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64-561: The Hukbong Bayan Laban sa Hapon ( lit.   ' People's Anti-Japanese Army ' ), better known by the acronym Hukbalahap , was a Filipino communist guerrilla movement formed by the farmers of Central Luzon . They were originally formed to fight the Japanese , but extended their fight into a rebellion against the Philippine government , known as the Hukbalahap rebellion , in 1946. It

128-749: A "struggle conference" was held in Cabiao , Nueva Ecija to discuss organization, strategy, and tactics. Members of the PKP, the Popular Front Party, the League for the Defense of Democracy, KPMP, AMT, and KAP convened to create a structure for unified resistance against the Japanese. A united front tactic was agreed upon as a means of attracting the broadest sections of population, not necessarily communists. A three-front resistance

192-676: A brief stint in the US Army , where he was assigned to the Chemical Warfare Service . Lava later enrolled at Columbia University , where he earned his Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry degrees in 1920 and 1923, respectively. While in New York , he met his wife, Ruth Propper. He returned to the Philippines with Ruth in 1923, where he worked for two years as a chemist in

256-780: A consulting chemist at Consolidated Mines Inc. in Manila. During this period, he became a member of various academic societies, including the American Chemical Society , the National Research Council of the Philippines , and the American Association for the Advancement of Science . In 1937, he again went to the United States to secure a patent for his coconut process. After successfully patenting it, he returned to

320-407: A database of words and their translations. Later attempts utilized common phrases , which resulted in better grammatical structure and the capture of idioms, but with many words left in the original language. For translating synthetic languages , a morphosyntactic analyzer and synthesizer are required. The best systems today use a combination of the above technologies and apply algorithms to correct

384-626: A decade merely in search of recognition as World War II freedom fighters and former American and Filipino allies who deserved a share of war reparations. The end of the war saw the return of American forces in the Philippines. While the Hukbalahap expected to have their war efforts recognized and be treated as allies, the Americans, with the help of USAFFE guerrillas and former PC members, forcibly disarmed Huk squadrons while charging other guerrillas of treason, sedition, and subversive activity, leading to

448-485: A forest clearing located in Sitio Bawit, Barrio San Julian, at the junction of Tarlac , Pampanga , and Nueva Ecija to form a united organization. Hukbong Bayan Laban sa mga Hapon was chosen as the name of the organization. After the meeting, a military committee was formed with Taruc ( Supremo ), Castro Alejandrino (Vice Commander), Bernardo Poblete ( Tandang Banal ), and Culala as members. The Hukbalahap high command

512-466: A great deal of difference between a literal translation of a poetic work and a prose translation. A literal translation of poetry may be in prose rather than verse but also be error-free. Charles Singleton's 1975 translation of the Divine Comedy is regarded as a prose translation. The term literal translation implies that it is probably full of errors, since the translator has made no effort to (or

576-638: A guerrilla organization was conceived as early as October 1941, months before the Philippines' entry to World War II. As early as 1941, Juan Feleo , a well-known peasant leader and member of the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas (PKP), had begun to mobilize peasants in his home province of Nueva Ecija for the conflict. Pedro Abad Santos , founding member of the Socialist Party of the Philippines, had also ordered Luis Taruc to mobilize forces in Pampanga. At

640-501: A joke which dates back to 1956 or 1958. Another joke in the genre transforms "out of sight, out of mind" to "blind idiot" or "invisible idiot". Vicente Lava Vicente Gregorio Baltazar Lava Sr. was born on December 24, 1894, in Bulakan, Philippines , at the end of the Spanish colonial period . He was the eldest child of Adeodato and Maria (Baltazar) Lava. Four years after he was born,

704-681: A legitimate guerrilla movement. Alejandrino was its nominal chairman. In 1946, peasants in Central Luzon backed members of the Democratic Alliance in that year's election, with six candidates eventually winning seats in the Senate. Among these candidates was Luis Taruc. However, they were blocked from sitting in Congress by the government, which only exacerbated negative sentiment among the peasants in Central Luzon. The new Roxas administration attempted

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768-456: A literal translation in preparing his translation of Dante 's Inferno (1994), as he does not know Italian. Similarly, Richard Pevear worked from literal translations provided by his wife, Larissa Volokhonsky, in their translations of several Russian novels. Literal translation can also denote a translation that represents the precise meaning of the original text but does not attempt to convey its style, beauty, or poetry. There is, however,

832-421: A pacification program, with help from Taruc, Alejandrino, Juan Feleo , and other representatives. They would be accompanied by MP guards and government officials to try and pacify peasant groups, however this did not result in any sort of success. Within days of the so-called "truce", violence once again erupted in Central Luzon. Taruc and others claimed that civilian guards and government officials were "sabotaging

896-477: A person-in-charge leading it. One department collected intelligence information about the military, another handled communication between different barrios and Huk members, and the third arranged for supplies. The Hukbalahap government also performed civil tasks, such as officiating in weddings, baptisms, funerals, and issued marriage licenses and birth certificates. Literal translation Literal translation , direct translation , or word-for-word translation

960-548: A sa voiture et sa voiture, ses serviettes et ses serviettes, sa bibliothèque et les siennes. " That does not make sense because it does not distinguish between "his" car and "hers". Often, first-generation immigrants create something of a literal translation in how they speak their parents' native language. This results in a mix of the two languages that is something of a pidgin . Many such mixes have specific names, e.g., Spanglish or Denglisch . For example, American children of German immigrants are heard using "rockingstool" from

1024-404: A serious problem for machine translation . The term "literal translation" often appeared in the titles of 19th-century English translations of the classical Bible and other texts. Word-for-word translations ("cribs", "ponies", or "trots") are sometimes prepared for writers who are translating a work written in a language they do not know. For example, Robert Pinsky is reported to have used

1088-476: A squadron. Two squadrons formed one battalion, and two battalions formed a regiment. These numbers were not always followed though: For example, Squadron 8, based in Talavera, Nueva Ecija , had twelve squads, each with a dozen men. The initial force of 500 armed Huks which was organized into five squadrons had increased to a fully armed guerrilla force of 20,000 men. By 1944, Huk strength numbers at 76 squadrons. After

1152-532: A surprise attack on Guillermo Capadocia, commander of the Huk Regional Command in the Visayas, erstwhile Secretary General and one of the founders of the PKP. Santos' masterstroke was the enlistment of Pedro Valentin, a local mountain leader who knew the people and the terrain like the back of his hand. Capadocia died on Panay , of battle wounds, on September 20, 1952. In 1954, Lieutenant Colonel Laureño Maraña,

1216-456: Is a translation of a text done by translating each word separately without looking at how the words are used together in a phrase or sentence. In translation theory , another term for literal translation is metaphrase (as opposed to paraphrase for an analogous translation). It is to be distinguished from an interpretation (done, for example, by an interpreter ). Literal translation leads to mistranslation of idioms , which can be

1280-623: Is unable to) convey correct idioms or shades of meaning, for example, but it can also be a useful way of seeing how words are used to convey meaning in the source language. A literal English translation of the German phrase " Ich habe Hunger " would be "I have hunger" in English, but this is clearly not a phrase that would generally be used in English, even though its meaning might be clear. Literal translations in which individual components within words or compounds are translated to create new lexical items in

1344-491: The Cry of Pugad Lawin , the Huks temporarily seized Santa Cruz, Laguna , and Camp Makabulos, Tarlac, confiscating money, food, weapons, ammunition, clothing, medicine, and office supplies. In September 1950, former USAFFE guerrilla, Ramon Magsaysay was appointed as Minister of National Defense on American advice. With the Hukbalahap rebellion growing in strength and the security situation in

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1408-598: The Hukbalahap , and the English-speaking press continued to refer to it and its members, interchangeably, as the Huks (Singular: Huk ) during the whole period between 1945 and 1952. The Hukbalahap movement has deep roots in the Spanish encomienda , a system of grants to reward soldiers who had conquered New Spain , established in 1570. This developed into a system of exploitation. In the 19th century, Filipino landlordism, under

1472-473: The Spanish colonization , arose and, with it, further abuses. After the opening of ports in Manila, the Luzon economy was transformed to meet the demands for exports of rice, sugar, and tobacco. Landowners increased demands on farmers, who rented parcels of land. These demands included increased rents, demands for proceeds from the sale of crops, and predatory lending agreements to fund farm improvements. Only after

1536-535: The "natural" sound of the translation. In the end, though, professional translation firms that employ machine translation use it as a tool to create a rough translation that is then tweaked by a human, professional translator. Douglas Hofstadter gave an example of a failure of machine translation: the English sentence "In their house, everything comes in pairs. There's his car and her car, his towels and her towels, and his library and hers." might be translated into French as " Dans leur maison, tout vient en paires. Il y

1600-573: The 7th BCT. With the all out anti-dissidence campaigns against the Huks, they numbered less than 2,000 by 1954 and without the protection and support of local supporters, active Huk resistance no longer presented a serious threat to Philippine security. From February to mid-September 1954, the largest anti-Huk operation, "Operation Thunder-Lightning" was conducted and resulted in the surrender of Luis Taruc on May 17. Further cleanup operations of guerrillas remaining lasted throughout 1955, diminishing its number to less than 1,000 by year's end. The Hukbalahap

1664-717: The Bureau of Science. In 1925, Lava became a professor at the University of the Philippines Los Baños , where, in his interest in promoting local Philippine industry, which he believed was neglected as a result of the American Payne-Aldritch Tariff Act , he began research on a process of extracting oil and other fuels from coconuts. During this time, he and Ruth had two children: Frances (1924–2011) and Vicente "Buddy" Jr. (1926–2006). In 1929, Lava returned to

1728-453: The Cabiao raid by the Japanese, the PKP adopted a "retreat for defense" policy, which broke up squads to smaller groups of three to five men. In areas controlled by Huk guerrillas, the Huks organized an ad-hoc police force to keep the peace and stop looters and thieves. Huks also formed Sandatahang Tanod ng Bayan (Barrio United Defense Corps), which acted as neighborhood governments in support of

1792-435: The German word Schaukelstuhl instead of "rocking chair". Literal translation of idioms is a source of translators' jokes. One such joke, often told about machine translation , translates "The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak" (an allusion to Mark 14:38 ) into Russian and then back into English, getting "The vodka is good, but the meat is rotten". This is not an actual machine-translation error, but rather

1856-488: The Huk forces in the field. These BUDC's were composed of KPMP and AMT members, which organized popular support for Huks, shielded harvest from the Japanese, and attacked Filipino collaborators; in effect, setting up protected zones and safe havens for the Huks. The Hukbalahap also set-up a government, composed of a President, Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, and five policemen. The barrio government also had three departments, with

1920-451: The Huks were always unpleasant. Those I knew were much better assassins than soldiers. Tightly disciplined and led by fanatics, they murdered some Filipino landlords and drove others off to the comparative safety of Manila. They were not above plundering and torturing ordinary Filipinos, and they were treacherous enemies of all other guerrillas (on Luzon). However, the Hukbalahap claimed that it extended its guerrilla warfare campaign for over

1984-507: The Huks, who claimed that the attack was done by "renegade" members. The continuing condemnation and new post-war causes of the movement prompted the Huk leaders to adopt a new name, the " Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan " or the "People's Liberation Army" in 1950. Public sympathies for the movement had been waning due to their postwar attacks. The Huks confiscated funds and property to sustain their movement and relied on small village organizers for political and material support. The Huk movement

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2048-648: The Japanese, and BUDCs. The Huk movement was notable for its inclusion of women peasants, who advocated for inclusion in the movement in resistance to word of Japanese war atrocities against women, including rape and mutilation. Many of these women fought, but the majority of the resistance remained in villages, collecting supplies and intelligence. Women in the forest camps were forbidden from entering combat, but often trained in first aid, communication/propaganda, and recruitment tactics. The Huks enjoyed early successes with their continuous attacks, aimed at raising morale through quick successes as well as to acquire weapons for

2112-517: The Japanese, and pledging loyalty to the Philippines and United States. In February 1942, the leaders of the Communist Party were arrested during the Japanese invasion of the Philippines , leaving Vicente Lava as the new general secretary. One month later, in March, the Hukbalahap , an anti-Japanese guerilla force was formed in central Luzon, with Lava as one of its designers. A few months prior to

2176-589: The Philippines . This original intent is reflected in its name. By 1950, the Communist Party of the Philippines (PKP) had resolved to reconstitute the organization as the armed wing of a revolutionary party, prompting a change in the official name to Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan , likely in emulation of the Chinese People's Liberation Army . Notwithstanding this name change, the HMB continued to be popularly known as

2240-467: The Philippines and set up a pilot plant in 1938. He also discovered other processes to create coconut milk and flour, and experimented with other native products. It was around this time that Lava joined the Communist Party of the Philippines . The 1930s in the Philippines was a time when agricultural workers and laborers were starting to organize and strike against economic injustices. The Socialist Party, led by Luis Taruc and Pedro Abad Santos ,

2304-582: The Philippines becoming seriously threatened, Magsaysay urged President Elpidio Quirino to suspend the writ of habeas corpus for the duration of the Huk campaign. On October 18, 1950, Magsaysay captured the Secretariat, including General Secretary José Lava , following the earlier capture of the Politburo in Manila. American assistance allowed Magsaysay to create more BCTs, bringing the total to twenty-six. By 1951, army strength had increased by 60 percent over

2368-525: The Spanish were driven out of the Philippines , followed by the American suppression of an independence movement in 1901 and the beginning of American neocolonialism in the islands . From 1912 to 1916, Lava studied chemistry at the University of the Philippines . Lava moved to the United States to pursue higher education in 1917, enrolling at the University of California, Berkeley . In 1918, he served for

2432-530: The United States, where he worked at Oberlin College in Ohio on a Grasselli research fellowship, conducting studies on Vitamin B . In 1931, he became a research fellow at New York University , where he resumed and completed his work on coconuts. It was during this period that he was first introduced to communist ideas. With his work on the coconut completed, Lava returned to the Philippines in 1934, where he worked as

2496-528: The arrests of Luis Taruc and Casto Alejandrino in 1945, as well as incidents such as the massacre of 109 Huk guerrillas in Malolos, Bulacan . In September 1945, President Sergio Osmeña released Taruc, Alejandrino, and other Huk leaders from prison. The PKP, through Huk leaders, then formally disbanded the movement and formed the Hukbalahap Veterans' League in an effort to get the Hukbalahap recognized as

2560-459: The coming of the Americans were reforms initiated to lessen tensions between tenants and landlords. The reforms, however, did not solve the problems and, with growing political consciousness produced by education, peasants began to unite under educated but poor leaders. The most potent of these organizations was the Hukbalahap, which began as a resistance organization against the Japanese but ended as an anti-government resistance movement. The idea of

2624-718: The enemy's looting. The result was the creation of the Central Luzon Bureau (CLB), an organization meant to lead resistance against the Japanese. Key positions were filled out as follows: At the advent of this conference, several armed groups were immediately organized and began operating in Central Luzon. A significant event was on March 13, 1942, when a squadron headed by Felipa Culala (alias Dayang-Dayang) encountered and defeated Japanese forces in Mandili, Candaba , Pampanga. News of Culala's successful raid raised morale for resistance fighters. On March 29, 1942, peasant leaders met in

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2688-495: The former head of Force X of the 16th PC Company, assumed command of the 7th BCT, which had become one of the most mobile striking forces of the Philippine ground forces against the Huks, from Valeriano who was now a colonel. Force X employed psychological warfare through combat intelligence and infiltration that relied on secrecy in planning, training, and execution of attack. The lessons learned from Force X and Nenita were combined in

2752-401: The headquarters of the Hukbalahap in Luzon was raided, and Lava returned to Manila to reorganize the movement from a distance. His proposals were rejected and he was demoted in the party organization. In 1944, he worked on the organization of a new political party, the Democratic Alliance . Beginning in the same year, Lava's health deteriorated. In 1946, Lava ran as a senatorial candidate of

2816-458: The largest estates equally among the peasants and often killing the landlords. In some cases, however, landlords were welcomed as participants in Huk resistance, swayed by anti-Japanese sympathies. PKP organizers quickly went to work to set up BUDCs in Huk controlled barrios, which contributed to its success as a resistance army, although in reality there was an overlap between independently formed barrio governments, "neighborhood committees" set up by

2880-408: The late Antonio Sumang and 96-year-old Praxedes Clarin, in the statue, one of the nine surviving Huks) including Olimpia Ingal, Narciso Garcia, Josefa Tolentino, and Clemente Miranda, all 94, Dominga Sanchez, Anastacia Sali, and Natalia Lacanlale, all 98 and Francisca Salas, 99). Constituted in March 1942, the Hukbalahap was to be part of a broad united front resistance to the Japanese occupation of

2944-405: The outbreak of World War II in the Philippines and the capture of Manila, top-ranking leaders of the PKP were captured by the Japanese military. Crisanto Evangelista , its founder, was among those who were captured and was executed in 1942. Abad Santos was similarly captured, but was released in 1943. Dr. Vicente Lava took the reins of the PKP and tried to re-organize the party. In February 1942,

3008-515: The outbreak of the war, the Japanese offered Lava a sum of ₱ 1 million for his patented coconut process, but he refused to sell it, believing that it should only be used to advance Philippine industry. In July 1942, the Japanese raided the Lava family home in Bulakan in an attempt to obtain his coconut oil process, as the fuel created by this process could be used in the manufacture of explosives. In 1943,

3072-645: The peace process". On August 24, 1946, Feleo was stopped by a large band of "armed men in fatigue uniforms" in Gapan, Nueva Ecija . He had planned to present the peasant's concerns to the Secretary of the Interior Jose Zulueta , before he was taken and killed. Thousands of Huk veterans and PKM members were sure that Feleo was murdered by landlords, or possibly the Roxas administration itself. The incident led to Taruc joining

3136-636: The peasants and re-igniting the insurrection. The Roxas administration then outlawed the Hukbalahap on March 6, 1948. In 1949, Hukbalahap members ambushed and murdered Aurora Quezon , Chairman of the Philippine Red Cross and widow of the Philippines' second president, Manuel L. Quezon , as she was en route to her hometown for the dedication of the Quezon Memorial Hospital. Several others were also killed, including her eldest daughter and son-in-law. This attack brought worldwide condemnation of

3200-520: The previous year with 1,047-man BCTs. Major military offensive campaigns against the Huks were carried out by the 7th, 16th, 17th, and 22nd BCTs. Another major effort against the Huks was Operation "Knockout" of the Panay Task Force (composed of the 15th BCT, some elements of the 9th BCT and the PC commands of Iloilo, Capiz, and Antique) under the command of Colonel Alfredo M. Santos . The Operation conducted

3264-417: The raid. By the end of the war, the Huks had 1,200 engagements, and inflicted some 25,000 enemy casualties. The Huks' strength consisted of 20,000 fully armed regulars and some 50,000 reservists . The Hukhbalahap's methods were often portrayed by other guerrilla leaders as terrorist; for example, Ray Hunt , an American who led his own band of 3,000 guerrillas, said of the Hukbalahap that My experiences with

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3328-566: The random brutality against the civilian population. In June 1950, American alarm over the Hukbalahap rebellion during the Cold War prompted President Harry Truman to approve special military assistance that included military advice, sale at cost of military equipment to the Philippines and financial aid under the Joint United States Military Advisory Group (JUSMAG). On August 26, 1950, in an "anniversary celebration" of

3392-403: The severely unarmed group. The Japanese conducted two counterattacks against the Huks, on September 6 and December 5, 1942. Both attacks did nothing to dampen the frequency of Huk raids, and only served to intensify Huk operations. On March 5, 1943, the Japanese struck the Huk headquarters in Cabiao, Nueva Ecija in a surprise attack. A large number of CPP cadres and Huk soldiers were captured during

3456-620: The spring of 1942, and the conferees agreed to cooperate, share equipment and supplies, with the Americans providing trainers. However, though the Huks fought the Japanese, they also "tried to thwart United States Army Forces in the Far East guerrillas", "therefore, they were considered disloyal and were not accorded U.S. recognition or benefits at the end of the war." After its inception, the group grew quickly and by late summer 1943 claimed to have 15,000 to 20,000 active men and women military fighters and 50,000 more in reserve. These fighters' weaponry

3520-529: The target language (a process also known as "loan translation") are called calques , e.g., beer garden from German Biergarten . The literal translation of the Italian sentence, " So che questo non va bene " ("I know that this is not good"), produces "(I) know that this not (it) goes well", which has English words and Italian grammar . Early machine translations (as of 1962 at least) were notorious for this type of translation, as they simply employed

3584-484: The workers of Manila and other cities." After the merger, Lava organized the League For the Defense of Democracy, and was elected a member of the central committee. In December 1941, as the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor , a simultaneous strike occurred at Clark Air Base in the Philippines. That month, the Communist Party, with the help of Lava, prepared a 12-point memorandum urging national unity and resistance against

3648-471: Was agreed upon: military, political, and economic. The military aim was to harass the Japanese continuously and keep it off-balance so as to prevent it from focusing on activities aimed at winning the goodwill of the people. The political aim was to discredit the Japanese-sponsored republic and build the concept of a functioning democracy as a grass roots level, while the economic objective was to prevent

3712-452: Was also joined by the military commissariat; a party apparatus that provided guidance to the Huks. The CLB was regarded as the "wartime version of the PKP". While PKP officials did assume important positions in the Huk structure, the movement encompassed more that simply members of the PKP and its affiliated organizations. Robert Lapham reports either Luis Taruc or Casto Alejandrino met with Lieutenant Colonel Claude Thorp at Camp Sanchez in

3776-506: Was commanded by Major Napoleon Valeriano. The Nenita terror tactics which were not only committed against dissidents but also towards law-abiding people sometimes helped the Huks gain supporters as a consequence. In July 1950, Major Valeriano assumed command of the elite 7th Battalion Combat Team (BCT) in Bulacan . The 7th BCT would develop a reputation toward employing a more comprehensive, more unconventional counterinsurgency strategy and reduced

3840-419: Was established in 1929, and the Communist Party, led by Crisanto Evangelista , was founded in 1930. The two parties merged into one Communist Party in 1938. According to Lava in an unpublished article submitted to Pacific Affairs entitled The Democratic Movement in the Philippines , "together, the merged parties [had] acquired considerable influence among the peasantry of central and southern Luzon and among

3904-459: Was mainly spread in the central provinces of Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Tarlac, Bulacan, and in Nueva Vizcaya, Pangasinan, Laguna, Bataan, and Quezon. An important movement in the campaign against the Huks was the deployment of hunter-killer counter guerrilla special units. The "Nenita" unit (1946–1949) was the first of such special forces whose main mission was to eliminate the Huks. The Nenita force

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3968-546: Was obtained primarily by stealing it from battlefields and downed planes left behind by the Japanese, Filipinos, and Americans. They fought Japanese troops, worked to subvert the Japanese tax-collection service, intercepted food and supplies to the Japanese troops, and created a training school where they taught political theory and military tactics based on Marxist ideas. In areas that the group controlled, they set up local governments ( Sandatahang Tanod ng Bayan , Barrio United Defense Corps) and instituted land reforms, dividing up

4032-561: Was put down through a series of reforms and military victories by Defense Secretary , and later President, Ramon Magsaysay . A monument dedicated to the Huks in Cabiao , Nueva Ecija, was constructed to honor their actions during World War II . On October 14, 2023, the Luis M. Taruc Hukbalahap Monument at Garden of Peace Memorial Park in Santa Monica, San Luis, Pampanga , was unveiled to honor about 400 guerrilla fighters (including Luis Taruc ,

4096-528: Was regarded by the PKP as its "citizen's army" against the Japanese. It was headed by the Central Luzon Bureau, with Vicente Lava as its secretary, and a secretariat, ostensibly a party apparatus meant to keep the Huks in line with PKP ideology. There were five committees which composed the Huk structure: The Huk military structured was modeled after the Chinese Red Army . It was composed of squads and platoons, consisting of 100 officers and men, which formed

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