". "Neo-Scholasticism is characterized by systematic investigation, analytical rigor, clear terminology, and argumentation that proceeds from first principles, chief among them that objective truth

2250-417: Was based on a Scholastic understanding of the intrinsic dignity of man, a dignity he found being violated by Spain's policies in the New World. In three lectures (relectiones) held between 1537 and 1539 Vitoria concluded that the Indians were rightful owners of their property and that their chiefs validly exercised jurisdiction over their tribes. This had already been the position of Palacios Rubios . Neither

2300-651: Was born c.  1483 in Burgos and was raised in Burgos , the son of Pedro de Vitoria, of Alava, and Catalina de Compludo, both of noble families. According to modern scholarship, he had Jewish ancestry on his maternal side (the Compludos), being related to famous converts like Paul of Burgos and Alfonso de Cartagena . He became a Dominican in 1504, and was educated at the College Saint-Jacques in Paris , where he

2350-484: Was influenced by the work of Desiderius Erasmus . He went on to teach theology from 1516 (under the influences of Pierre Crockaert and Thomas Cajetan ). In 1522 he returned to Spain to teach theology at the college of Saint Gregory at Valladolid , where many young Dominicans were being trained for missionary work in the New World. In 1524, he was elected to the chair of theology at the University of Salamanca , where he

2400-568: Was instrumental in promoting Thomism (the philosophy and theology of St. Thomas Aquinas ). Francisco de Vitoria died on 12 August 1546 in Salamanca . A noted scholar, he was publicly consulted by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain. He worked to limit the type of power the Spanish Empire imposed on the Native Peoples. He said, "The upshot of all the preceding is this, then, that

2450-842: Was opposed by exponents of this nouvelle théologie . Many Thomists, however, continue in the neo-scholastic tradition. Some relatively recent proponents are treated in Battista Mondin's Metafisica di san Tommaso d'Aquino e i suoi interpreti (2002), which treats Carlo Giacon (1900–1984), Sofia Vanni Rovighi (1908–1990), Cornelio Fabro (1911–1995), Carlo Giacon (1900–1984), Tomáš Týn (1950–1990), Abelardo Lobato (1925–2012), Leo Elders (1926–2019), and Enrico Berti (1935–2022), among others. Due to its suspicion of attempts to harmonize Aquinas with non-Thomistic categories and assumptions, neo-scholastic Thomism has sometimes been called strict observance Thomism . Anglophone theologians such as Edward Feser , Ralph McInerny , Brian Davies have defended

2500-521: Was the Aristotelian scientific method of Aquinas. From 1874 to 1891, the Accademia di San Tommaso published the review La Scienza Italiana . Numerous works were produced by Giovanni Maria Cornoldi (1822–92), Giuseppe Pecci , Tommaso Maria Zigliara (1833–93), Satolli (1839–1909), Liberatore (1810–92), Barberis (1847–96), Schiffini (1841–1906), de Maria, Talamo, Lorenzelli, Ballerini, Mattiussi and others. The Italian writers at first laid special emphasis on

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