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115-471: Humlegården was originally the Royal Fruit Garden , established by King Johan III in the 16th century. The name humle , meaning hop , indicates that hops were one of the major plants grown in the garden. In 1686-87, Queen Ulrika Eleonora of Denmark had a pavilion, Rotundan , built there for herself and her children. Already in the 17th century, parts of the park were opened to the public. In 1764,

230-498: A Catholic viewpoint, the primacy of the bishop of Rome is largely derived from his role as the apostolic successor to Saint Peter , to whom primacy was conferred by Jesus, who gave Peter the Keys of Heaven and the powers of "binding and loosing", naming him as the "rock" upon which the Church would be built. While his office is called the papacy , the jurisdiction of the episcopal see

345-535: A fact that created frictions to the Swedish clergy and nobility. However, the Archbishop soon had his new Church Order ratified, which he had already drawn up in outline during the reign of King Gustav, but had not obtained his approval. This Church Order emphasized continuity with older traditions. It also restored the medieval ecclesiastical organization, with essentially the same dioceses. In 1575, he gave his permission for

460-654: A few other references of that time to recognition of the authoritative primacy of the Roman See outside of Rome. In the Ravenna Document of 13 October 2007, theologians chosen by the Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches stated: Both sides agree that this canonical taxis was recognised by all in the era of the undivided Church. Further, they agree that Rome, as the Church that "presides in love" according to

575-501: A few weeks with 1200 men and then surrendered on August 12, 1563, in exchange for the promise of a princely prison (the Siege of Åbo ). He was taken to Sweden and imprisoned at Gripsholm Castle , accompanied by his wife. When John and his wife were brought to Gripsholm on a ship, they passed through Söderport , where the executions of 30 of John's supporters took place. John remained a prisoner for more than four years. However, his imprisonment

690-585: A fierce temperament and great suspicion. But he lacked sharpness, firmness, prudence and a practical eye. John and his wife Catherine Jagiellon had ensured that their son Sigismund received a Catholic upbringing, probably to help him acquire the Polish crown. This aim was achieved in 1587, and John had thus given Sweden a new union , more unnatural than the one his father had torn apart (the Kalmar Union ), as Sweden and Poland often had directly conflicting interests in

805-622: A layman as Pope Leo VIII . John mutilated the Imperial representatives in Rome and had himself reinstated as pope. Conflict between the Emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes in league with the emperor were buying bishops and popes almost openly. In 1049, Leo IX travelled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church's moral problems firsthand, notably simony and clerical marriage and concubinage . With his long journey, he restored

920-454: A lot of time drawing up elaborate plans for buildings, only a small part of which were realized during his lifetime. "Building is our highest desire", writes John himself in one of many letters in which he gives orders to his architects and builders. He called in skilled builders, sculptors and painters from Germany and the Netherlands and also intervened himself, through his own drawings, in

1035-606: A medieval guildhall which, since it was also given to the Finnish congregation, was long called Saint Henry 's church) were restored, while The Church of Saint Clare was built on the site of St. Clare's Priory , which had been demolished by Gustav I. Another new building was St. James' Church . Other churches he planned, such as a Trinity Church, were never built. John III built chapels in all his major castles , with Vadstena Castle partially preserved and Kalmar Castle still well preserved. In this ecclesiastical building activity,

1150-473: A passion like his Lord's! Where Paul wins his crown in a death like John's where the Apostle John was first plunged, unhurt, into boiling oil, and thence remitted to his island-exile! According to the same book, Clement of Rome was ordained by Saint Peter as the bishop of Rome. For this is the manner in which the apostolic churches transmit their registers: as the church of Smyrna, which records that Polycarp

1265-452: A relationship with the lady-in-waiting Karin Hansdotter , with whom he lived between 1556 and 1561, and they had four illegitimate children during these years. When his brother Eric XIV became king and held on to royal rights, the brothers soon fell out. As Duke of Finland, he opposed the efforts of his half-brother King Eric XIV (1560–1569) to secure Reval and other East Baltic ports. It

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1380-516: A son. With his mistress Karin Hansdotter (1532–1596) he had at least four illegitimate children. John cared for Karin and their children even after he married Catherine Jagiellon, in 1562. He found Karin a husband who would care for her and the children. In 1561, she married nobleman Klas Andersson (Westgöthe), a friend and servant of John. They had a daughter named Brita. John continued supporting Karin and his illegitimate children as king, from 1568. In 1572 Karin married again, as her first husband

1495-585: A structure before Rome. In Rome, there were over time at various junctures rival claimants to be the rightful bishop, though again Irenaeus stressed the validity of one line of bishops from the time of St. Peter up to his contemporary Pope Victor I and listed them. Some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, but not necessarily monarchical bishops. Documents of

1610-465: Is addressed to Pope Cornelius , and affirmed his unique authority in the early Christian Church. Cornelius [the Bishop of Rome] was made bishop by the choice of God and of His Christ, by the favorable witness of almost all the clergy, by the votes of the people who were present, and by the assembly of ancient priests and good men. And he was made bishop when no one else had been made bishop before him when

1725-557: Is called the Holy See . It is the Holy See that is the sovereign entity under international law headquartered in the distinctively independent Vatican City, a city-state which forms a geographical enclave within the conurbation of Rome , established by the Lateran Treaty in 1929 between Fascist Italy and the Holy See to ensure its temporal and spiritual independence. The Holy See

1840-419: Is focused on the decoration itself: in the exterior on magnificent portals and windows, ornate gables and richly decorated spires , in the interior especially on the rich paneling and door frames . In particular, Sebastiano Serlio 's books on the art of building seem to have been a frequent source of inspiration. His own taste therefore came to assert itself in many ways, and he may justly be regarded as

1955-438: Is recognized by its adherence at various levels to international organizations and by means of its diplomatic relations and political accords with many independent states. According to Catholic tradition , the apostolic see of Rome was founded by Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the first century. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in human history . In ancient times,

2070-602: Is seen as an exercise of Roman authority over other churches, excommunicated the Quartodecimans for observing Easter on the 14th of Nisan , the date of the Jewish Passover , a tradition handed down by John the Evangelist (see Easter controversy ). Celebration of Easter on a Sunday, as insisted on by the pope, is the system that has prevailed (see computus ). The Edict of Milan in 313 granted freedom to all religions in

2185-463: Is the bishop of Rome and the visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church . He is also known as the supreme pontiff , Roman pontiff , or sovereign pontiff . From the eighth century until 1870, the pope was the sovereign or head of state of the Papal States , and since 1929 of the much smaller Vatican City state. The reigning pope is Francis , who was elected on 13 March 2013 . From

2300-456: The 1569 Plot , the Mornay Plot , and the 1576 Plot . Fear of his possible release constantly worried the king (compare Eric XIV) and led him, as early as 1571, to order the guards, in the event of the slightest danger of an attempted rescue or the like, to assassinate the captured king, and it was probably as a result of such an order that Eric XIV's life was ended in 1577. Even if this was not

2415-575: The Edict of Thessalonica declared Nicene Christianity to be the state religion of the empire, with the name "Catholic Christians" reserved for those who accepted that faith. While the civil power in the Eastern Roman Empire controlled the church, and the patriarch of Constantinople , the capital, wielded much power, in the Western Roman Empire , the bishops of Rome were able to consolidate

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2530-667: The Gothic traditions, even in detail, lived on. The many castle and fortress projects were partly inherited from the time of Gustav I and Eric XIV, and partly started by John III. The Tre Kronor Palace in Stockholm was significantly extended and redecorated. The northern courtyard, including the castle church, was given the character it retained until the Castle Fire in 1697. The castle in Uppsala (the present southern part and its western extension)

2645-626: The Middle Ages , popes struggled with monarchs over power. From 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in Rome but in Avignon . The Avignon Papacy was notorious for greed and corruption. During this period, the pope was effectively an ally of the Kingdom of France , alienating France's enemies, such as the Kingdom of England . The pope was understood to have the power to draw on the Treasury of Merit built up by

2760-540: The Tusculan Papacy . The papacy came under the control of vying political factions. Popes were variously imprisoned, starved, killed, and deposed by force. The family of a certain papal official made and unmade popes for fifty years. The official's great-grandson, Pope John XII , held orgies of debauchery in the Lateran Palace . Emperor Otto I had John accused in an ecclesiastical court, which deposed him and elected

2875-703: The approaching end of the world . Gregory's successors were largely dominated by the exarch of Ravenna , the Byzantine emperor 's representative in the Italian Peninsula . These humiliations, the weakening of the Byzantine Empire in the face of the Muslim conquests , and the inability of the emperor to protect the papal estates against the Lombards , made Pope Stephen II turn from Emperor Constantine V . He appealed to

2990-420: The cardinals , who sometimes attempted to assert the authority of Catholic Ecumenical Councils over the pope's. Conciliarism holds that the supreme authority of the church lies with a General Council, not with the pope. Its foundations were laid early in the 13th century, and it culminated in the 15th century with Jean Gerson as its leading spokesman. The failure of Conciliarism to gain broad acceptance after

3105-467: The unification of Italy . In 1929, the Lateran Treaty between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See established Vatican City as an independent city-state , guaranteeing papal independence from secular rule. In 1950, Pope Pius XII defined the Assumption of Mary as dogma, the only time a pope has spoken ex cathedra since papal infallibility was explicitly declared. The Primacy of St. Peter ,

3220-580: The "Old St. Peter's Basilica" on the location of St. Peter's tomb, as held and given to him by Rome's Christian community, many scholars agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero , although some scholars argue that he may have been martyred in Palestine. Although open to historical debate, first-century Christian communities may have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as guides of their local churches. Gradually, episcopal sees were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such

3335-703: The 15th century is taken as a factor in the Protestant Reformation . Various Antipopes challenged papal authority, especially during the Western Schism (1378–1417). It came to a close when the Council of Constance , at the high point of Concilliarism, decided among the papal claimants. The Eastern Church continued to decline with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, undercutting Constantinople's claim to equality with Rome. Twice an Eastern emperor tried to force

3450-420: The 1st century and early second century indicate that the bishop of Rome had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, as even a letter from the bishop, or patriarch, of Antioch acknowledged the bishop of Rome as "a first among equals", though the detail of what this meant is unclear. Sources suggest that at first, the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, with

3565-594: The Baltic. He also soon came to regret his decision and vainly demanded the return of Sigismund to Sweden, which the high nobility opposed as they foresaw that this would lead to war with Poland, something Sweden after 28 years of war would find difficult to cope with. John responded with a political shake-up; instead of relying on the council aristocracy as before, he now sought the assistance of his brother Duke Charles, with whom he had been at bitter odds for most of his previous reign. The reasons for this had been many, but one of

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3680-461: The Catholic faith, and because he heads the world's largest non-government provider of education and health care , with a vast network of charities. The word pope derives from Ancient Greek πάππας (páppas)  'father'. In the early centuries of Christianity, this title was applied, especially in the East, to all bishops and other senior clergy, and later became reserved in

3795-460: The Christian community, the bishops as a body have succeeded to the body of the apostles ( apostolic succession ) and the bishop of Rome has succeeded to Saint Peter. Scriptural texts proposed in support of Peter's special position in relation to the church include: I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. I will give you

3910-672: The Church between the years 900 and 1050, centres emerged promoting ecclesiastical reform, the most important being the Abbey of Cluny , which spread its ideals throughout Europe. This reform movement gained strength with the election of Pope Gregory VII in 1073, who adopted a series of measures in the movement known as the Gregorian Reform , in order to fight strongly against simony and the abuse of civil power and try to restore ecclesiastical discipline, including clerical celibacy . This conflict between popes and secular autocratic rulers such as

4025-454: The Church's ordination. Irenaeus of Lyons ( c.  130 – c. 202 AD), a prominent Christian theologian of the second century, provided a list of early popes in his work Against Heresies III . The list covers the period from Saint Peter to Pope Eleutherius who served from 174 to 189 AD. The blessed apostles [Peter and Paul], then, having founded and built up the Church [in Rome], committed into

4140-652: The Djursholm line of the Roslag Railway ended from 1895–1960 and on the other side of the park, on Lidingövägen, the Lidingö Tram line ended from 1914–1967. Today the park is a popular recreational area for locals, hosting a small soccer ground, skateboard ramp, children's playground and lawns. The park is the site of a number of statues. In the centre of the park is Linnémonumentet , a large statue commemorating botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778). The monument

4255-511: The Donatists (367 A.D) . In the book, Optatus wrote about the position of the bishop of Rome in maintaining the unity of the Church. You cannot deny that you are aware that in the city of Rome the episcopal chair was given first to Peter; the chair in which Peter sat, the same who was head—that is why he is also called Cephas [‘Rock’]—of all the apostles; the one chair in which unity is maintained by all. The Catholic Church teaches that, within

4370-696: The Eastern Church to reunify with the West. First in the Second Council of Lyon (1272–1274) and secondly in the Council of Florence (1431–1449). Papal claims of superiority were a sticking point in reunification, which failed in any event. In the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire captured Constantinople and ended the Byzantine Empire. Protestant Reformers criticized the papacy as corrupt and characterized

4485-709: The Franks to protect his lands. Pepin the Short subdued the Lombards and donated Italian land to the papacy. When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne (800) as emperor, he established the precedent that, in Western Europe, no man would be emperor without being crowned by a pope. The low point of the papacy was 867–1049. This period includes the Saeculum obscurum , the Crescentii era, and

4600-575: The Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and King Henry I of England , known as the Investiture controversy , was only resolved in 1122, by the Concordat of Worms , in which Pope Callixtus II decreed that clerics were to be invested by clerical leaders, and temporal rulers by lay investiture. Soon after, Pope Alexander III began reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law . Since

4715-707: The Polish king as a pledge seven permanent castles in Livonia in return for an advance of 120,000 daler. Eric considered this agreement to be in direct conflict with the Articles of Arboga - which it was - and as soon as he learned of it he demanded that John give up the Livonian castles. When the Duke refused to do so, and even gave an evasive answer to the King's demand that he should declare definitely whether he would adhere to Sweden or Poland, he

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4830-775: The Pope, which failed completely, partly because John's confidant in these matters, Peter Fecht , drowned during his trip to the Holy See in Rome. He also sought to enlist the help of the papacy in gaining release of his wife's family assets, which were frozen in Naples . Furthermore, he allowed Jesuits to secretly staff the Royal Theological College in Stockholm. From time to time, he was also at odds theologically with his younger brother Duke Charles of Sudermannia (afterwards Charles IX of Sweden ), who had Calvinist sympathies, and did not promote King John's Liturgy in his duchy. This

4945-659: The Roman Empire, beginning the Peace of the Church . In 325, the First Council of Nicaea condemned Arianism , declaring trinitarianism dogmatic, and in its sixth canon recognized the special role of the Sees of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch. Great defenders of Trinitarian faith included the popes, especially Liberius , who was exiled to Berea by Constantius II for his Trinitarian faith, Damasus I , and several other bishops. In 380,

5060-545: The Romans , and according to tradition Paul was martyred there. During the 1st century of the Church ( c.  30–130 ), the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance. The church there, at the end of the century, wrote an epistle to the Church in Corinth intervening in a major dispute, and apologizing for not having taken action earlier. There are

5175-610: The West to the bishop of Rome during the reign of Pope Leo I (440–461), a reservation made official only in the 11th century. The earliest record of the use of the title of 'pope' was in regard to the by-then-deceased patriarch of Alexandria , Heraclas (232–248). The earliest recorded use of the title "pope" in English dates to the mid-10th century, when it was used in reference to the 7th century Roman Pope Vitalian in an Old English translation of Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum . The Catholic Church teaches that

5290-458: The acknowledgement of the bishop of Rome as an influential figure within the Church, with some emphasizing the importance of adherence to Rome's teachings and decisions. Such references served to establish the concept of papal primacy and have continued to inform Catholic theology and practice. In his letters, Cyprian of Carthage ( c. 210 – 258 AD) recognized the bishop of Rome as the successor of St. Peter in his Letter 55 (c. 251 AD), which

5405-488: The air was healthier than in the city. But there was no improvement, and in high summer the condition worsened. He died in Stockholm on November 17, 1592, leaving his kingdom weakened by external and internal strife, in disorder and neglect, and for the immediate future threatened by the greatest dangers. John III is buried in Uppsala Cathedral . As king, John was oriented towards the Baltic, aiming to take control of

5520-589: The appearance of cities. The cathedrals of Uppsala, Västerås , Linköping and Skara were restored to their former glory; in Finland, Turku Cathedral was restored and given a new chancel ; in Estonia, Reval (Tallinn) was restored. Among the more or less destroyed monastery churches that were renovated are Varnhem , Vreta Abbey , Alvastra , Askeby and Gudhem , and Naantali in Finland. In Stockholm, Storkyrkan , Riddarholmen Church and The German Church (originally

5635-486: The authority of the church in Rome. In this work, Tertullian said that the Church in Rome has the authority of the Apostles because of its apostolic foundation. Since, moreover, you are close upon Italy, you have Rome, from which there comes even into our own hands the very authority (of apostles themselves). How happy is its church, on which apostles poured forth all their doctrine along with their blood! Where Peter endures

5750-519: The basis of the consensus of the first five centuries of Christianity ( consensus quinquesaecularis ). He was far from alone in listening to this message; both the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus and the emperors Ferdinand I and Maximilian II , who had multiple faiths in their empires, were also sensitive to it. John approved the publication of the Lutheran Swedish Church Order of Archbishop Laurentius Petri in 1571 but also got

5865-514: The beginning of the 7th century, Islamic conquests had succeeded in controlling much of the southern Mediterranean , and represented a threat to Christianity. In 1095, the Byzantine emperor, Alexios I Komnenos , asked for military aid from Pope Urban II in the ongoing Byzantine–Seljuq wars . Urban, at the council of Clermont , called the First Crusade to assist the Byzantine Empire to regain

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5980-510: The case, the fact remains that John III did not shrink from the possible murder of his half-brother and that it was not against his will if it was carried out. John III often likened himself to his father for propaganda purposes, and in particular he tried to emphasize that while his father had "liberated Sweden" from the "bloodhound" Christian II , he had saved the population from the "tyrannical" Eric XIV, his own brother. He had some similar characteristics to his father and brothers; violent, with

6095-447: The center of the interesting art movement which arose during his reign. In the large circle of artists and craftsmen around John III there were some more prominent, such as the Swede Anders målare ("Anders Painter"), mostly active as a builder, Willem Boy , important both as a sculptor and architect (creator of John's tomb in Uppsala ), Vadstena architects Arendt de Roy and Hans Fleming . But John needed more skilled people. Among

6210-453: The church to approve an addendum to the church order in 1575, Nova ordinantia ecclesiastica that displayed a return to patristic sources . This set the stage for his promulgation of the Swedish-Latin Red Book , entitled Liturgia suecanae ecclesiae catholicae & orthodoxae conformis , which reintroduced several Catholic customs and resulted in the Liturgical Struggle , which lasted for twenty years, and attempts to negotiate with

6325-428: The consensus among scholars being that by the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters, whose duties of office overlapped or were indistinguishable from one another. Some say that there was probably "no single 'monarchical' bishop in Rome before the middle of the 2nd century ... and likely later." In the early Christian era, Rome and a few other cities had claims on

6440-418: The controversial doctrinal basis of the pope's authority, continues to divide the eastern and western churches and to separate Protestants from Rome. The writings of several Early Church fathers contain references to the authority and unique position held by the bishops of Rome, providing valuable insight into the recognition and significance of the papacy during the early Christian era. These sources attest to

6555-421: The counties were increased by up to 20 parishes. The counts were given jurisdiction over the county's population. John III was very interested in art, especially architecture. He was undoubtedly the most building-minded monarch Sweden ever had. Like his brother Eric, he was highly artistic and aesthetically gifted. However, his sense of beauty found its most obvious expression in the field of architecture. He spent

6670-445: The crown. When King Magnus Ladulås granted tax exemption, it was in return for an obligation, namely to provide horsemen. The majority of the frälse -men were actually wealthy peasants, lived much like them and were counted as commoners. Before John's time, it had been customary for the frälse who could no longer afford to fulfill their army service obligation to descend to the peasantry again. John's noble privileges began to blur

6785-409: The defence of human rights. Over time, the papacy accrued broad secular and political influence , eventually rivalling those of territorial rulers. In recent centuries, the temporal authority of the papacy has declined and the office is now largely focused on religious matters. By contrast, papal claims of spiritual authority have been increasingly firmly expressed over time, culminating in 1870 with

6900-466: The eastern Baltic from a Russian threat. John also cooperated with his brother Eric, and traveled to London on his behalf, while Eric looked after John's interests in Livonia. The marriage would have secured Swedish access to Western Europe. That mission failed, but in England John observed the reintroduction of Protestantism and the Book of Common Prayer (1559). The Finnish duke had liturgical and theological interests. During this time he also began

7015-455: The episcopal see in Rome can be traced back no earlier than the 3rd century. The writings of Irenaeus , a Church Father who wrote around 180 AD, reflect a belief that Peter "founded and organized" the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peter's presence in the early Roman Church. The Church of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians (which is traditionally attributed to Clement of Rome c.  96 ) about

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7130-520: The established church. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the pope served as a source of authority and continuity. Pope Gregory I ( c.  540–604 ) administered the church with strict reform. From an ancient senatorial family, Gregory worked with the stern judgement and discipline typical of ancient Roman rule. Theologically, he represents the shift from the classical to the medieval outlook; his popular writings are full of dramatic miracles , potent relics , demons , angels , ghosts, and

7245-425: The fall of 1567 (see the Sture Murders ), John's release was secured in October 1567, after which negotiations were begun for the Duke's restoration to his rights. John further initiated peace talks with Denmark–Norway and Lübeck to end the Scandinavian Seven Years' War but rejected the resulting Treaties of Roskilde in which his envoys had accepted far-reaching Danish demands. After two more years of fighting,

7360-456: The first half of 1568 were likely to arouse John's fears that his newly won freedom would be taken away from him again. John therefore entered into an agreement with his brother Charles and some of the nobility for a joint rising against Eric's hated regiment. This revolt began in July and spread so rapidly that by mid-September the army of the dukes was already outside Stockholm, whose gates were opened to them on 29 September 1568. An important ally

7475-434: The foreign masters he employed were the three members of the Pahr family of architects, originally from Lombardy , Franciscus Pahr , Johan Baptista Pahr and Dominicus Pahr, the former of whom had his name attached to Uppsala, the latter two to Borgholm and Kalmar castles, the stucco artist and master builder Antonius Watz, the chief builder of Finland and Livonia Peter Hertig, the carvers Markus Wulfrum and Urban Schultz,

7590-425: The gates of hell shall not prevail against it! Matthew 16:18. The successor of Peter was Linus, and his successors in unbroken continuity were these:— Clement, Anacletus, Evaristus... Eusebius ( c. 260/265 – 339) mentions Linus as Saint Peter's successor and Clement as the third bishop of Rome in his book Church History . As recorded by Eusebius, Clement worked with Saint Paul as his "co-laborer". As to

7705-405: The hands of Linus the office of the episcopate. Of this Linus, Paul makes mention in the Epistles to Timothy. To him succeeded Anacletus ; and after him, in the third place from the apostles, Clement was allotted the bishopric.   ... To this Clement there succeeded Eviristus . Alexander followed Evaristus; then, sixth from the apostles, Sixtus was appointed; after him, Telephorus , who

7820-455: The history of the nobility; and special privileges were granted to the higher nobility which consolidated and developed the distinction between the various classes of the nobility which is of such profound significance in the history of the Swedish nobility . Although power was now in King John's hands, he did not feel secure on his throne as long as his captured half-brother was alive. Three plots were uncovered during these years to depose him:

7935-411: The increasingly assertive European nation states , the popes focused on spiritual issues. In 1870, the First Vatican Council proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility for the most solemn occasions when the pope speaks ex cathedra when issuing a definition of faith or morals. Later the same year, Victor Emmanuel II of Italy seized Rome from the pope's control and substantially completed

8050-417: The influence and power they already possessed. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , barbarian tribes were converted to Arian Christianity or Nicene Christianity; Clovis I , king of the Franks , was the first important barbarian ruler to convert to the mainstream church rather than Arianism, allying himself with the papacy. Other tribes, such as the Visigoths , later abandoned Arianism in favour of

8165-405: The leadership of worldwide Church. James the Just , known as "the brother of the Lord", served as head of the Jerusalem church, which is still honoured as the "Mother Church" in Orthodox tradition. Alexandria had been a center of Jewish learning and became a center of Christian learning. Rome had a large congregation early in the apostolic period whom Paul the Apostle addressed in his Epistle to

8280-404: The line between the frälse and the commoners. They meant that nobles who were too poor to serve in the army could still retain a noble shield. John also appointed new counts and barons and granted large estates in land, called countships and baronies. These were to be inherited by the nearest male heir. During the reign of Eric XIV, only the counts had been given estates, and these were small. Now

8395-461: The most important had been that John III, as king, had sought to apply the same principles with regard to royal rights within Charles's principality that he had so ardently opposed as duke. In 1587 he had finally succeeded in persuading his brother to approve statutes very similar to the Articles of Arboga , which he himself had repealed in 1569, but judging from a proposal in 1590 for a new arrangement of

8510-575: The name of Jesus Christ, the Son of the Father: to those who are united, both according to the flesh and spirit, to every one of His commandments; Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430 AD), in his Letter 53, wrote a list of 38 popes from Saint Peter to Siricius. The order of this list differs from the lists of Irenaeus and the Annuario Pontificio . Augustine's list claims that Linus was succeeded by Clement and Clement

8625-676: The old Christian territories, especially Jerusalem. With the East–West Schism , the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church split definitively in 1054. This fracture was caused more by political events than by slight divergences of creed . Popes had galled the Byzantine emperors by siding with the king of the Franks, crowning a rival Roman emperor, appropriating the Exarchate of Ravenna , and driving into Greek Italy. In

8740-506: The painters Johan Baptista van Uther and Arent Lambrechts, the stonemasons and sculptors Roland Mackle, Peter de la Koche, Lukas van der Werdt and others. Experts from abroad were also called in to help with agricultural matters, including foresters from the German principalities and Denmark. A particular aspect of John III's interest in building is his concern for the preservation of older monumental buildings. His zeal also extended to care for

8855-606: The park was opened for public recreation. There were, however, restrictions on who was allowed to be admitted. From 1773 until 1780, the Stenborg Troupe performed in the Rotundan , in the former pavilion of the queen, then referred to as Humlegårdsteatern (Humlegården theater). From 1853-1877, the Humlegårdsteatern was again in use. The park was completely opened to the public in 1869. At Engelbrektsplan next to Humlegården,

8970-400: The pastoral office, the office of shepherding the Church, that was held by the apostles, as a group or "college" with Saint Peter as their head, is now held by their successors, the bishops, with the bishop of Rome (the pope) as their head. Thus is derived another title by which the pope is known, that of "supreme pontiff". The Catholic Church teaches that Jesus personally appointed Peter as

9085-484: The persecution of Christians in Rome as the "struggles in our time" and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, "first, the greatest and most just columns", the "good apostles" Peter and Paul. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement; in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans, he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, such as Emperor Constantine's erection of

9200-440: The phrase of St. Ignatius of Antioch (To the Romans, Prologue), occupied the first place in the taxis, and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the protos among the patriarchs. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the bishop of Rome as protos, a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium. In AD 195, Pope Victor I, in what

9315-535: The pope as the antichrist . Popes instituted a Catholic Reformation (1560–1648), which addressed the challenges of the Protestant Reformation and instituted internal reforms. Pope Paul III initiated the Council of Trent (1545–1563), whose definitions of doctrine and whose reforms sealed the triumph of the papacy over elements in the church that sought conciliation with Protestants and opposed papal claims. Gradually forced to give up secular power to

9430-399: The popes helped spread Christianity and intervened to find resolutions in various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages , they played a role of secular importance in Western Europe, often acting as arbitrators between Christian monarchs. In addition to the expansion of Christian faith and doctrine , modern popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue , charitable work , and

9545-412: The position of Fabian , that is to say, the position of Peter and the office of the bishop's chair, was vacant. But the position once has been filled by the will of God and that appointment has been ratified by the consent of us all, if anyone wants to be made bishop after that, it has to be done outside the church; if a man does not uphold the unity of the Church's unity, it is not possible for him to have

9660-531: The prestige of the papacy in Northern Europe. From the 7th century, it became common for European monarchies and nobility to found churches and perform investiture or deposition of clergy in their states and fiefdoms, their personal interests causing corruption among the clergy. This practice had become common because often the prelates and secular rulers were also participants in public life. To combat this and other practices that had been seen as corrupting

9775-450: The princely rights, he gave up the claims he had previously stubbornly maintained after the break with the high nobility. Even his newfound friendship with his brother Charles soon cooled, however, and for the last few months of his life John III was completely alone. In the spring of 1592, he fell ill with a fever that made him very anxious. He hoped to get better by moving to a pleasure garden he had built on Skeppsholmen , where he thought

9890-414: The proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility for rare occasions when the pope speaks ex cathedra —literally "from the chair (of Saint Peter) "—to issue a formal definition of faith or morals. The pope is considered one of the world's most powerful people due to the extensive diplomatic, cultural, and spiritual influence of his position on both 1.3   billion Catholics and those outside

10005-551: The prolific building activity that he provoked in so many places. His surviving letters on building also show that he understood architecture and that he was familiar with the principles of the Italian Renaissance , specifically the High and Late Renaissance . In his letters he advises and admonishes his architects and builders, he corrects their drawings and revels in the details of architecture and decoration. Above all, his interest

10120-499: The remaining Catholic convents in Sweden to start receiving novices again. All of this can be seen as an expression of the mediating theology that John was strongly influenced by, aimed at reducing the contradictions between the various rival faiths that were tearing Europe apart at the time. However, John himself was a learned follower of the mediating theologian George Cassander . He sought reconciliation between Rome and Wittenberg on

10235-540: The rest of his followers, Paul testifies that Crescens was sent to Gaul; but Linus, whom he mentions in the Second Epistle to Timothy as his companion at Rome, was Peter’s successor in the episcopate of the church there, as has already been shown. Clement also, who was appointed third bishop of the church at Rome, was, as Paul testifies, his co-laborer and fellow-soldier. Tertullian ( c. 155 – c. 220 AD) wrote in his work " The Prescription Against Heretics " about

10350-552: The rich trade on Russia. After ending the Seven Years' War in 1570 and making peace with Denmark and Lübeck, he went to war with Russia. This war lasted with varying intensity until 1595. The capture of Narva in 1581 was his greatest military success. John's relations with the Church were initially good, although Archbishop Laurentius Petri hesitated for a long time before sanctioning the rebellion. In domestic politics, John showed clear Catholic sympathies inspired by his Polish wife,

10465-518: The said site was commissioned by his son Sigismund in Danzig (from the sculptor Willem van den Blocke ), but only came to Sweden in 1782 through Gustav III 's care and was erected in its present location in 1818, albeit with an incorrect arrangement, which was however redesigned by Agi Lindegren during the church's restoration in the early 1890s. The Finnish city of Pori uses Deus Protector Noster (John III's motto ) as its motto. A statue of Duke John

10580-456: The saints and by Christ, so that he could grant indulgences , reducing one's time in purgatory . The concept that a monetary fine or donation accompanied contrition, confession, and prayer eventually gave way to the common assumption that indulgences depended on a simple monetary contribution. The popes condemned misunderstandings and abuses, but were too pressed for income to exercise effective control over indulgences. Popes also contended with

10695-597: The title Grand Prince of Finland . His first wife was Catherine Jagiellon of the Polish–Lithuanian ruling family, and their son Sigismund eventually ascended both the Polish–Lithuanian and Swedish thrones. He ended the Northern Seven Years' War , but instead Sweden was drawn into the 25 Years' War with Russia, where minor gains were eventually made. He worked for closer relations with Poland. John III

10810-413: The visible head of the Church, and the Catholic Church's dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium makes a clear distinction between apostles and bishops, presenting the latter as the successors of the former, with the pope as successor of Peter, in that he is head of the bishops as Peter was head of the apostles. Some historians argue against the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, noting that

10925-533: The war was concluded without many Swedish concessions in the Treaty of Stettin . During the following years he successfully fought Russia in the Livonian War , concluded by the Treaty of Plussa in 1583, a war that meant a Swedish reconquest of Narva . As a whole his foreign policy was affected by his connection to Poland of which country his son Sigismund III Vasa was made king in 1587. However, Eric's actions in

11040-452: The will of Him that wills all things which are according to the love of Jesus Christ our God, which also presides in the place of the region of the Romans, worthy of God, worthy of honour, worthy of the highest happiness, worthy of praise, worthy of obtaining her every desire, worthy of being deemed holy, and which presides over love, is named from Christ, and from the Father, which I also salute in

11155-556: Was Bråborg Castle , intended as a widow's seat for Queen Gunilla, while Drottningholm (the older one, burnt down in 1661) was built on one of the islands of Lake Mälaren at the request of Catherine Jagiellon. The rebuilding of Turku Castle, Västerås Castle , Gävle Castle , Stegeborg Castle and Linköping Castle can also be mentioned. Fortifications were present at almost all the castles. More purely as fortresses were Älvsborg , Gullberg , Kronoberg Castle , Kexholm , Vyborg and other places, at which significant fortification work

11270-541: Was King of Sweden from 1569 until his death. He attained the Swedish throne after a rebellion against his half-brother Eric XIV . He is mainly remembered for his attempts to close the gap between the newly established Lutheran Church of Sweden and the Catholic Church , as well as his conflict with and possible murder of his brother. He was also, quite autonomously, the Duke of Finland from 1556 to 1563. In 1581 he assumed

11385-487: Was John's maternal uncle Sten Leijonhufvud , who was fatally wounded. At deathbed he was made Count of Raseborg . Eric XIV was taken prisoner, and immediately afterwards John had himself hailed as king by the city authorities and by those of the nobility and warriors who were gathered there. Shortly after this John executed his brother's most trusted counsellor, Jöran Persson , whom he held largely responsible for his harsh treatment while in prison. In January 1569, John III

11500-437: Was closer to Poland, the perimeter of the courtyard was completed, the floors were laid out on the same level, and in the interior the costly decoration begun under Eric XIV was continued. Borgholm Castle, on the other hand, was Johan III's largest new building, with a completely regular plan, outstanding spaciousness and magnificence, and strong fortifications, but it was not completed during Johan III's reign. Another new building

11615-919: Was designed by Johannes Frithiof Kjellberg (1836-1885) and dates to 1885. Other notable statues commemorate historian Anders Fryxell (1795–1881), chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742–1786), author Fredrika Bremer (1801– 1865) and Lutheran priest Peter Wieselgren (1800-1877). Other works include Farfadern by Per Hasselberg (1896), Tuffsen by Egon Möller Nielsen (1949), Isobartema by Martin Holmgren (1970), Cordillera de Los Andes by Francisco Gazitúa (2000) and Hjalmar Söderberg (1869–1941) by Peter Linde (2010). [REDACTED] Media related to Humlegården at Wikimedia Commons 59°20′21″N 18°04′22″E  /  59.33917°N 18.07278°E  / 59.33917; 18.07278 John III of Sweden John III ( Swedish : Johan III , Finnish : Juhana III ; 20 December 1537 – 17 November 1592)

11730-510: Was executed for treason by Eric XIV in 1563, to a Lars Henrikson, whom John ennobled in 1576 to care for his issue with Karin. The same year, he made his daughter Sofia a lady in the castle, as a servant to his sister Princess Elizabeth of Sweden . In 1580, John married her to Pontus De la Gardie . She later died giving birth to Jacob De la Gardie . Pope The pope ( Latin : papa , from Ancient Greek : πάππας , romanized :  páppas , lit.   'father')

11845-519: Was expressed, for example, in the Örebro Articles , where priests in Duke Karl's duchy distanced themselves from the new order of worship. However, John also had support for his church policy, including from Ingelbertus Olai Helsingus and Erasmus Nicolai Arbogensis. John owed his crown primarily to his brother Charles and the nobility. At his coronation, he therefore rewarded this social class with special privileges that no longer required any obligations to

11960-426: Was gloriously martyred; then Hyginus ; after him, Pius ; then after him, Anicetus . Soter having succeeded Anicetus, Eleutherius does now, in the twelfth place from the apostles, hold the inheritance of the episcopate. Ignatius of Antioch (died c. 108/140 AD) wrote in his " Epistle to the Romans" that the church in Rome is "the church that presides over love". ...the Church which is beloved and enlightened by

12075-467: Was interested in religion and culture . During his reign, he countered the growing Lutheran tendencies of the Church of Sweden under the influence of Duke Charles , and worked for a reunion with the Catholic Church and the Pope in Rome. John III was the son of King Gustav I of Sweden and his second wife Margaret Leijonhufvud . He was the brother of Charles IX and Magnus and half-brother of Eric XIV. He

12190-691: Was married from October 4, 1562 to Catherine Jagiellon (1526-1583), with whom he had a daughter Anna Vasa in addition to Sigismund, and from February 21, 1585 to Gunilla Johansdotter (Bielke) (1568-1597). John III was born at Stegeborg Castle on December 20, 1537, the son of Gustav I (Vasa) and his second wife, Margareta (Eriksdotter) Leijonhufvud. He was more than once the cause of his father's displeasure, especially when, as hereditary Duke of Finland Proper (since June 27, 1556), he sought to interfere in Livonian affairs behind King Gustav's back. Gustav had placed his son in Finland to secure Swedish territory in

12305-620: Was often undertaken, followed with interest by the king. In the art of fortification, Sweden was at this time at the forefront of the Nordic countries , because the new Italian system had been introduced by the Pahr brothers. Among monumental works of sculpture, the most noteworthy are the funerary monuments of his father Gustav I and his first two wives, and the beautiful tomb of Catherine Jagiellon, both in Uppsala Cathedral. The monument to John III on

12420-521: Was only with the utmost reluctance that John could bring himself to sign the Articles of Arboga in 1561, which restricted his power. The break became open when John, against Eric's will, married Princess Catherine Jagiellon in Vilnius on October 4, 1562, the younger sister of Poland's King Sigismund II Augustus , with whom Eric was at war, and when the two brothers-in-law shortly after the wedding concluded an agreement according to which John would receive from

12535-503: Was placed therein by John; as also the church of Rome, which makes Clement to have been ordained in like manner by Peter. Optatus the bishop of Milevis in Numidia (today's Algeria) and a contemporary of the Donatist schism , presents a detailed analysis of the origins, beliefs, and practices of the Donatists, as well as the events and debates surrounding the schism, in his book The Schism of

12650-574: Was rebuilt after the fire of 1572 as a brick building with rusticated plaster and two round towers. Vadstena Castle, like the previous one founded by Gustav I, was expanded into the Renaissance palace it still is today, although it was not completed according to the original plan until the early 17th century. Svartsjö Palace was a curious building, with its circular arcaded courtyard and domed church on either side of an older stone house. At Kalmar Castle, where John often resided there because it

12765-409: Was recognized as king by the same Diet ( Riksdag ) that forced Eric XIV from the throne. But this recognition was not without concessions on the part of John: Duke Charles was confirmed in his dukedom without the restrictions on his power imposed by the Articles of Arboga ; the nobility were granted privileges which, in extending their rights and limiting their duties, represent a significant moment in

12880-470: Was relatively light, especially compared to what Eric would later experience; among other things, the couple was able to receive a large shipment of books. John, who was bookish, also spent much of his time studying and conversing with his wife. Their three children were born in captivity, in 1564 Elizabeth, called Isabella, who died at the age of two, in 1566 Sigismund and in May 1568 Anna. During Eric's insanity in

12995-458: Was succeeded by Anacletus as in the list of Eusebius , while the other two lists switch the positions of Clement and Anacletus. For if the lineal succession of bishops is to be taken into account, with how much more certainty and benefit to the Church do we reckon back till we reach Peter himself, to whom, as bearing in a figure the whole Church, the Lord said: Upon this rock will I build my Church, and

13110-648: Was summoned in April 1563 to appear in Sweden to answer the charge of treasonable designs. When the summons was not obeyed by John, he was sentenced in June 1563 by the Estates assembled in Stockholm as guilty of treason, deprived of life, property and hereditary rights to the kingdom. To carry out the sentence, a considerable army was equipped. John, who was unprepared for battle, was locked up in Turku Castle , defended himself there for

13225-483: Was unveiled in front of Pori Town Hall in 2008, 450 years after the city was founded by him. John married his first wife, Catherine Jagiellon of Poland (1526–83), of the House of Jagiellon , in Vilnius on 4 October 1562. In Sweden, she is known as Katarina Jagellonica . She was the sister of king Sigismund II Augustus of Poland . He married his second wife, Gunilla Bielke (1568–1592), on 21 February 1585; they had

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