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88-701: Huoshan County has jurisdiction over nine towns and sixteen townships. The county has a long history, going back over 2,000 years with name "Huoshan" first being used during the Sui dynasty . Foziling Reservoir is a vast reservoir in the county. Huoshan County has a monsoon -influenced humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfa ), cool, sometimes cold, winters, and hot and humid summers. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from 2.6 °C (36.7 °F) in January to 27.7 °C (81.9 °F) in July, and

176-520: A planned city . Wen and his successor Emperor Yang undertook various centralising reforms, most notably among them the equal-field system that aimed to reduce economic inequality and improve agricultural productivity, the Five Departments and Six Boards  [ zh ] system, which preceded the Three Departments and Six Ministries system, and the standardisation and re-unification of

264-612: A category of people known as the jianmin , which means "base" or "mean". Direct equivalents to large scale slavery such as classical Greece and Rome did not exist in ancient China. During the Shang dynasty and Zhou dynasty , slaves generally consisted of war captives or criminals, although peasants lived in a similar condition of perpetual servitude and were unable to leave their land or own it. Some people deliberately became slaves to escape imperial taxation, but they were still considered to be higher in status than traditional slaves, and inhabited

352-595: A certain number of Mongolian slaves owned by Han Chinese during the Yuan. Moreover, there is no evidence that Han Chinese suffered particularly cruel abuse. Korean women were viewed as having white and delicate skin (肌膚玉雪發雲霧) by Hao Jing 郝經 (1223–1275), a Yuan scholar, and it was highly desired and prestigious to own Korean female servants among the "Northerner" nobility in the Yuan dynasty as mentioned in Toghon Temür 's (shùndì 順帝) Xù Zīzhì Tōngjiàn (續資治通鑒): (京師達官貴人，必得高麗女，然後為名家) and

440-613: A decree of a stiffer punishment for those who were found to deliberately injure and heal themselves. Although the Sui dynasty was relatively short (581–618), much was accomplished during its tenure. The Grand Canal was one of the main accomplishments. It was extended north from the Hangzhou region across the Yangtze to Yangzhou, and then northwest to the region of Luoyang. Again, like the Great Wall works,

528-505: A few attempts to ban it, slavery existed continuously throughout pre-modern China, sometimes serving a key role in politics, economics, and historical events. However slaves in China were a very small part of the population due to a large peasant population that mitigated the need for large scale slave labor. The slave population included war prisoners and kidnapped victims or people who had been sold. In Chinese society, slaves were grouped under

616-409: A kind of social leveling that created an undifferentiated class of free subjects under the throne, freeing the vast majority of slaves. Among his other reforms, Taiping Rebellion leader Hong Xiuquan abolished slavery and prostitution in the territory under his control in the 1850s and 1860s. In addition to sending Han exiles convicted of crimes to Xinjiang to be slaves of Banner garrisons there,

704-414: A low social status, and even if they were deliberately murdered, the perpetrators received only a year in prison, and were punished even when they reported the crimes of their lords. However, when the stable period comes, perhaps because the increase in the number of slaves slowed down again, the penalties for crimes against them became harsh again. For example, the famous Tang dynasty female poet Yu Xuanji

792-459: A means to regulate market prices from the taxation of crops, much like the earlier Han dynasty . The large agricultural surplus supported rapid growth of population to a historical peak, which was only surpassed at the zenith of the Tang dynasty more than a century later. The capital of Daxing ( Chang'an , modern Xi'an ), while situated in the militarily secure heartland of Guanzhong , was remote from

880-545: A person with disabilities or the daughter of another slave. If a male slave had a son, his slave status was inherited and the son remained the property of his father's master. Women slaves were distinguished by their marital status rather than what kind of work they did. Married women who were slaves were similar to employees; they were paid wages and were free to leave the family house when they were not working. Unmarried women (called binü or yatou ) however were unpaid and forced to remain on duty at all times. The children of

968-514: A position somewhere between a slave and a commoner. From the Qin dynasty to Tang dynasty , slavery expanded beyond criminals and war captives. The Qin used large scale slave labor for public works such as land reclamation, road construction, and canal building. Slavery declined during the economic boom of the Song dynasty in the 12th century. Advances in fertilizer, hydraulic, and agricultural technologies allowed

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1056-422: A small living space often shared with other slaves. They were confined to small mud or brick huts known as uk jai Punishment and abuse were regular occurrences for slaves in China and could sometimes result in extreme permanent injuries or even death in some cases. Abuse was rarely reported or looked into. The only instances where slave abuse was questioned was if the family or masters were under investigation by

1144-523: A son of theirs. I have bought three different girls; two from Szű-chuan for a few taels each, less than fifteen dollars. One I released in Tientsin , another died in Hongkong; the other I gave in marriage to a faithful servant of mine. Some are worth much money at Shanghai." Concubinage in China was a regular part of Chinese history. A slave who had sexual relations willingly or unwillingly with her master

1232-448: A woman slave did not necessarily inherit her slave status, but there was a high possibility of becoming a slave themselves to avoid starvation. Oftentimes, women who found work outside of their family found themselves vulnerable to kidnapping, trafficking, and sexual violence. "Slavery exists in China, especially in Canton and Peking ... I have known a male slave. He is named Wang and

1320-548: Is a native of Kansu , living in Kuei-chou in the house of his original master's son, and with his own family of four persons acknowledged to me that he was a slave, Nu-p'u . He was a person of considerable ability, but did not appear to care about being free. Female slaves are very common all over China, and are generally called ... YA-TOU 丫頭. Slave girl, a female slave. Slave girls are very common in China; nearly every Chinese family owns one or more slave girls generally bought from

1408-610: The Byzantine Empire , the continuation of the Roman Empire in the east. From Turkic peoples of Central Asia the Eastern Romans derived a new name for China after the older Sinae and Serica : Taugast ( Old Turkic : Tabghach ), during its Northern Wei (386–535) period. The 7th-century Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta wrote a generally accurate depiction of the reunification of China by Emperor Wen of

1496-524: The Confucian examination system for bureaucrats. By supporting educational reforms, he lost the support of the nomads. He also started many expensive construction projects such as the Grand Canal of China , and became embroiled in several costly wars. Between these policies, invasions into China from Turkic nomads, and his growing life of decadent luxury at the expense of the peasantry, he lost public support and

1584-735: The Eastern Han period to the Three Kingdoms period, is seen as being related to the emergence of this status class. the period of division from the Jin to the Sui dynasties, Due to years of poor harvests, the influx of foreign tribes, and the resulting wars, The number of slaves exploded. They became a class and were called "jianmin (贱民)", The word literally means "inferior person". As stated in The commentary of Tang Code : “Slaves and inferior people are legally equivalent to livestock products”, They always had

1672-512: The Later Jin (Five Dynasties) . This practice was referred to as èrwáng-sānkè    [ simple ; zh ] ( 二王三恪 ). Although the Sui dynasty was relatively short-lived, in terms of culture, it represents a transition from the preceding ages, and many cultural developments which can be seen to be incipient during the Sui dynasty later were expanded and consolidated during the ensuing Tang dynasty , and later ages. This includes not only

1760-586: The Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD) sought to abolish all forms of slavery but in practice, slavery continued through the Ming dynasty. The Javans sent 300 black slaves as tribute to the Ming dynasty in 1381. When the Ming dynasty crushed the Miao Rebellions in 1460, they castrated 1,565 Miao boys, which resulted in the deaths of 329 of them. They turned the survivors into eunuch slaves. The Guizhou Governor who ordered

1848-476: The Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD), a social status intermediate between freedom and slavery—— Buqu (部曲), was developed took to the social stage. They were legally subordinate to their masters, and without the right to manage their farmland , but they were recognized as the owner of property, and armed in time of war to serve as their master's private soldiers. The large decline in demographic figures during

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1936-581: The same period (In most cases, lords were free to kill their slaves) in terms of slaves human rights . In the year 9 AD, the Emperor Wang Mang (r. 9–23 AD) usurped the Chinese throne and, to deprive landowning families of their power, instituted a series of sweeping reforms, including the abolition of slavery and radical land reform. Slavery was reinstated in AD 12 before his assassination in AD 23. During

2024-613: The 13th century AD, the jurist Ma Duanlin promulgated a policy limiting the number of slaves owned by officials and commoners to 30. In the 14th century, the Hongwu Emperor ordered an end to all slavery, but in practice slavery continued without heed to his commands. In the 18th century, the Yongzheng Emperor made similar attempts to abolish slavery. In 1909, the Qing officially abolished slavery, but due to internal turmoil and its demise,

2112-626: The 19th century, due to concerted efforts to end the African slave trade, large numbers of Chinese laborers known as coolies were exported to replace slave labor. They were transported in cargo ships with conditions and practices nearly identical to the former African slave trade. Visitors to late 19th century China found little difference between the poor free and the slaves, both of which were treated as hired laborers. A handful of emperors and officials throughout Chinese history have made efforts to limit or outlaw slavery. None were successful. In 100 BC,

2200-551: The Caomuzi (草木子) by Ye Ziqi (葉子奇) which was cited by the Jingshi ouji (京師偶記引) by Chai Sang (柴桑). Slaves could either be bought and sold to their masters or inherit their role through birth. The majority of the Chinese slave market consisted of adolescents and young adults. Chinese law stated that families could only sell their children under the condition that doing so would save the rest of their family from starvation. Despite this law,

2288-467: The Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu advised Emperor Wu of Han to limit the amount of land and slaves whom people could own. In 9 AD, Wang Mang ordered the nationalization of large estates and their redistribution to farmers. Part of his reform was changing the institution of slavery so that they would become tax payers, since some impoverished farmers sold themselves or their children into slavery. In

2376-521: The Duke of Sui when serving at the Zhou court, where the character 隨 literally means 'to follow', implying loyalty, Emperor Wen created a unique character 隋 , morphed from that in his former title, as the name of his new dynasty. In a bloody purge, Wen had 59 Zhou princes eliminated, in contrast to his later reputation as the "Cultured Emperor". Emperor Wen emphasized Han cultural identity during his reign, abolishing

2464-571: The Japanese governor was killed. In total, 1,280 Japanese were taken prisoner, 374 Japanese were killed and 380 Japanese owned livestock were killed for food. Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the eight ships. The woman Uchikura no Ishime's report was copied down. Traumatic memories of the Jurchen raids on Japan in the 1019 Toi invasion , the Mongol invasions of Japan in addition to Japan viewing

2552-587: The Jurchens as "Tatar" "barbarians" after copying China's barbarian-civilized distinction, may have played a role in Japan's antagonistic views against Manchus and hostility towards them in later centuries such as when the Tokugawa Ieyasu viewed the unification of Manchu tribes as a threat to Japan. The Japanese mistakenly thought that Hokkaido (Ezochi) had a land bridge to Tartary (Orankai) where Manchus lived and thought

2640-641: The Linyi-Champa Campaign (602–605). The Hanoi area formerly held by the Han and Jin dynasties was easily retaken from the Early Lý dynasty ruler Lý Phật Tử in 602. A few years later the Sui army pushed farther south and was attacked by troops on war elephants from Champa in southern Vietnam. The Sui army feigned retreat and dug pits to trap the elephants, lured the Champan troops to attack then used crossbows against

2728-539: The Lu of Fanyang hailed from Shandong and were related to the Liu clan, which was also linked to the Yang of Hongnong and other clans of Guanlong. The Yang of Hongnong, Jia of Hedong, Xiang of Henei, and Wang of Taiyuan from the Tang dynasty were later claimed as ancestors by Song dynasty lineages. Information about these major political events in China were somehow filtered west and reached

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2816-550: The Manchus could invade Japan. The Tokugawa Shogunate bakufu sent a message to Korea via Tsushima offering help to Korea against the 1627 Manchu invasion of Korea . Korea refused it. The Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 AD) expanded slavery and implemented harsher terms of service. In the process of the Mongol invasion of China proper , many Han Chinese were enslaved by the Mongol rulers. According to Japanese historians Sugiyama Masaaki (杉山正明) and Funada Yoshiyuki (舩田善之), there were also

2904-615: The Qin government to construct large-scale infrastructure projects, including road building , canal construction and land reclamation . Slave labor was quite extensive during this period. Beginning with the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), one of Emperor Gao 's first acts was to manumit agricultural workers enslaved during the Warring States period , although domestic servants retained their status. The Han dynasty promulgated laws to limit

2992-726: The Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to China proper where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russian, Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to the Han banner garrison in Guangzhou. In 1019, Jurchen pirates raided Japan for slaves. Only 270 or 259 Japanese on eight ships were returned when Goryeo managed to intercept them. The Jurchen pirates slaughtered Japanese men while seizing Japanese women as prisoners. Fujiwara Notada,

3080-494: The Qing rulers soon saw the advantages of phasing out slavery, and gradually introduced reforms turning slaves and serfs into peasants. Laws passed in 1660 and 1681 forbade landowners from selling slaves with the land they farmed and prohibited physical abuse of slaves by landowners. The Kangxi Emperor freed all the Manchus' hereditary slaves in 1685. The Yongzheng Emperor 's "Yongzheng emancipation" between 1723 and 1730 sought to free all slaves to strengthen his authority through

3168-524: The Sui dynasty, spreading from India through Kushan Afghanistan into China during the Late Han period. Buddhism gained prominence during the period when central political control was limited. Buddhism created a unifying cultural force that uplifted the people out of war and into the Sui dynasty. In many ways, Buddhism was responsible for the rebirth of culture in China under the Sui dynasty. While early Buddhist teachings were acquired from Sanskrit sutras , it

3256-521: The Sui dynasty, with the conquest of the rival Chen dynasty in southern China. Simocatta correctly placed these events within the reign period of Byzantine ruler Maurice . Simocatta also provided cursory information about the geography of China , its division by the Yangzi River and its capital Khubdan (from Old Turkic Khumdan , i.e. Chang'an) along with its customs and culture , deeming its people " idolatrous " but wise in governance. He noted that

3344-586: The Sui. The Sui court pursued a pro-Taoist policy. The first reign of the dynasty saw the state promoting the Northern Louguan school of Taoism, while the second reign instead promoted the Southern Shangqing school of Taoism, possibly due to Emperor Yang's preference for Southern culture. Buddhism was popular during the Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern and Southern dynasties period that preceded

3432-597: The Yang clan of Hongnong, had Han origins and claimed descent from the Han dynasty general Yang Zhen, but had intermarried with the Xianbei for generations. Yang Jian's daughter was the Empress Dowager, and her stepson, Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou , was a child. After crushing an army in the eastern provinces, Yang Jian usurped the throne from the Northern Zhou rulers, and became Emperor Wen of Sui . While formerly

3520-603: The annual mean is 15.58 °C (60.0 °F). A majority of the annual precipitation occurs from May to August. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 34% in March to 47% in August, the county receives 1,844 hours of bright sunshine annually. In the present, Huoshan County has 12 towns and 4 townships. This Lu'an location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty ( [swěɪ] , pinyin : Suí cháo )

3608-441: The anti-Han policies of Northern Zhou and reclaiming his Han surname of Yang. Having won the support of Confucian scholars who held power in previous Han dynasties (abandoning the nepotism and corruption of the nine-rank system ), Emperor Wen initiated a series of reforms aimed at strengthening his empire for the wars that would reunify China. In his campaign for southern conquest, Emperor Wen assembled thousands of boats to confront

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3696-525: The apexes in the two millennium imperial period of Chinese history. The Sui emperors were from the northwest military aristocracy, and they cited as their ancestors the Yang of Hongnong 弘農楊氏 , a Han clan. They emphasised their Han ancestry, and claimed descent from the Han official Yang Zhen. The New Book of Tang traces their patrilineal ancestry to the Zhou dynasty kings via the Dukes of Jin . The Li of Zhaojun and

3784-519: The boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to send eunuchs again. Later Ming rulers, as a way of limiting slavery because of their inability to prohibit it, passed a decree that limited the number of slaves that could be held per household and extracted a severe tax from slave owners. The Qing dynasty (1644–1912 AD) initially oversaw an expansion in slavery and states of bondage such as the booi aha . They possessed about two million slaves upon their conquest of China. However, like previous dynasties,

3872-632: The castration of the Miao was reprimanded and condemned by Emperor Yingzong of Ming for doing it once the Ming government heard of the event. Since 329 of the boys died, they had to castrate even more. On 30 Jan 1406, the Ming Yongle Emperor expressed horror when the Ryukyuans castrated some of their own children to become eunuchs to give them to Yongle. Yongle said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and didn't deserve castration, and he returned

3960-471: The coinage . The Sui also encouraged the spread of Buddhism throughout the empire. By the dynasty's mid-point, the state experienced considerable prosperity, enjoying a vast agricultural surplus that supported rapid population growth. The Sui engaged in many construction mega-projects, including the Grand Canal , the extension of the Great Wall , and the reconstruction of Luoyang. The canal linked Luoyang in

4048-648: The conquest of Chen. The emperor presented himself as a Cakravartin king, a Buddhist monarch who would use military force to defend the Buddhist faith. In the year 601 AD, Emperor Wen had relics of the Buddha distributed to temples throughout China, with edicts that expressed his goals, "all the people within the Four Seas may, without exception, develop enlightenment and together cultivate fortunate karma, bringing it to pass that present existences will lead to happy future lives, that

4136-452: The east with Chang'an in the west, with the eastern economic and agricultural centres towards Jiangdu (now Yangzhou, Jiangsu ) and Yuhang (now Hangzhou, Zhejiang ), and with the northern frontiers (near modern Beijing ). While the initial motivations of the canal were improving grain shipments to the capital and military logistics—including the transportation of troops —the new, reliable inland route would ultimately facilitate domestic trade,

4224-510: The economic centres to the east and south of the empire. Emperor Wen initiated the construction of the Grand Canal , with completion of the first (and the shortest) route that directly linked Chang'an to the Yellow River (Huang He) . Later, Emperor Yang enormously enlarged the scale of the Grand Canal construction. Externally, the emerging Turkic Khaganate in the north posed a major threat to

4312-402: The elephants causing them to turn around and trample their own soldiers. Although Sui troops were victorious many succumbed to disease as northern soldiers did not have immunity to tropical diseases such as malaria . The Sui dynasty led a series of massive expeditions to invade Goguryeo , one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea . Emperor Yang conscripted many soldiers for the campaign. This army

4400-484: The elite families that could afford them; daughters and even land were sold before males of the family. Male slaves ( sai man) were given the hardest and most demanding tasks. After their servitude, male slaves were either released from the main house to survive on their own, or they could have marriages arranged for them if their masters considered them to be extremely loyal or hard working. Those who were chosen to be married would be provided with an 'unlucky' woman, usually

4488-437: The end of her time working. After the agreement was made, the slave was then transported, cleaned, trained, inspected and brought to their new master's home to start work. These contracts were often known as "white contracts", meaning contracts meant for common goods as opposed to "red contracts" which were reserved for more important matters such as land. Slaves had very poor living conditions with little time to themselves and

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4576-494: The fields they owned, with cultivation of farmland left in the hands of free laymen employed by the temples and temple slaves, although temple slaves were a far more significant share of the labor force, with 150,000 such slaves being emancipated during the Huichang Persecution of Buddhism . Some temple slaves were criminals, orphans (who were allowed to enter the monastery in adulthood), or previous tenants of land donated to

4664-545: The fight against Chen, Emperor Wen also employed the service of people from southeastern Sichuan , which Sui had recently conquered. In 588, the Sui had amassed 518,000 troops along the northern bank of the Yangtze River, stretching from Sichuan to the East China Sea . The Chen dynasty could not withstand such an assault. By 589, Sui troops entered Jiankang (now Nanjing ) and the last emperor of Chen surrendered. The city

4752-566: The flow of people, and cultural exchange for centuries. These mega-projects were led by an efficient centralised bureaucracy, but forcibly conscripted millions of workers at a heavy human cost. After a series of disastrous military campaigns against Goguryeo on the Korean peninsula , ended in defeat by 614, the dynasty disintegrated under a series of popular revolts culminating in the assassination of Emperor Yang by his minister, Yuwen Huaji in 618. The dynasty, which lasted only thirty-seven years,

4840-522: The foundation for the subsequent Tang dynasty , who after toppling the Sui would ultimately preside over a new golden age in Chinese history . The dynasty was founded by Yang Jian (Emperor Wen), who had been a member of the military aristocracy that had developed in the northwest during the prolonged period of division. The Sui capital was initially based in Daxing ( Chang'an , modern Xi'an ), but later moved to Luoyang in 605, which had been re-founded as

4928-414: The four military expeditions ended in failure, incurring a substantial financial and manpower deficit from which the Sui would never recover. One of the major work projects undertaken by the Sui was construction activities along the Great Wall of China ; but this, along with other large projects, strained the economy and angered the resentful workforce employed. During the last few years of the Sui dynasty,

5016-403: The girl's parents, but sometimes also obtained from other parties. It is a common thing for well-to-do people to present a couple of slave girls to a daughter as part of her marriage dowery. Nearly all prostitutes are slaves. It is, however, customary with respectable people to release their slave girls when marriageable. Some people sell their slave girls to men wanting a wife for themselves or for

5104-520: The goal of getting a son and heir to the family line. Whether a child was born from the wife or a concubine, the wife was considered to be the mother. The report of slavery in China to the Temporary Slavery Commission (TSC) of 1924-1926 described the Mui Tsai trade in girls, which was a matter given international attention at this point. Hong Kong refused to provide any information with

5192-561: The government. As can be seen from the some historical records as “Duansheng, Marquis of Shouxiang, had his territory confiscated because he killed a female slave”( Han dynasty records of DongGuan ), “ Wang Mang 's son Wang Huo murdered a slave, Wang Mang severely criticized him and forced him to commit suicide”( Book of Han : Biography of Wang Mang ), Murder against slaves was as taboo as murder against free people, and perpetrators were always severely punished. Ancient China can be said to be very distinctive compared to other countries of

5280-462: The institution persisted until 1949 when the People's Republic of China was founded. The Shang dynasty engaged in frequent raids of surrounding states, obtaining captives who would be killed in ritual sacrifices. Scholars disagree as to whether these victims were also used as a source of slave labor. The Warring States period (475–221 BC) saw a decline in slavery from previous centuries, although it

5368-453: The major public works initiated, such as the Great Wall and the Great Canal, but also the political system developed by Sui, which was adopted by Tang with little initial change other than at the top of the political hierarchy. Other cultural developments of the Sui dynasty included religion and literature, particular examples being Buddhism and poetry. Rituals and sacrifices were conducted by

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5456-403: The massive conscription of labour and allocation of resources for the Grand Canal project resulted in challenges for Sui dynastic continuity. The eventual fall of the Sui dynasty was also due to the many losses caused by the failed military campaigns against Goguryeo. It was after these defeats and losses that the country was left in ruins and rebels soon took control of the government. Emperor Yang

5544-459: The monasteries. However, a majority were laborers left unemployed during consolidations of estates by the monasteries who sold themselves to earn a livelihood. Temple slaves were permitted to marry each other, but not free peasants. The Song dynasty 's (960–1279 AD) warfare against northern and western neighbors produced many captives on both sides, but reforms were introduced to ease the transition from bondage to freedom. The Hongwu Emperor of

5632-601: The motivation that there was no slavery in Hong Kong. Throughout the 1930s and 1940s the Yi people (also known as Nuosu) of China terrorized Sichuan to rob and enslave non-Nuosu including Han people . The descendants of the Han slaves, known as the White Yi (白彝), outnumbered the Black Yi (黑彝) aristocracy by ten to one. There was a saying that can be translated as: "The worst insult to a Nuosu

5720-520: The naval forces of the Chen dynasty on the Yangtze River . The largest of these ships were very tall, having five layered decks and the capacity for 800 non-crew personnel. They were outfitted with six 50-foot-long booms that were used to swing and damage enemy ships, or to pin them down so that Sui marine troops could use act-and-board techniques. Besides employing Xianbei and other Chinese ethnic groups for

5808-399: The newly founded dynasty. With Emperor Wen's diplomatic manoeuvre, the Khaganate split into Eastern and Western halves. Later the Great Wall was consolidated to further secure the northern territory. In Emperor Wen's late years, the first war with Goguryeo , ended with defeat. Nevertheless, the celebrated "Reign of Kaihuang" (era name of Emperor Wen) was considered by historians as one of

5896-410: The newly unified state, and collapsed after a brief period, leaving behind long-lasting legacies. During the late Northern and Southern dynasties period, the Xianbei -ruled Northern Zhou conquered the Northern Qi in 577, reunifying northern China. By this time, Yang Jian, a Northern Zhou general who would later found the Sui dynasty, became the regent to the Northern Zhou court. Yang Jian's clan,

5984-457: The plantation of commercial crops such as medical herbs, mulberry, and cotton. The small land to population ratio enticed slaves to run away and seek better employment. During the Mongol -led Yuan dynasty and Manchu -led Qing dynasty , slavery of Chinese increased. These Chinese slaves to Mongols or Manchus were called bondsmen and became personal retainers of their imperial overlords. Some attained high positions and led other Chinese slaves. In

6072-533: The police for another offence. After a master dies, his slaves are distributed evenly among the rest of the family members like all other property. Due to the strict patriarchal system in China's history, boys were bought and sold for one of two reasons: to become an heir to a family with no son or to become a slave. Males were always in high demand due to their ability to become heirs and their higher physical capabilities. Therefore, they were four to five times more expensive than female slaves and were only owned by

6160-535: The possession of slaves: each king or duke was allowed a maximum of 200 slaves, an imperial princess was allowed a maximum of 100 slaves, other officials were limited to 30 slaves each. Sometimes instead of the death penalty, felons receive punished with castration during the Han dynasty were also used as slave labor. Deriving from earlier Legalist laws, the Han dynasty set in place rules penalizing criminals doing three years of hard labor or sentenced to castration by having their families seized and kept as property by

6248-485: The practice, the trade continued. Other peoples sold to Chinese included female people from Central Asia and Western Asia were sought after by the wealthy. The female slaves from Yue (ancient tribe in the area of Guangdong ) were eroticized in a poem by Tang dynasty literary person Yuan Zhen . Chan and Zen Buddhist monastic slavery grew in the Tang dynasty as monasteries became increasingly wealthy and acquired more land. Monks were not generally required to work

6336-453: The rebellion that rose against it took many of China's able-bodied men from rural farms and other occupations, which in turn damaged the agricultural base and the economy further. Men would deliberately break their limbs in order to avoid military conscription , calling the practice "propitious paws" and "fortunate feet." Later, after the fall of Sui, in the year 642, Emperor Taizong of Tang made an effort to eradicate this practice by issuing

6424-417: The restrictions of human sales were rarely enforced. On some occasions, slaves were born into the family house by an existing slave thereby becoming a slave under that household by birth. If a slave was bought from their birth family and sold, a slave contract was created by the selling agency or agent (more commonly known as "people sellers" or ren fanzi ). The contract stated the name of the person offering

6512-430: The ruler was named "Taisson", which he claimed meant "Son of God", perhaps Chinese Tianzi ( Son of Heaven ) or even the name of the contemporary ruler Emperor Taizong of Tang . Emperor Yang of Sui (569–618) ascended the throne after his father's death, possibly by murder. He further extended the empire, but unlike his father, did not seek to gain support from the nomads. Instead, he restored Confucian education and

6600-402: The slave, the name of the person buying the slave, the name of the selling agent, the name of the guarantor , the age of the slave and how many years the slave was to work for the new family, which was typically around 10–15 years. It also stated how much money was being exchanged for the slave. Most contracts for slave girls had a clause that the master was to choose a mate for the girl following

6688-521: The sustained creation of good causation will carry us one and all up to wondrous enlightenment". Ultimately, this act was an imitation of the ancient Mauryan Emperor Ashoka of India . Confucian philosopher Wang Tong wrote and taught during the Sui dynasty, and even briefly held office as Secretary of Shuzhou. His most famous (as well as only surviving) work, the Explanation of the Mean (Zhongshuo, 中說)

6776-558: Was a short-lived Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged period of political division since the War of the Eight Princes . The Sui endeavoured to rebuild the country, re-establishing and reforming many imperial institutions; in so doing, the Sui laid much of

6864-461: Was assassinated in 618. He had gone South after the capital being threatened by various rebel groups and was killed by his Yuwen clan advisors. Meanwhile, in the North, the aristocrat Li Yuan ( 李淵 ) held an uprising after which he ended up ascending the throne to become Emperor Gaozu of Tang . There were Dukedoms for the offspring of the royal families of the Zhou dynasty, Sui dynasty, and Tang dynasty in

6952-465: Was compiled shortly after his death in 617. Although poetry continued to be written, and certain poets rose in prominence while others disappeared from the landscape, the brief Sui dynasty, in terms of the development of Chinese poetry, lacks distinction, though it nonetheless represents a continuity between the Six Dynasties and the poetry of Tang. Sui dynasty poets include Yang Guang (580–618), who

7040-413: Was considered to be a second wife rather than a slave, regardless of whether the master himself thought of her as such. A slave could also become a concubine if she was sold or given to another master as a gift. According to Chinese law, a man could have only one legal wife ( qi ), but could have as many concubines ( qie ) as he desired. On some occasions, the wife would select a concubine for her husband for

7128-647: Was during the late Six dynasties and Sui dynasty that local Chinese schools of Buddhist thoughts started to flourish. Most notably, Zhiyi founded the Tiantai school, and completed the Great treatise on Concentration and Insight , within which he taught the principle of "Three Thousand Realms in a Single moment of Life" as the essence of Buddhist teaching outlined in the Lotus Sutra . Emperor Wen and his empress had converted to Buddhism to legitimise imperial authority over China and

7216-502: Was eventually assassinated by his own ministers. Both Emperors Yang and Wen sent military expeditions into Vietnam as Annam in northern Vietnam had been incorporated into the Chinese empire over 600 years earlier during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). However the Kingdom of Champa in central Vietnam became a major counterpart to Chinese invasions to its north . According to Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais, these invasions became known as

7304-458: Was publicly executed for murdering her own slave. The law of the Tang dynasty forbade enslaving free people, but allowed enslavement of criminals, foreigners, and orphans. Free people could however willingly sell themselves. The primary source of slaves was southern tribes, and young slave girls were the most desired. Although various officials such as Kong Kui , the Jiedushi of Lingnan , banned

7392-423: Was razed to the ground, while Sui troops escorted Chen nobles back north, where the northern aristocrats became fascinated with everything the south had to provide culturally and intellectually. Although Emperor Wen was famous for bankrupting the state treasury with warfare and construction projects, he made many improvements to infrastructure during his early reign. He established granaries as sources of food and as

7480-456: Was so enormous it recorded in historical texts that it took 30 days for all the armies to exit their last rallying point near Shanhaiguan before invading Goguryeo. In one instance the soldiers—both conscripted and paid—listed over 3000 warships, up to 1.15 million infantry, 50,000 cavalry, 5000 artillery, and more. The army stretched to 1000 li , or about 410 km (250 mi), across rivers and valleys, over mountains and hills. Each of

7568-475: Was still widespread during the period. Since the introduction of private ownership of land in the state of Lu in 594 BC, which brought a system of taxation on private land, and saw the emergence of a system of landlords and peasants, the system of slavery began to later decline over the following centuries, as other states followed suit. The Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) confiscated property and enslaved families as punishment. Large numbers of slaves were used by

7656-523: Was the last Sui emperor (and a sort of poetry critic ); and also, the Lady Hou, one of his consorts. Slavery in China Slavery in China has taken various forms throughout history. Slavery was nominally abolished in 1910, although the practice continued until at least 1949. The Chinese term for slave ( nuli ) can also be roughly translated into 'debtor', 'dependent', or 'subject'. Despite

7744-475: Was undermined by ambitious wars and construction projects, which overstretched its resources. Particularly, under Emperor Yang , heavy taxation and compulsory labour duties would eventually induce widespread revolts and brief civil war following the fall of the dynasty. The dynasty is often compared to the earlier Qin dynasty . Both dynasties unified China after a prolonged period of division, undertook wide-ranging reforms and construction projects to consolidate

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