151-544: Hurricane Gloria was a powerful hurricane that caused significant damage along the east coast of the United States and in Atlantic Canada during the 1985 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the first significant tropical cyclone to strike the northeastern United States since Hurricane Agnes in 1972 and the first major storm to affect New York City and Long Island directly since Hurricane Donna in 1960 . Gloria
302-518: A Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre by the World Meteorological Organization 's (WMO) tropical cyclone programme. These warning centers issue advisories which provide basic information and cover a systems present, forecast position, movement and intensity, in their designated areas of responsibility. Meteorological services around the world are generally responsible for issuing warnings for their own country. There are exceptions, as
453-416: A 1.5 degree warming lead to "increased proportion of and peak wind speeds of intense tropical cyclones". We can say with medium confidence that regional impacts of further warming include more intense tropical cyclones and/or extratropical storms. Climate change can affect tropical cyclones in a variety of ways: an intensification of rainfall and wind speed, a decrease in overall frequency, an increase in
604-444: A 2019 review paper show a future increase of rainfall rates. Additional sea level rise will increase storm surge levels. It is plausible that extreme wind waves see an increase as a consequence of changes in tropical cyclones, further exacerbating storm surge dangers to coastal communities. The compounding effects from floods, storm surge, and terrestrial flooding (rivers) are projected to increase due to global warming . There
755-641: A block inland. Downed trees left about 150,000 people in Maryland without power. High winds forced the Chesapeake Bay Bridge to close, and there was little damage outside of eastern Maryland. High waves in Delaware eroded beaches, wrecked dunes, and damaged oceanfront buildings and boardwalks. Storm flooding closed several highways, including Delaware Route 1 . Damage was heaviest in Sussex County , although
906-436: A buoy about 60 mi (97 km) east of the center recorded a wave height of 46.9 ft (14.3 m), which at the time was the highest buoy wave recording in an Atlantic hurricane. While accelerating toward North Carolina, Gloria re-intensified slightly to winds of 105 mph (169 km/h), making it a Category 2 hurricane. At 05:30 UTC on September 27, the hurricane struck southern Hatteras Island in
1057-590: A circle, whirling round their central clear eye , with their surface winds blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere . The opposite direction of circulation is due to the Coriolis effect . Tropical cyclones tend to develop during the summer, but have been noted in nearly every month in most tropical cyclone basins . Tropical cyclones on either side of
1208-727: A component of compression. Geologically, the Lesser Antilles island arc stretches from Grenada in the south to Anguilla in the north. The Virgin Islands and Sombrero Island are geologically part of the Greater Antilles, while Trinidad is part of South America and Tobago is the remainder of a separate island arc. The Leeward Antilles are also a separate island arc, which is accreting to South America. The Lesser Antilles are divided into eight independent nations and numerous dependent and non-sovereign states (which are politically associated with
1359-528: A fishing pier in Virginia Beach, Virginia . The rainfall caused minor flooding, and high tides flooded coastal portions of the Hampton Roads region. There was minor damage to trees, roofs, and signs in southeastern Virginia. The center of Gloria passed about 30 mi (48 km) offshore eastern Maryland. In Ocean City, waves of 15 ft (4.6 m) severely damaged the boardwalk, washing sand and debris
1510-405: A flow of warm, moist, rapidly rising air, which starts to rotate cyclonically as it interacts with the rotation of the earth. Several factors are required for these thunderstorms to develop further, including sea surface temperatures of around 27 °C (81 °F) and low vertical wind shear surrounding the system, atmospheric instability, high humidity in the lower to middle levels of
1661-575: A general disdain for the Long Island Lighting Company (LILCO), which increased further when the company left the $ 40 million (1985 USD) repair bill to the ratepayers, citing the company's lack of hurricane insurance. Citizens quickly protested LILCO's decision, and within years the publicly owned Long Island Power Authority was formed. Residents in both Massachusetts and Connecticut were also without power for up to two weeks. The states brought in workers from other states, although
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#17328689373621812-506: A higher intensity. Most tropical cyclones that experience rapid intensification are traversing regions of high ocean heat content rather than lower values. High ocean heat content values can help to offset the oceanic cooling caused by the passage of a tropical cyclone, limiting the effect this cooling has on the storm. Faster-moving systems are able to intensify to higher intensities with lower ocean heat content values. Slower-moving systems require higher values of ocean heat content to achieve
1963-460: A large number of forecasting centers, uses infrared geostationary satellite imagery and an algorithm based upon the Dvorak technique to assess the intensity of tropical cyclones. The ADT has a number of differences from the conventional Dvorak technique, including changes to intensity constraint rules and the usage of microwave imagery to base a system's intensity upon its internal structure, which prevents
2114-464: A large role in both the classification of a tropical cyclone and the determination of its intensity. Used in warning centers, the method was developed by Vernon Dvorak in the 1970s, and uses both visible and infrared satellite imagery in the assessment of tropical cyclone intensity. The Dvorak technique uses a scale of "T-numbers", scaling in increments of 0.5 from T1.0 to T8.0. Each T-number has an intensity assigned to it, with larger T-numbers indicating
2265-426: A much smaller area. This replenishing of moisture-bearing air after rain may cause multi-hour or multi-day extremely heavy rain up to 40 km (25 mi) from the coastline, far beyond the amount of water that the local atmosphere holds at any one time. This in turn can lead to river flooding , overland flooding, and a general overwhelming of local water control structures across a large area. A tropical cyclone
2416-493: A number of techniques considered to try to artificially modify tropical cyclones. These techniques have included using nuclear weapons , cooling the ocean with icebergs, blowing the storm away from land with giant fans, and seeding selected storms with dry ice or silver iodide . These techniques, however, fail to appreciate the duration, intensity, power or size of tropical cyclones. A variety of methods or techniques, including surface, satellite, and aerial, are used to assess
2567-422: A process known as rapid intensification, a period in which the maximum sustained winds of a tropical cyclone increase by 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph) or more within 24 hours. Similarly, rapid deepening in tropical cyclones is defined as a minimum sea surface pressure decrease of 1.75 hPa (0.052 inHg) per hour or 42 hPa (1.2 inHg) within a 24-hour period; explosive deepening occurs when
2718-442: A record for the state related to a weather event. High waves damaged or sunk hundreds of boats along the coast, and several beachfront homes and docks were damaged. Light rainfall caused some minor flooding, mostly in northwestern Connecticut. Agricultural damage across the state totaled about $ 6 million. Damage was heaviest near Hartford, and overall storm damage was estimated at $ 91 million. Fallen trees contributed to two of
2869-429: A remnant low-pressure area . Remnant systems may persist for several days before losing their identity. This dissipation mechanism is most common in the eastern North Pacific. Weakening or dissipation can also occur if a storm experiences vertical wind shear which causes the convection and heat engine to move away from the center. This normally ceases the development of a tropical cyclone. In addition, its interaction with
3020-562: A storm. Tropical cyclone scales , such as the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale and Australia's scale (Bureau of Meteorology), only use wind speed for determining the category of a storm. The most intense storm on record is Typhoon Tip in the northwestern Pacific Ocean in 1979, which reached a minimum pressure of 870 hPa (26 inHg ) and maximum sustained wind speeds of 165 kn (85 m/s; 305 km/h; 190 mph). The highest maximum sustained wind speed ever recorded
3171-565: A stronger system. Tropical cyclones are assessed by forecasters according to an array of patterns, including curved banding features , shear, central dense overcast, and eye, to determine the T-number and thus assess the intensity of the storm. The Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies works to develop and improve automated satellite methods, such as the Advanced Dvorak Technique (ADT) and SATCON. The ADT, used by
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#17328689373623322-405: A system has dissipated or lost its tropical characteristics, its remnants could regenerate a tropical cyclone if environmental conditions become favorable. A tropical cyclone can dissipate when it moves over waters significantly cooler than 26.5 °C (79.7 °F). This will deprive the storm of such tropical characteristics as a warm core with thunderstorms near the center, so that it becomes
3473-518: A tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of angular momentum imparted by the Earth's rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation. As a result, cyclones rarely form within 5° of the equator . Tropical cyclones are very rare in the South Atlantic (although occasional examples do occur ) due to consistently strong wind shear and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone . In contrast,
3624-675: A tropical cyclone is called a hurricane ( / ˈ h ʌr ɪ k ən , - k eɪ n / ), typhoon ( / t aɪ ˈ f uː n / ), tropical storm , cyclonic storm , tropical depression , or simply cyclone . A hurricane is a strong tropical cyclone that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean . A typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. In the Indian Ocean and South Pacific, comparable storms are referred to as "tropical cyclones". In modern times, on average around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form each year around
3775-461: A tropical cyclone's core has a negative effect on its development and intensity by diminishing atmospheric convection and introducing asymmetries in the storm's structure. Symmetric, strong outflow leads to a faster rate of intensification than observed in other systems by mitigating local wind shear. Weakening outflow is associated with the weakening of rainbands within a tropical cyclone. Tropical cyclones may still intensify, even rapidly, in
3926-401: A tropical cyclone's intensity or the direction it is traveling. Wind-pressure relationships (WPRs) are used as a way to determine the pressure of a storm based on its wind speed. Several different methods and equations have been proposed to calculate WPRs. Tropical cyclones agencies each use their own, fixed WPR, which can result in inaccuracies between agencies that are issuing estimates on
4077-679: A two-digit number and suffix letter by the warning centers that monitor them. Lesser Antilles The Lesser Antilles is a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea , forming part of the West Indies in Caribbean region of the Americas . They are distinguished from the larger islands of the Greater Antilles to the west. They form an arc which begins east of Puerto Rico at the archipelago of
4228-813: A typhoon. This happened in 2014 for Hurricane Genevieve , which became Typhoon Genevieve. Within the Southern Hemisphere, it is either called a hurricane, tropical cyclone or a severe tropical cyclone, depending on if it is located within the South Atlantic, South-West Indian Ocean, Australian region or the South Pacific Ocean. The descriptors for tropical cyclones with wind speeds below 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) vary by tropical cyclone basin and may be further subdivided into categories such as "tropical storm", "cyclonic storm", "tropical depression", or "deep depression". The practice of using given names to identify tropical cyclones dates back to
4379-856: A weakened hurricane, although it maintained a large circulation. The storm hit at low tide, resulting in low to moderate storm surges of 5 feet (1.5 m) in Groton, Connecticut , 6 feet (1.8 m) in New Bedford, Massachusetts , and 3 feet (0.91 m) in Portland, Maine . The high waves caused heavy beach erosion in Connecticut and Rhode Island. The highest reported sustained winds were 83 mph (134 km/h) in Waterbury, Connecticut , and Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory in Massachusetts, although neither location
4530-415: Is assumed at this stage that a tropical cyclone has become self-sustaining and can continue to intensify without any help from its environment. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is referred to by different names , including hurricane , typhoon , tropical storm , cyclonic storm , tropical depression , or simply cyclone . A hurricane is a strong tropical cyclone that occurs in
4681-965: Is at sea level. Gusts peaked at 110 mph (180 km/h) in Chatham, Massachusetts , and widespread areas across New England reported hurricane-force gusts. It is estimated that hurricane-force winds occurred in Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire. Rainfall in the region peaked at 6.90 in (175 mm) at Borden Brook Reservoir in Springfield, Massachusetts . In Connecticut, Gloria crossed from Westport along Long Island Sound, passed near Hartford , and exited into Massachusetts. Wind gusts peaked at 92 mph (148 km/h) in Bridgeport , and 82 mph (132 km/h) in Hartford. The winds downed thousands of trees, many of which knocked down power lines. This left about 727,000 residents without power, setting
Hurricane Gloria - Misplaced Pages Continue
4832-660: Is believed peak gusts reached 115 mph (185 km/h) in eastern Long Island . Weather forecasters believe that damage across parts of Long Island indicated winds in the Category 3 range, as evidence of the damage received at MacArthur Airport. Gloria's high winds caused significant damage across Long Island and southeastern New York. The area hit the worst was eastern Long Island, where high wind gusts blew thousands of trees into buildings and across roads. The broadcast tower of WBLI -FM toppled on Bald Hill in Farmingville. In addition,
4983-406: Is calculated as: where p {\textstyle p} is the density of air, u {\textstyle u} is a sustained surface wind speed value, and d v {\textstyle d_{v}} is the volume element . Around the world, tropical cyclones are classified in different ways, based on the location ( tropical cyclone basins ), the structure of
5134-545: Is currently no consensus on how climate change will affect the overall frequency of tropical cyclones. A majority of climate models show a decreased frequency in future projections. For instance, a 2020 paper comparing nine high-resolution climate models found robust decreases in frequency in the Southern Indian Ocean and the Southern Hemisphere more generally, while finding mixed signals for Northern Hemisphere tropical cyclones. Observations have shown little change in
5285-414: Is cut off from its supply of warm moist maritime air and starts to draw in dry continental air. This, combined with the increased friction over land areas, leads to the weakening and dissipation of the tropical cyclone. Over a mountainous terrain, a system can quickly weaken. Over flat areas, it may endure for two to three days before circulation breaks down and dissipates. Over the years, there have been
5436-632: Is known as the " poison arrow curtain" for the Kalinago's favoured weapon for fending off Europeans that came to conquer the islands in the 16th century. The earliest Archaic Age habitation is evidenced at sites like St. John and Banwari Trace in Trinidad , dating between 7700 and 6100 B.P. Artifacts from this period include stone and bone tools used for hunting and fishing. A total of 29 Archaic Age sites have been identified in Trinidad and Tobago, associated with
5587-608: Is sparse, with sites in Tobago , Barbados , and Martinique yielding potential Archaic Age artifacts. Factors like local tectonic activity and hurricanes or other storms have likely distorted the archaeological evidence in these regions. Entire islands may now be submerged. Severe erosion, landslides, and volcanic eruptions are fairly common and may contribute to the preservation of archaeological sites. Three migration scenarios have been proposed. First, Archaic Age communities from South America reached Trinidad, Tobago, and Barbados. Second,
5738-445: Is the generic term for a warm-cored, non-frontal synoptic-scale low-pressure system over tropical or subtropical waters around the world. The systems generally have a well-defined center which is surrounded by deep atmospheric convection and a closed wind circulation at the surface. A tropical cyclone is generally deemed to have formed once mean surface winds in excess of 35 kn (65 km/h; 40 mph) are observed. It
5889-502: Is the greatest. However, each particular basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale, May is the least active month, while September is the most active month. November is the only month in which all the tropical cyclone basins are in season. In the Northern Atlantic Ocean , a distinct cyclone season occurs from June 1 to November 30, sharply peaking from late August through September. The statistical peak of
6040-405: Is the storm's wind speed and r {\textstyle r} is the radius of hurricane-force winds. The Hurricane Severity Index is a scale that can assign up to 50 points to a system; up to 25 points come from intensity, while the other 25 come from the size of the storm's wind field. The IKE model measures the destructive capability of a tropical cyclone via winds, waves, and surge. It
6191-608: The African easterly jet and areas of atmospheric instability give rise to cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea . Heat energy from the ocean acts as the accelerator for tropical cyclones. This causes inland regions to suffer far less damage from cyclones than coastal regions, although the impacts of flooding are felt across the board. Coastal damage may be caused by strong winds and rain, high waves (due to winds), storm surges (due to wind and severe pressure changes), and
Hurricane Gloria - Misplaced Pages Continue
6342-507: The Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean , and a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. In the Indian Ocean and South Pacific, comparable storms are referred to as "tropical cyclones", and such storms in the Indian Ocean can also be called "severe cyclonic storms". Tropical refers to the geographical origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively over tropical seas. Cyclone refers to their winds moving in
6493-538: The East Coast of the United States , National Hurricane Center director Neil Frank called it the "Storm of the Century", due to its intensity and potential track over the densely populated region of New England . Such a track gathered the attention of many people, and led to the evacuation of 380,000 people along the coast from North Carolina to Connecticut. In Maryland , officials implemented lane reversing to expedite
6644-618: The Hurricane Surge Index , the Hurricane Severity Index , the Power Dissipation Index (PDI), and integrated kinetic energy (IKE). ACE is a metric of the total energy a system has exerted over its lifespan. ACE is calculated by summing the squares of a cyclone's sustained wind speed, every six hours as long as the system is at or above tropical storm intensity and either tropical or subtropical. The calculation of
6795-559: The Madden–Julian oscillation . The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report summarize the latest scientific findings about the impact of climate change on tropical cyclones. According to the report, we have now better understanding about the impact of climate change on tropical storm than before. Major tropical storms likely became more frequent in the last 40 years. We can say with high confidence that climate change increase rainfall during tropical cyclones. We can say with high confidence that
6946-550: The National Hurricane Center issued hurricane warnings at some point for the East Coast of the United States from South Carolina to Maine. Hundreds of thousands of people evacuated, and the hurricane was described as the "storm of the century." In general, Gloria's strongest winds remained east of the center, which largely spared locations from North Carolina to New Jersey, and the passage at low tide reduced storm surge . Hurricane-force winds and gusts affected much of
7097-583: The Ortoiroid series, divided into the Banwarian (5000-2500 BC) and Ortoiran (1500-300 BC) subseries. During the Late Archaic Age, wild plant foods became more significant, with evidence of early plant management, including crops such as maize , sweet potatoes , achira, and chili peppers had been imported and cultivated from the continent. The archaeological record for the rest of the southern Lesser Antilles
7248-460: The Saffir–Simpson scale . Climate oscillations such as El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Madden–Julian oscillation modulate the timing and frequency of tropical cyclone development. Rossby waves can aid in the formation of a new tropical cyclone by disseminating the energy of an existing, mature storm. Kelvin waves can contribute to tropical cyclone formation by regulating
7399-561: The Saffir–Simpson scale . The trend was most clear in the North Atlantic and in the Southern Indian Ocean. In the North Pacific, tropical cyclones have been moving poleward into colder waters and there was no increase in intensity over this period. With 2 °C (3.6 °F) warming, a greater percentage (+13%) of tropical cyclones are expected to reach Category 4 and 5 strength. A 2019 study indicates that climate change has been driving
7550-710: The Springfield area. There was a small F1 tornado in Middlesex County that damaged trees. High winds knocked over thousands of trees, and about 500,000 people statewide lost power. At the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University in Boston , a total of approximately 95 trees were lost and another 100 were damaged at a cost of over $ 100,000; these impacts were generally less severe than expected, as Gloria had been forecast to track closer to Boston than it ultimately did. Heavy rainfall caused stream flooding, although
7701-514: The troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure center , and a pre-existing low-level focus or disturbance. There is a limit on tropical cyclone intensity which is strongly related to the water temperatures along its path. and upper-level divergence. An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide. Of those, 47 reach strength higher than 119 km/h (74 mph), and 20 become intense tropical cyclones, of at least Category 3 intensity on
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#17328689373627852-454: The "Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique". Margarita Island in present-day Venezuela was discovered on 15 August 1498 during Columbus' third voyage. On that trip the Admiral would also discover the mainland, Venezuela. On that August day, Columbus spotted three islands, two of them small, low and arid (the present day Coche and Cubagua), The province of Trinidad was created in the 16th century by
8003-698: The Atlantic Plate under the Caribbean Plate in the Lesser Antilles subduction zone . This process is ongoing and is responsible not only for many of the islands, but also for volcanic and earthquake activity in the region. The islands along the South American coast are largely the result of the interaction of the South American Plate and the Caribbean Plate which is mainly strike-slip , but includes
8154-621: The Atlantic hurricane season is September 10. The Northeast Pacific Ocean has a broader period of activity, but in a similar time frame to the Atlantic. The Northwest Pacific sees tropical cyclones year-round, with a minimum in February and March and a peak in early September. In the North Indian basin, storms are most common from April to December, with peaks in May and November. In the Southern Hemisphere,
8305-502: The Bahamas, prompting that government to issue hurricane watches and warnings. While Gloria was off the east coast of Florida, the NHC issued a hurricane watch from Edisto Beach, South Carolina to Cape Henry , Virginia, which was upgraded to a hurricane warning at 1000 UTC on September 26, or 19.5 hours before landfall. By later that day, a hurricane watch was issued for the rest of
8456-542: The Battery , and 4.5 ft (1.4 m) at Willets Point ; these effects were mitigated by Gloria's fast motion and arrival at low tide. Had Gloria moved more slowly and struck at high tide, the storm surge at the Battery would have been 9.8 ft (3.0 m), a record for the location; storm surges at Bergen Point and Willets Point would have been 10 and 8.4 ft (3.0 and 2.6 m), respectively. There were four deaths on Long Island, two of whom related to heart attacks and
8607-629: The Caribbean Sea where it meets the Atlantic Ocean . Together, the Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles make up the Antilles . The Lesser and Greater Antilles, together with the Lucayan Archipelago , are collectively known as the Caribbean islands or West Indies . The islands were dominantly Kalinago compared to the Greater Antilles which was settled by the Taíno , the boundary set between them
8758-652: The Caribbean, who established the first permanent French colony, Saint-Pierre, on the island of Martinique in 1635. Belain sailed to the Caribbean in 1625, hoping to establish a French settlement on the island of St Christopher ( St Kitts ). In 1626 the French under Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc began to take an interest in Guadeloupe, driving out the Spanish colonists. Martinique was mapped by Columbus in 1493, but Spain had little interest in
8909-539: The Equator generally have their origins in the Intertropical Convergence Zone , where winds blow from either the northeast or southeast. Within this broad area of low-pressure, air is heated over the warm tropical ocean and rises in discrete parcels, which causes thundery showers to form. These showers dissipate quite quickly; however, they can group together into large clusters of thunderstorms. This creates
9060-566: The Georgian-era capital of Montserrat, Plymouth. Between 1995 and 2000, two-thirds of the island's population was forced to flee, mainly to the UK, leaving less than 1200 people on the island in 1997 (rising to almost 5000 by 2016). The two official French overseas departments are Guadeloupe and Martinique. St. Martin and St. Barthélemy, formerly part of the department of Guadeloupe, have had a separate status as overseas entities since 2007. The islands of
9211-695: The Lesser Antilles are divided into three groups: the Windward Islands in the south, the Leeward Islands in the north, and the Leeward Antilles in the west. The Windward Islands are so called because they were more windward to sailing ships arriving in the New World than the Leeward Islands, given that the prevailing trade winds blow east to west. The trans-Atlantic currents and winds that provided
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#17328689373629362-515: The Mid-Atlantic states. Flooding forced several highways to close, and in Pennsylvania, thousands were forced to evacuate their homes. The storm surge destroyed 48 homes on Long Island, while the winds damaged the roofs of many more. Widespread crop damage occurred, amounting to about $ 20 million (1985 USD ). Overall damage in the United States was estimated at $ 900 million, which
9513-528: The New Jersey coast, Gloria produced strong winds, peaking at 81 mph (130 km/h) in Ocean City , where a gust of 101 mph (163 km/h) was also reported. In the town, an F0 tornado was reported damaging a house. Rainfall in the state reached 6.00 in (152 mm) at the Charlotteburg Reservoir near West Milford . Heavy beach erosion occurred along the coast, and several coastal towns sustained damage to boardwalks. Strong winds downed trees and power lines, which damaged homes and cars. One person
9664-539: The Outer Banks. After weakening further, Gloria passed just east of the Delmarva Peninsula and New Jersey and interacted with a cold front. Its strongest winds remained on the eastern edge of the circulation, and the storm was gradually losing tropical characteristics. At 16:00 UTC on September 27, the hurricane made landfall with a broad and poorly defined center, between John F. Kennedy International Airport and Islip, New York , with sustained winds of 85 mph (137 km/h), on western Long Island . This
9815-471: The Outer Banks. Damage in the state was estimated at $ 8.1 million, including $ 2.4 million in crop damage. There was one death in North Carolina when a man was struck by a fallen tree. Throughout much of the Mid-Atlantic, the winds remained generally below hurricane force; however, gusts reached 92 mph (148 km/h) along the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel in Virginia and 89 mph (143 km/h) in Ocean City, Maryland . The strongest winds in
9966-583: The PDI is similar in nature to ACE, with the major difference being that wind speeds are cubed rather than squared. The Hurricane Surge Index is a metric of the potential damage a storm may inflict via storm surge. It is calculated by squaring the dividend of the storm's wind speed and a climatological value (33 m/s or 74 mph), and then multiplying that quantity by the dividend of the radius of hurricane-force winds and its climatological value (96.6 km or 60.0 mi). This can be represented in equation form as: where v {\textstyle v}
10117-414: The South Atlantic is not a major basin, and not an official basin according to the WMO. Each year on average, around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form around the world, of which over half develop hurricane-force winds of 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) or more. Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer, when the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures
10268-419: The Spanish, and its capital was San José de Oruña. But during the Napoleonic Wars, in February 1797, a British force began occupying the territory. And in 1802 Spain recognized the British sovereignty. In 1917 the United States bought the Danish Virgin Islands . Most of the British colonies became independent states, the islands of the Lesser Antilles belonging to Venezuela were divided into 2 different entities
10419-435: The State of Nueva Esparta and the Federal Dependencies (1938). In 1986 Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles , officially becoming a country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands . In 2010 the rest of the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved to form smaller entities. On July 18, 1995, the previously dormant Soufrière Hills volcano on the southern part of the island of Montserrat became active. The eruptions destroyed
10570-420: The United Kingdom, France, the Netherlands, and the United States). Over one third of the total area and population of the Lesser Antilles lies within Trinidad and Tobago , a sovereign nation comprising the two southernmost islands of the Windward Island chain. Several islands off the north coast of Venezuela and politically part of that country are also considered part of the Lesser Antilles. These are listed in
10721-437: The United States National Hurricane Center and Fiji Meteorological Service issue alerts, watches and warnings for various island nations in their areas of responsibility. The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center and Fleet Weather Center also publicly issue warnings about tropical cyclones on behalf of the United States Government . The Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center names South Atlantic tropical cyclones , however
10872-565: The Virgin Islands , swings southeast through the Leeward and Windward Islands towards South America , and turns westward through the Leeward Antilles along the Venezuelan coast . Most of them are part of a long, partially volcanic island arc between the Greater Antilles to the north-west and the continent of South America. The islands of the Lesser Antilles form the eastern boundary of
11023-575: The Western Pacific. Tropical cyclones have to have a significant amount of gale-force winds occurring around the center before they are named within the Southern Hemisphere . The names of significant tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, and Australian region are retired from the naming lists and replaced with another name. Tropical cyclones that develop around the world are assigned an identification code consisting of
11174-542: The consumption of marine species and variety of shell and coral tools. Each site showed diverse adaptations to locally available resources and/or activity patterns. Archaeological findings, including Huecoid and Saladoid pottery , provide radiocarbon dates for Early Ceramic Age sites, pointing to an initial sphere of interaction between coastal South America and the northern Lesser Antilles that started around 400–200 BC. The discovery of Saladoid pottery in Puerto Rico and
11325-509: The damage was less than expected, but confusion related to the storm threat prompted Environment Canada to research the need for a dedicated hurricane centre in 1986. The following year, the Canadian Hurricane Centre was established with offices on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Due to the hurricane's impact, the World Meteorological Organization retired name Gloria from the rotating Atlantic tropical storm naming lists in
11476-493: The delay in restoring the widespread outages caused many schools to remain closed. In Connecticut, one man was electrocuted while repairing downed power lines. About 477,000 Connecticut Light & Power customers in the state lost power, a record that was surpassed by the 754,000 who lost power during Hurricane Irene in 2011. Later in 2011, a nor'easter in October left over 830,000 people statewide without power, also breaking
11627-458: The depression intensified into Tropical Storm Gloria, but there was no further intensification. On September 18, Gloria weakened back to tropical depression status, but re-intensified into a tropical storm on September 20. During this time, it moved generally westward due to a strong ridge to the north. On September 21, the Hurricane Hunters began flying into Gloria to measure
11778-435: The development of the westerlies . Cyclone formation is usually reduced 3 days prior to the wave's crest and increased during the 3 days after. The majority of tropical cyclones each year form in one of seven tropical cyclone basins, which are monitored by a variety of meteorological services and warning centers. Ten of these warning centers worldwide are designated as either a Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre or
11929-413: The eastern United States to Eastport, Maine . By two hours before Gloria's landfall on Long Island, a hurricane warning was in effect for the same area, after warnings were gradually extended further north. Officials anticipated higher winds and storm surge than what occurred, due to the hurricane weakening as it approached landfall. Officials in Delaware and Maryland declared a state of emergency before
12080-650: The eastern United States, the hurricane's strongest winds were on the eastern periphery, which reduced the winds over land. In North Carolina, where Gloria made its first landfall, the strongest winds were 74 mph (119 km/h) at a station near Buxton at the Cape Hatteras National Weather Service office; a gust of 87 mph (140 km/h) was also observed there. At Diamond Shoal Light , located offshore, sustained winds reached 98 mph (158 km/h), with gusts to 120 mph (190 km/h). A peak storm surge of 5.9 ft (1.8 m)
12231-486: The equator, then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving into the main belt of the Westerlies . When the subtropical ridge position shifts due to El Niño, so will the preferred tropical cyclone tracks. Areas west of Japan and Korea tend to experience much fewer September–November tropical cyclone impacts during El Niño and neutral years. During La Niña years, the formation of tropical cyclones, along with
12382-573: The evacuation process, a policy many other coastal states now use. Officials advised 95,000 citizens along the New Jersey coastline, an area that rarely experiences hurricanes, to evacuate. Cape May County —the most vulnerable part of the state and among the most susceptible in the entire country—would require 36 hours in 2005 to evacuate the 100,000 citizens and 900,000 tourists that were commonly present during busy summer weekends. Offices and classes of Harvard University closed only for
12533-481: The eyewall of the storm, and an upper-level anticyclone helps channel this air away from the cyclone efficiently. However, some cyclones such as Hurricane Epsilon have rapidly intensified despite relatively unfavorable conditions. There are a number of ways a tropical cyclone can weaken, dissipate, or lose its tropical characteristics. These include making landfall, moving over cooler water, encountering dry air, or interacting with other weather systems; however, once
12684-587: The fastest route across the ocean brought these ships to the rough dividing line between the Windward and Leeward Islands. The Leeward Antilles consist of the Dutch ABC islands just off the coast of Venezuela , plus a group of Venezuelan islands. The Lesser Antilles more or less coincide with the outer cliff of the Caribbean Plate . Many of the islands were formed as a result of the subduction of oceanic crust of
12835-410: The form of cold water from falling raindrops (this is because the atmosphere is cooler at higher altitudes). Cloud cover may also play a role in cooling the ocean, by shielding the ocean surface from direct sunlight before and slightly after the storm passage. All these effects can combine to produce a dramatic drop in sea surface temperature over a large area in just a few days. Conversely, the mixing of
12986-453: The frequency of very intense storms and a poleward extension of where the cyclones reach maximum intensity are among the possible consequences of human-induced climate change. Tropical cyclones use warm, moist air as their fuel. As climate change is warming ocean temperatures , there is potentially more of this fuel available. Between 1979 and 2017, there was a global increase in the proportion of tropical cyclones of Category 3 and higher on
13137-532: The general public regarding forecasts, watches, and warnings. Since the systems can last a week or longer, and more than one can be occurring in the same basin at the same time, the names are thought to reduce the confusion about what storm is being described. Names are assigned in order from predetermined lists with one, three, or ten-minute sustained wind speeds of more than 65 km/h (40 mph) depending on which basin it originates. Standards vary from basin to basin. Some tropical depressions are named in
13288-477: The heaviest damage was from the winds. The hurricane destroyed a radio tower in Framingham and damaged hundreds of homes in the eastern portion of the state. Along the coast, the storm tide caused minor coastal flooding and damaged hundreds of boats. Across Massachusetts, damage was estimated at $ 61 million, including $ 6 million from crop damage. By the time Gloria reached New Hampshire, it had weakened and
13439-430: The high storm surge flooded hundreds of streets and caused heavy beach erosion. High winds downed thousands of trees and damaged hundreds of homes, causing widespread power outages. About 1.5 million people in the state lost power, including two-thirds of the Long Island Lighting Company customers, making it one of the worst power outages in the state. Storm surges reached 7.0 ft (2.1 m) at Bergen Point and
13590-451: The intensity from leveling off before an eye emerges in infrared imagery. The SATCON weights estimates from various satellite-based systems and microwave sounders , accounting for the strengths and flaws in each individual estimate, to produce a consensus estimate of a tropical cyclone's intensity which can be more reliable than the Dvorak technique at times. Multiple intensity metrics are used, including accumulated cyclone energy (ACE),
13741-522: The intensity of a tropical cyclone. Reconnaissance aircraft fly around and through tropical cyclones, outfitted with specialized instruments, to collect information that can be used to ascertain the winds and pressure of a system. Tropical cyclones possess winds of different speeds at different heights. Winds recorded at flight level can be converted to find the wind speeds at the surface. Surface observations, such as ship reports, land stations, mesonets , coastal stations, and buoys, can provide information on
13892-476: The land of the island they called Marigalante. They then anchored next to the island they called Guadeloupe. Later they visited Montserrat, Antigua and San Cristobal. They then crossed the archipelago of the Eleven Thousand Virgins. Over the next centuries, the Spanish, French, Dutch, Danish and English fought over several of the islands. Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc was a French merchant and adventurer in
14043-674: The late 1800s and early 1900s and gradually superseded the existing system—simply naming cyclones based on what they hit. The system currently used provides positive identification of severe weather systems in a brief form, that is readily understood and recognized by the public. The credit for the first usage of personal names for weather systems is generally given to the Queensland Government Meteorologist Clement Wragge who named systems between 1887 and 1907. This system of naming weather systems fell into disuse for several years after Wragge retired, until it
14194-404: The main belt of the Westerlies , by means of merging with a nearby frontal zone, can cause tropical cyclones to evolve into extratropical cyclones . This transition can take 1–3 days. Should a tropical cyclone make landfall or pass over an island, its circulation could start to break down, especially if it encounters mountainous terrain. When a system makes landfall on a large landmass, it
14345-635: The most heavily populated during the Archaic Age. Notably, all known Archaic Age sites are in the northern islands, with no evidence in the Windward Islands south of Guadeloupe . Trinidad, Tobago, and Barbados are exceptions, likely colonized separately from South America. Sites in the Lesser Antilles were established on small islands and in coastal seetings ; most habitations were temporary and small, suggesting annual mobility for resource procurement. Despite similarities, each site displayed differences in
14496-560: The next day reached peak winds of 145 mph (233 km/h). The hurricane weakened before striking the Outer Banks of North Carolina on September 27. Later that day, Gloria made two subsequent landfalls on Long Island and across the coastline of western Connecticut , before becoming extratropical on September 28 over New England. The remnants moved through Atlantic Canada and went on to impact Western Europe, eventually dissipating on October 4. Before Gloria made landfall,
14647-400: The north, moving around the western end of the ridge, toward a cold front . By September 26, the winds had decreased to 90 mph (140 km/h), just 30 hours after its peak intensity. Shortly after peaking, Gloria's asymmetrical wind field caused the storm to rapidly weaken, and 18 hours later, its sustained wind speed decreased to 90 mph (140 km/h). Later that day,
14798-464: The northeast through Atlantic Canada , passing south of Greenland on September 30. The extratropical circulation of Gloria was last noted on October 2, although the storm's remnants later affected Europe and were last noted on October 4. Early in Gloria's duration, it threatened the northern Lesser Antilles, prompting a hurricane watch and later warning for the area. Gloria also threatened
14949-441: The northern Lesser Antilles is understood as a result of exploratory activities, cultural exchanges, and gradual migrations from the mainland during the Archaic Age. This process involved the interaction of local communities with established insular societies, creating a web of dynamic social relationships. However, debates and controversies has occurred over conflicting stratigraphic data, radiocarbon dates, and stylistic difference of
15100-522: The observed trend of rapid intensification of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic basin. Rapidly intensifying cyclones are hard to forecast and therefore pose additional risk to coastal communities. Warmer air can hold more water vapor: the theoretical maximum water vapor content is given by the Clausius–Clapeyron relation , which yields ≈7% increase in water vapor in the atmosphere per 1 °C (1.8 °F) warming. All models that were assessed in
15251-507: The other two related to fallen trees. There were also 14 injuries in the region, many of them due to downed tree branches. In the New York mainland, heavy rainfall flooded rivers and alleviated drought conditions. Rough waves damaged boats and docks along the Hudson River . Unsettled weather contributed to a traffic fatality and an airplane crash that killed one in the New York mainland. It
15402-466: The overall frequency of tropical cyclones worldwide, with increased frequency in the North Atlantic and central Pacific, and significant decreases in the southern Indian Ocean and western North Pacific. There has been a poleward expansion of the latitude at which the maximum intensity of tropical cyclones occurs, which may be associated with climate change. In the North Pacific, there may also have been an eastward expansion. Between 1949 and 2016, there
15553-464: The path, which knocked down trees and power lines. This left over 4 million people without power, causing the worst power outage in Connecticut history related to a natural disaster. Fallen trees caused six of the storm's fourteen deaths. In North Carolina, high waves damaged many homes along the Outer Banks and caused heavy beach erosion . High waves also damaged piers, boats, and docks throughout
15704-440: The potential of spawning tornadoes . Climate change affects tropical cyclones in several ways. Scientists found that climate change can exacerbate the impact of tropical cyclones by increasing their duration, occurrence, and intensity due to the warming of ocean waters and intensification of the water cycle . Tropical cyclones draw in air from a large area and concentrate the water content of that air into precipitation over
15855-473: The potteries. The Spanish were the first Europeans to arrive on the islands with the arrival of Christopher Columbus . In 1493, on his second voyage, Columbus reached the coast of the Caribbean Sea, where he sailed to discover several islands of the Lesser Antilles archipelago. He called the first island he discovered on this trip the Deseada. The Spanish claimed the island of Dominica and took solemn possession on
16006-413: The presence of moderate or strong wind shear depending on the evolution and structure of the storm's convection. The size of tropical cyclones plays a role in how quickly they intensify. Smaller tropical cyclones are more prone to rapid intensification than larger ones. The Fujiwhara effect , which involves interaction between two tropical cyclones, can weaken and ultimately result in the dissipation of
16157-505: The record set by Gloria. In New Hampshire, most power outages were quickly restored, and all were restored within six days. In Maine, all power outages were restored in 11 days. After the storm, President Ronald Reagan declared several counties in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massachusetts as federal disaster areas. This declaration allowed those counties to apply for disaster assistance. In Canada,
16308-744: The region occurred after the center passed the area. Due to Gloria's fast motion, there was minimal coastal flooding because the highest storm surge occurred during low tide, generally less than 4.9 ft (1.5 m). Beach erosion was reported in both Maryland and Delaware. The heaviest rainfall was west of the center. Statewide peaks included 9.17 in (233 mm) at Valley Forge National Historical Park in Pennsylvania, 8.6 in (220 mm) in Holland, Virginia , and 7.19 in (183 mm) in Annapolis, Maryland . Rainfall spread as far inland as West Virginia. High waves washed away 30 ft (9.1 m) of
16459-772: The region, Connecticut received the worst damage to trees and structures. Along the coastline, storm surge and strong waves washed away several fishing piers, and some roadways were underwater during the storm's passage. New Hampshire was affected only slightly from the hurricane; effects were limited to minor wind damage and localized flooding. In Maine , damage was more severe, where strong wind gusts ripped off roofs and uprooted hundreds of trees. High winds across New England resulted in significant power outages, leaving 250,000 in Maine without power. In all, seven deaths occurred in New England, many of which occurred from falling tree limbs. While
16610-501: The region. On October 4, Gloria's remnants caused the warmest October day on record for Switzerland during the 20th century. On Long Island, thousands were left without power for over a week, until the last outages were restored two weeks after the storm on October 8. The long duration without electricity forced hundreds of schools to close, extended train times by six hours due to lack of powered crossings, and price gouging on food, ice, and generators. The lack of power led to
16761-444: The release of latent heat from the saturated soil. Orographic lift can cause a significant increase in the intensity of the convection of a tropical cyclone when its eye moves over a mountain, breaking the capped boundary layer that had been restraining it. Jet streams can both enhance and inhibit tropical cyclone intensity by influencing the storm's outflow as well as vertical wind shear. On occasion, tropical cyclones may undergo
16912-790: The remnants of Gloria were moving through Atlantic Canada, they produced rainfall to the north of the track, reaching as high as 4.53 in (115 mm) in Quebec. The highest winds in the country were 58 mph (93 km/h), peaking in the Bay of Fundy and to the northeast of Newfoundland . The remnants of Gloria caused wind and wave damage in Nova Scotia. Wind gusts of 55 mph (89 km/h) in Fredericton , New Brunswick knocked down power lines, affecting more than 1,800 people. In Western Europe, Gloria's remnants produced unusual weather over portions of
17063-467: The ridge. On September 23, Gloria passed about 155 miles (249 km) to the north of Anegada , the northernmost island in the Lesser Antilles. It initially remained a minimal hurricane until September 24 when it began quickly intensifying. That day, it became a major hurricane while passing northeast of the Bahamas . Gloria developed a 10 mi (16 km) wide eye , surrounded by an eyewall, and
17214-492: The same intensity. The passage of a tropical cyclone over the ocean causes the upper layers of the ocean to cool substantially, a process known as upwelling , which can negatively influence subsequent cyclone development. This cooling is primarily caused by wind-driven mixing of cold water from deeper in the ocean with the warm surface waters. This effect results in a negative feedback process that can inhibit further development or lead to weakening. Additional cooling may come in
17365-488: The same system. The ASCAT is a scatterometer used by the MetOp satellites to map the wind field vectors of tropical cyclones. The SMAP uses an L-band radiometer channel to determine the wind speeds of tropical cyclones at the ocean surface, and has been shown to be reliable at higher intensities and under heavy rainfall conditions, unlike scatterometer-based and other radiometer-based instruments. The Dvorak technique plays
17516-513: The sea can result in heat being inserted in deeper waters, with potential effects on global climate . Vertical wind shear decreases tropical cyclone predicability, with storms exhibiting wide range of responses in the presence of shear. Wind shear often negatively affects tropical cyclone intensification by displacing moisture and heat from a system's center. Low levels of vertical wind shear are most optimal for strengthening, while stronger wind shear induces weakening. Dry air entraining into
17667-512: The section below. The main Lesser Antilles are (from north to south to west): Islands north of the Venezuelan coast (from west to east): Physiographically , these are continental islands not part of the volcanic Windward Islands arc. However, based on proximity, these islands are sometimes grouped with the Windward Islands culturally and politically. These three form the SSS islands that with
17818-693: The southern Lesser Antilles (Windward Islands) were bypassed by early settlers, with migration directly to the northern islands. Third, technological diffusion occurred without significant population movement from northeastern South America. Chronometric data divide the Archaic Age in the northern Lesser Antilles into three phases: Early Archaic Age (3300–2600 BC), Middle Archaic Age (2600–800 BC), and Late Archaic Age (800 BC–AD 100). Coastal areas were favored for settlement, particularly for their proximity to marine resources and flint quarries. Material culture showing reliance on seafood (fish and mollusks) and terrestrial animals. Antigua and St. Martin seem to be
17969-408: The spring of 1986, and it will never again be used in the basin. It was replaced with Grace for the 1991 season . Hurricane A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system with a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation , strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls . Depending on its location and strength,
18120-510: The storm damaged corn and soybean crops in northern Delaware. Monetary damage totaled over $ 500,000 in the state. In neighboring Pennsylvania, wind gusts reached 56 mph (90 km/h) in Allentown , which knocked down many trees and left thousands without power. Heavy rainfall flooded many streams, which closed or damaged several highways, bridges, and rail lines. About 3,000 houses were flooded, forcing thousands to evacuate. While just off
18271-541: The storm knocked down about 100 power poles in addition to the downed lines. Downed trees blocked roads and damaged houses and cars. The winds damaged roofs, including the 127‑year‑old spire of a church in Groveville . Damage to the apple crop was estimated at $ 3 million. High waves along the coast damaged lobster traps and dozens of boats, many of which were driven ashore. Gloria's high winds downed numerous trees across New England, causing minor to moderate damage. In
18422-541: The storm striking at low tide, although tides were high enough in Narragansett Bay to damage docks and hundreds of boats. Damage in the state was estimated at $ 20 million, including the cost for restoring the power outages. There were two deaths in Rhode Island; one was related to a fallen tree, and one occurred when a man was trying to secure his boat. In Massachusetts, the hurricane moved from Connecticut through
18573-501: The storm struck, and thousands of people from coastal communities evacuated to shelters. Schools closed in Delaware, and non-emergency workers were sent home. Along Long Island in New York, hundreds of thousands of people evacuated their homes, and a state of emergency was declared for several counties. In Connecticut, about 20,000 people evacuated along the coast, and 7,300 evacuated from neighboring Rhode Island. Residents also evacuated portions of Cape Cod . As Gloria approached
18724-466: The storm's intensity, and the next day, a flight observed winds of 78 mph (126 km/h) at a height of 1,500 ft (460 m). As a result, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) upgraded Gloria to a hurricane about 465 mi (748 km) east-northeast of the Lesser Antilles . After having moved generally to the west, Gloria turned more to the west-northwest on September 22. This occurred after tropical storms Fabian and Henri weakened
18875-594: The subtropical ridge position, shifts westward across the western Pacific Ocean, which increases the landfall threat to China and much greater intensity in the Philippines . The Atlantic Ocean experiences depressed activity due to increased vertical wind shear across the region during El Niño years. Tropical cyclones are further influenced by the Atlantic Meridional Mode , the Quasi-biennial oscillation and
19026-419: The surface pressure decreases by 2.5 hPa (0.074 inHg) per hour for at least 12 hours or 5 hPa (0.15 inHg) per hour for at least 6 hours. For rapid intensification to occur, several conditions must be in place. Water temperatures must be extremely high, near or above 30 °C (86 °F), and water of this temperature must be sufficiently deep such that waves do not upwell cooler waters to
19177-591: The surface winds, this was estimated to have been Gloria's peak intensity, making it a Category 4 on the Saffir-Simpson scale. However, a preliminary reanalysis released in 2008 suggested peak winds of 155 mph (249 km/h). At peak intensity, the hurricane was located about 930 mi (1,500 km) southeast of Cape Hatteras in North Carolina, and had an eye diameter of only 8 mi (13 km). After peak intensity, Gloria weakened while turning to
19328-483: The surface. On the other hand, Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential is one of such non-conventional subsurface oceanographic parameters influencing the cyclone intensity. Wind shear must be low. When wind shear is high, the convection and circulation in the cyclone will be disrupted. Usually, an anticyclone in the upper layers of the troposphere above the storm must be present as well—for extremely low surface pressures to develop, air must be rising very rapidly in
19479-621: The system and its intensity. For example, within the Northern Atlantic and Eastern Pacific basins, a tropical cyclone with wind speeds of over 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) is called a hurricane , while it is called a typhoon or a severe cyclonic storm within the Western Pacific or North Indian oceans. When a hurricane passes west across the International Dateline in the Northern Hemisphere, it becomes known as
19630-527: The territory. Christopher Columbus landed on 15 June 1502 after 21 days of crossing with trade winds, his fastest oceanic journey. On 15 September 1635, Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc, the French governor of the island of San Cristóbal, landed in the port of San Pedro with 80–150 French settlers after being expelled from San Cristóbal by the English. D'Esnambuc claimed Martinique for the French King Louis XIII and
19781-547: The third time in the 20th century, the previous cases being the New England Hurricane of 1938 and the Blizzard of '78 . Although Gloria's winds downed numerous trees and caused tens of thousands of dollars in damage in the area, overall effects were much less than expected. At the same time Gloria was making landfall on Long Island, a storm warning was issued for western New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Across Atlantic Canada,
19932-489: The threat of Hurricane Gloria caused many citizens to rely on American media for storm coverage. Hurricane Gloria was a large hurricane that affected much of the northeastern United States. Gloria brought strong wind gusts, which downed trees and left hundreds of thousands without power. Overall damage was estimated at $ 900 million, and there were fourteen deaths. Gloria was the first significant hurricane to affect New England since Hurricane Donna in 1960. While offshore
20083-519: The three deaths in the state, as well as several other injuries. Hurricane-force gusts affected coastal Rhode Island, peaking at 92 mph (148 km/h) in Westerly . The winds uprooted thousands of trees and caused widespread roof damage. About 300,000 people lost power; this constituted the largest power outage in the state since the Northeast blackout of 1965 . Coastal flooding was minimized due to
20234-423: The tropical cyclone year begins on July 1 and runs all year-round encompassing the tropical cyclone seasons, which run from November 1 until the end of April, with peaks in mid-February to early March. Of various modes of variability in the climate system, El Niño–Southern Oscillation has the largest effect on tropical cyclone activity. Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the subtropical ridge closer to
20385-451: The weaker of two tropical cyclones by reducing the organization of the system's convection and imparting horizontal wind shear. Tropical cyclones typically weaken while situated over a landmass because conditions are often unfavorable as a result of the lack of oceanic forcing. The Brown ocean effect can allow a tropical cyclone to maintain or increase its intensity following landfall , in cases where there has been copious rainfall, through
20536-558: The western, weaker side of this hurricane, damage was relatively light. High winds downed numerous trees throughout the area, leaving hundreds of thousands without power, including 237,000 in New Jersey, 124,000 in Maryland, and 56,000 in Virginia. Extreme rainfall in Virginia resulted in $ 5.5 million (1985 USD) in damage. Intense flood waters split Long Beach Island in half for a period of time. While making its second landfall, Gloria
20687-402: The wind speed of Hurricane Helene by 11%, it increased the destruction from it by more than twice. According to World Weather Attribution the influence of climate change on the rainfall of some latest hurricanes can be described as follows: Tropical cyclone intensity is based on wind speeds and pressure. Relationships between winds and pressure are often used in determining the intensity of
20838-731: The winds ripped roofs off of many buildings, including hangars at the MacArthur Airport , a hangar at the Bayport Aerodrome and the roof of the Islip Police Station. Prolonged exposure to high winds and waves led to moderate beach erosion, washing away several piers and docks. The storm surge, though relatively weak, destroyed 48 houses on the ocean side of the island. Gloria's high winds left 683,000 people in New York without power, with some lacking electricity for over eleven days. Gloria passed quickly through New England as
20989-702: The world, over half of which develop hurricane-force winds of 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) or more. Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water. They derive their energy through the evaporation of water from the ocean surface, which ultimately condenses into clouds and rain when moist air rises and cools to saturation . This energy source differs from that of mid-latitude cyclonic storms , such as nor'easters and European windstorms , which are powered primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts . Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and 2,000 km (62 and 1,243 mi) in diameter. The strong rotating winds of
21140-779: Was 185 kn (95 m/s; 345 km/h; 215 mph) in Hurricane Patricia in 2015—the most intense cyclone ever recorded in the Western Hemisphere . Warm sea surface temperatures are required for tropical cyclones to form and strengthen. The commonly-accepted minimum temperature range for this to occur is 26–27 °C (79–81 °F), however, multiple studies have proposed a lower minimum of 25.5 °C (77.9 °F). Higher sea surface temperatures result in faster intensification rates and sometimes even rapid intensification . High ocean heat content , also known as Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential , allows storms to achieve
21291-444: Was a Cape Verde hurricane originating from a tropical wave on September 16 in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. After remaining a weak tropical cyclone for several days, Gloria intensified into a hurricane on September 22 north of the Lesser Antilles . During that time, the storm had moved generally westward, although it turned to the northwest due to a weakening of the ridge . Gloria quickly intensified on September 24, and
21442-523: Was a slowdown in tropical cyclone translation speeds. It is unclear still to what extent this can be attributed to climate change: climate models do not all show this feature. A 2021 study review article concluded that the geographic range of tropical cyclones will probably expand poleward in response to climate warming of the Hadley circulation . When hurricane winds speed rise by 5%, its destructive power rise by about 50%. Therfore, as climate change increased
21593-494: Was accompanied by a storm surge of 6.9 ft (2.1 m) at Battery Park , the highest along its path. The highest wind report was a gust of 85 mph (137 km/h) at Islip Airport . Central Park reported a gust of 51 mph (82 km/h). Rainfall in the state reached 8.04 in (204 mm) at Unadilla , although was much less near the coast, reaching 3.48 in (88 mm) in Central Park. Along Long Island,
21744-433: Was becoming extratropical, although hurricane-force wind gusts were reported across the state. On the top of Mount Washington, wind gusts reached 127 mph (204 km/h). The winds were strong enough to knock down large trees, 100,000 people lost power, mostly along the coast. Fallen trees also damaged 16 homes and several vehicles. North Woodstock reported generally minor damage from rainfall-induced flooding. There
21895-567: Was estimated at the Neuse River . A minimal surge of around 1.3 ft (0.4 ft) occurred in neighboring South Carolina, where winds were below tropical storm force. The highest rainfall related to Gloria was 9.7 in (250 mm), recorded in Edenton, North Carolina . High waves and storm surge resulted in heavy coastal flooding and beach erosion along the Outer Banks, and several new inlets were created. Coastal flooding damaged several homes in
22046-462: Was killed in Long Branch after touching a downed power line. Though Gloria moved quickly through the region, it dropped moderate rainfall in locations, including 6.04 inches (153 mm) at Baltimore–Washington International Airport . In addition, some unofficial reports in southeastern Virginia indicated amounts of up to 8 inches (200 mm) of rain. Because much of the Mid-Atlantic experienced
22197-541: Was less than expected. In neighboring Canada, the remnants of Gloria caused minor power outages in New Brunswick, although confusion related to the storm's arrival led to the creation of the Canadian Hurricane Centre . A tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa on September 15. Based on data from satellite imagery , it is estimated that a tropical depression formed on September 16 near Cape Verde , with an associated low-level circulation . The next day,
22348-400: Was one death in the state; an elderly woman was knocked over by the strong winds, and died two weeks later. There was about $ 2.5 million in crop damage, mostly to the apple crop. In neighboring Maine, about 600,000 people lost power due to the storm; this was the most since the passage of hurricanes Carol and Edna in 1954. Wind gusts in Maine reached 86 mph (138 km/h), and
22499-707: Was only about three days after Henri had struck the same general area as a much weaker tropical storm. Operationally, the NHC had classified Gloria as a Category 3 major hurricane when it made landfall, but the storm's landfall intensity was later downgraded in the post-season analysis. Even then, the hurricane produced Category 3-equivalent wind gusts throughout Long Island. About an hour after striking Long Island, Gloria made its final landfall in western Connecticut near Westport , and proceeded to move through New England , while weakening. The NHC estimated that Gloria became extratropical over Maine by 00:00 UTC on September 28. The storm continued moving towards
22650-410: Was producing the stadium effect . At 01:20 UTC on September 25, Hurricane Hunters extrapolated a barometric pressure of 919 mbar (27.1 inHg), and reported flight-level winds of 145 mph (233 km/h). At the time, this was the lowest pressure measured by reconnaissance aircraft over the northern Atlantic Ocean. Because there was little difference in the flight-level winds and
22801-575: Was revived in the latter part of World War II for the Western Pacific. Formal naming schemes have subsequently been introduced for the North and South Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Western and Southern Pacific basins as well as the Australian region and Indian Ocean. At present, tropical cyclones are officially named by one of twelve meteorological services and retain their names throughout their lifetimes to provide ease of communication between forecasters and
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