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99-474: Hugh Tracey saw the importance of music within culture when he worked a tobacco farm in Southern Rhodesia . Here, he experienced music that displayed beliefs and morals, which inspired him to make his field recordings. He wanted to stop the loss of traditional music and culture from modernity and recorded all of his field recordings from rural areas that still held onto traditional culture and ideas. Tracey

198-412: A nitrosation reaction. This occurs mostly in the curing and processing of tobacco. However, nicotine in the mouth and stomach can react to form N-nitrosonornicotine , a known type 1 carcinogen, suggesting that consumption of non-tobacco forms of nicotine may still play a role in carcinogenesis. Nicotine causes DNA damage in several types of human cells as judged by assays for genotoxicity such as

297-510: A receptor antagonist . Such antagonism results in mild analgesia . By binding to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain, nicotine elicits its psychoactive effects and increases the levels of several neurotransmitters in various brain structures – acting as a sort of "volume control". Nicotine has a higher affinity for nicotinic receptors in the brain than those in skeletal muscle , though at toxic doses it can induce contractions and respiratory paralysis. Nicotine's selectivity

396-427: A stimulant and anxiolytic . As a pharmaceutical drug , it is used for smoking cessation to relieve withdrawal symptoms . Nicotine acts as a receptor agonist at most nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), except at two nicotinic receptor subunits ( nAChRα9 and nAChRα10 ) where it acts as a receptor antagonist . Nicotine constitutes approximately 0.6–3.0% of the dry weight of tobacco. Nicotine

495-626: A carcinogen". The Surgeon General of the United States indicates that evidence is inadequate to infer the presence or absence of a causal relationship between exposure to nicotine and risk for cancer. Nicotine has been shown to produce birth defects in humans and is considered a teratogen . The median lethal dose of nicotine in humans is unknown. High doses are known to cause nicotine poisoning , organ failure, and death through paralysis of respiratory muscles, though serious or fatal overdoses are rare. The primary therapeutic use of nicotine

594-419: A curved wooden tool or deer antler. After making two holes to the right and left, the planter would move forward two feet, select plants from his/her bag, and repeat. Various mechanical tobacco planters like Bemis, New Idea Setter, and New Holland Transplanter were invented in the late 19th and 20th centuries to automate the process: making the hole, watering it, guiding the plant in—all in one motion. Tobacco

693-431: A dose of nicotine is delivered and absorbed, the higher the addiction risk. Investigative Nicotine is being researched in clinical trials for possible benefit in treating Parkinson's disease , dementia , attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and depression . Nicotine may partly attenuate sensory gating and attentional deficits associated with schizophrenia . Short-term use of transdermal nicotine

792-492: A glut in the tobacco market. This surplus has resulted in lower prices, which are devastating to small-scale tobacco farmers. According to the World Bank, between 1985 and 2000, the inflation-adjusted price of tobacco dropped 37%. Tobacco is the most widely smuggled legal product. Tobacco production requires the use of large amounts of pesticides . Tobacco companies recommend up to 16 separate applications of pesticides just in

891-551: A major industry in Europe and its colonies by 1700. Tobacco has been a major cash crop in Cuba and in other parts of the Caribbean since the 18th century. Cuban cigars are world-famous. In the late 19th century, cigarettes became popular. James Bonsack invented a machine to automate cigarette production. This increase in production allowed tremendous growth in the tobacco industry until

990-610: A medicine and advocate for its respectful usage, rather than a commercial one. Following the arrival of the Europeans to the Americas, tobacco became increasingly popular as a trade item. Francisco Hernández de Toledo , Spanish chronicler of the Indies, was the first European to bring tobacco seeds to the Old World in 1559 following orders of King Philip II of Spain . These seeds were planted in

1089-524: A negative effect on both mood and sleep. Nicotine exerts several significant effects on the cardiovascular system . Primarily, it stimulates the sympathetic nervous system , leading to the release of catecholamines . This activation results in an increase in heart rate and blood pressure , as well as enhanced myocardial contractility , which raises the workload on the heart. Additionally, nicotine causes systemic vasoconstriction , including constriction of coronary arteries, which can reduce blood flow to

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1188-487: A normal state. Nicotine use as a tool for quitting smoking has a good safety history. Animal studies suggest that nicotine may adversely affect cognitive development in adolescence, but the relevance of these findings to human brain development is disputed. At low amounts, it has a mild analgesic effect. According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer , "nicotine is not generally considered to be

1287-547: A number of such animals have evolved the ability to feed on Nicotiana species without being harmed. Nonetheless, tobacco is unpalatable to many species due to its other attributes. For example, although the cabbage looper is a generalist pest, tobacco's gummosis and trichomes can harm early larvae survival. As a result, some tobacco plants (chiefly N. glauca ) have become established as invasive weeds in some places. The types of tobacco include: Tobacco, alongside its related products , can be infested by parasites such as

1386-443: A powerful neurotoxin to insects . However, tobaccos tend to contain a much higher concentration of nicotine than the others. Unlike many other Solanaceae species, they do not contain tropane alkaloids , which are often poisonous to humans and other animals. Despite containing enough nicotine and other compounds such as germacrene and anabasine and other piperidine alkaloids (varying between species) to deter most herbivores ,

1485-446: A second stage of curing, known as fermenting or sweating . Cavendish undergoes fermentation pressed in a casing solution containing sugar and/or flavoring. Production of tobacco leaf increased by 40% between 1971, when 4.2 million tons of leaf were produced, and 1997, when 5.9 million tons of leaf were produced. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of

1584-441: Is immediately dangerous to life and health . Nicotine and cigarette smoke both induce the expression of liver enzymes (e.g., certain cytochrome P450 proteins) which metabolize drugs, leading to the potential for alterations in drug metabolism . Nicotine acts as a receptor agonist at most nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), except at two nicotinic receptor subunits ( nAChRα9 and nAChRα10 ) where it acts as

1683-590: Is 500–1,000 mg of ingested nicotine for an adult (6.5–13 mg/kg). The initial symptoms of a nicotine overdose typically include nausea , vomiting, diarrhea, hypersalivation , abdominal pain, tachycardia (rapid heart rate), hypertension (high blood pressure), tachypnea (rapid breathing), headache, dizziness, pallor (pale skin), auditory or visual disturbances, and perspiration, followed shortly after by marked bradycardia (slow heart rate), bradypnea (slow breathing), and hypotension (low blood pressure). An increased respiratory rate (i.e., tachypnea )

1782-696: Is 500–1,000 mg of ingested nicotine for an adult (6.5–13 mg/kg). Nicotine addiction involves drug-reinforced behavior, compulsive use, and relapse following abstinence. Nicotine dependence involves tolerance, sensitization, physical dependence , psychological dependence , and can cause distress. Nicotine withdrawal symptoms include depressed mood, stress, anxiety, irritability, difficulty concentrating, and sleep disturbances. Mild nicotine withdrawal symptoms are measurable in unrestricted smokers, who experience normal moods only as their blood nicotine levels peak, with each cigarette. On quitting, withdrawal symptoms worsen sharply, then gradually improve to

1881-404: Is activated by light. In the United States, tobacco is often fertilized with the mineral apatite , which partially starves the plant of nitrogen , to produce a more desired flavor. After the plants are about 8 inches (20 cm) tall, they are transplanted into the fields. Farmers used to have to wait for rainy weather to plant. A hole is created in the tilled earth with a tobacco peg, either

1980-438: Is also present at ppb concentrations in edible plants in the family Solanaceae , including potatoes , tomatoes , and eggplants , though sources disagree on whether this has any biological significance to human consumers. It functions as an antiherbivore toxin ; consequently, nicotine was widely used as an insecticide in the past, and neonicotinoids (structurally similar to nicotine), such as imidacloprid , are some of

2079-432: Is also used in some countries. Dried tobacco leaves are mainly used for smoking in cigarettes and cigars , as well as pipes and shishas . They can also be consumed as snuff , chewing tobacco , dipping tobacco , and snus . Tobacco contains the highly addictive stimulant alkaloid nicotine as well as harmala alkaloids . Tobacco use is a cause or risk factor for many deadly diseases, especially those affecting

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2178-825: Is called nicotini . Nicotine use for tobacco cessation has few contraindications. It is not known whether nicotine replacement therapy is effective for smoking cessation in adolescents, as of 2014. It is therefore not recommended to adolescents. It is not safe to use nicotine during pregnancy or breastfeeding, although it is safer than smoking. The desirability of NRT use in pregnancy is therefore debated. Randomized trials and observational studies of nicotine replacement therapy in cardiovascular patients show no increase in adverse cardiovascular events compared to those treated with placebo. Using nicotine products during cancer treatment may be contraindicated, as nicotine may promote tumour growth, but temporary use of NRTs to quit smoking may be advised for harm reduction . Nicotine gum

2277-472: Is contraindicated in individuals with temporomandibular joint disease . People with chronic nasal disorders and severe reactive airway disease require additional precautions when using nicotine nasal sprays. Nicotine in any form is contraindicated in individuals with a known hypersensitivity to nicotine. Nicotine is classified as a poison, and it is "extremely hazardous". However, at doses typically used by consumers, it presents little if any hazard to

2376-423: Is cultivated annually, and can be harvested in several ways. In the oldest method, still used, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a tobacco knife; it is then speared onto sticks, four to six plants a stick, and hung in a curing barn. In the 19th century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. The leaves ripen from

2475-491: Is cultivated similarly to other agricultural products. Seeds were at first quickly scattered onto the soil. However, young plants came under increasing attack from flea beetles ( Epitrix cucumeris or E. pubescens ), which caused destruction of half the tobacco crops in United States in 1876. By 1890, successful experiments were conducted that placed the plant in a frame covered by thin cotton fabric. Modern tobacco seeds are sown in cold frames or hotbeds, as their germination

2574-1181: Is highly addictive but paradoxically has quite weak reinforcing property compared to other drugs of abuse in various animals. Its addictiveness depends on how it is administered and also depends upon form in which nicotine is used. Animal research suggests that monoamine oxidase inhibitors , acetaldehyde and other constituents in tobacco smoke may enhance its addictiveness. Nicotine dependence involves aspects of both psychological dependence and physical dependence , since discontinuation of extended use has been shown to produce both affective (e.g., anxiety, irritability, craving, anhedonia ) and somatic (mild motor dysfunctions such as tremor ) withdrawal symptoms. Withdrawal symptoms peak in one to three days and can persist for several weeks. Even though other drugs of dependence can have withdrawal states lasting 6 months or longer, this does not appear to occur with cigarette withdrawal. Normal between-cigarettes discontinuation, in unrestricted smokers, causes mild but measurable nicotine withdrawal symptoms. These include mildly worse mood, stress, anxiety, cognition, and sleep, all of which briefly return to normal with

2673-571: Is less commonly used in agricultural insecticides , which was a main source of poisoning. More recent cases of poisoning typically appear to be in the form of Green Tobacco Sickness (GTS), accidental ingestion of tobacco or tobacco products , or ingestion of nicotine-containing plants. People who harvest or cultivate tobacco may experience GTS, a type of nicotine poisoning caused by dermal exposure to wet tobacco leaves. This occurs most commonly in young, inexperienced tobacco harvesters who do not consume tobacco. People can be exposed to nicotine in

2772-452: Is most similar to the mbira nyunga nyunga, but varies substantially from the more popular mbira dzavadzimu which is a fundamentally different instrument. Tracey was interested in the mbira , the national instrument of Zimbabwe, which has been part of the music of the Shona people for hundreds of years. In his efforts to spread awareness of Africa's vast musical heritage, he created an adaptation of

2871-438: Is one of the primary signs of nicotine poisoning. At sufficiently high doses, somnolence (sleepiness or drowsiness), confusion , syncope (loss of consciousness from fainting), shortness of breath , marked weakness , seizures , and coma may occur. Lethal nicotine poisoning rapidly produces seizures, and death – which may occur within minutes – is believed to be due to respiratory paralysis . Today nicotine

2970-447: Is still done by hand. In the U.S., North Carolina and Kentucky are the leaders in tobacco production, followed by Tennessee , Virginia , Georgia , South Carolina and Pennsylvania . Curing and subsequent aging allow for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids in tobacco leaf. This produces certain compounds in the tobacco leaves and gives a sweet hay, tea , rose oil , or fruity aromatic flavor that contributes to

3069-710: Is thought to be due to a particular amino acid difference on these receptor subtypes. Nicotine is unusual in comparison to most drugs, as its profile changes from stimulant to sedative with increasing dosages , a phenomenon known as "Nesbitt's paradox" after the doctor who first described it in 1969. At very high doses it dampens neuronal activity . Nicotine induces both behavioral stimulation and anxiety in animals. Research into nicotine's most predominant metabolite, cotinine , suggests that some of nicotine's psychoactive effects are mediated by cotinine. Nicotine activates nicotinic receptors (particularly α4β2 nicotinic receptors , but also α5 nAChRs ) on neurons that innervate

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3168-425: Is treating nicotine dependence to eliminate smoking and the damage it does to health. Controlled levels of nicotine are given to patients through gums , dermal patches , lozenges, inhalers, or nasal sprays to wean them off their dependence. A 2018 Cochrane Collaboration review found high-quality evidence that all current forms of nicotine replacement therapy (gum, patch, lozenges, inhaler, and nasal spray) increase

3267-496: Is unlikely to translate into increased risk of human cancer." Although nicotine is classified as a non-carcinogenic substance, it can still promote tumor growth and metastasis. It induces several processes that contribute to cancer progression, including cell cycle progression, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition , migration , invasion, angiogenesis , and evasion of apoptosis . These effects are primarily mediated through nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), particularly

3366-420: Is unrelated to a heart attack ) and heart palpitations , but does not increase the incidence of serious cardiac adverse events (i.e., myocardial infarction, stroke , and cardiac death ) relative to controls. In the short term, nicotine causes a transient increase in blood pressure . Long term, epidemiological studies generally show increased blood pressure and hypertension among nicotine users. Nicotine

3465-451: Is used as a recreational drug . It is widely used, highly addictive and hard to discontinue. Nicotine is often used compulsively , and dependence can develop within days. Recreational drug users commonly use nicotine for its mood-altering effects. Recreational nicotine products include chewing tobacco , cigars , cigarettes , e-cigarettes , snuff , pipe tobacco , snus , and nicotine pouches . Alcohol infused with nicotine

3564-526: Is used for tobacco production. Since 1947, the Indian government has supported growth in the tobacco industry. India has seven tobacco research centers, located in Tamil Nadu , Andhra Pradesh , Punjab , Bihar , Mysore , and West Bengal which houses the core research institute. In Brazil, around 135,000 family farmers cite tobacco production as their main economic activity. Tobacco has never exceeded 0.7% of

3663-584: Is widespread on farms in Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Malawi, and Zimbabwe. While some of these children work with their families on small, family-owned farms, others work on large plantations. In late 2009, reports were released by the London-based human-rights group Plan International , claiming that child labor was common on Malawi (producer of 1.8% of the world's tobacco ) tobacco farms. The organization interviewed 44 teens, who worked full-time on farms during

3762-542: The Lasioderma serricorne (tobacco beetle) and the Ephestia elutella (tobacco moth), which are the most widespread and damaging parasites to the tobacco industry . Infestation can range from the tobacco cultivated in the fields to the leaves used for manufacturing cigars , cigarillos , cigarettes , etc. Both the larvae of Lasioderma serricorne and caterpillars of Ephestia elutella are considered pests . Tobacco

3861-544: The Caribbean . In Taíno, it was said to mean either a roll of tobacco leaves (according to Bartolomé de las Casas , 1552), or to tabago , a kind of L-shaped pipe used for sniffing tobacco smoke (according to Oviedo, with the leaves themselves being referred to as cohiba ). However, perhaps coincidentally, similar words in Spanish, Portuguese and Italian were used from 1410 for certain medicinal herbs . These probably derived from

3960-832: The Muppet Show . Tracey died on 23 October 1977 and is buried at the Saronde Valley Farm, near Krugersdorp , South Africa. Tracey's recording were published in 210 LPs by the International Library of African Music. Although commercially available, his Music of Africa series (also known as the Sound of Africa series) can be mostly found in University libraries. Many of his recordings were also issued by other record labels such as Decca , London , Gallo , and SWP Records , and have been made available on CD and digitally. He also edited

4059-566: The Northeast Woodlands cultures have carried tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item. It was smoked both socially and ceremonially , such as to seal a peace treaty or trade agreement. In some Native cultures, tobacco is seen as a gift from the Creator , with the ceremonial tobacco smoke carrying one's thoughts and prayers to the Creator. Some Native Americans consider tobacco to be

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4158-455: The bong or the hookah (see thuốc lào for a modern continuance of this practice). Tobacco became so popular that the English colony of Jamestown used it as currency and began exporting it as a cash crop; tobacco is often credited as being the export that saved Virginia from ruin. While a lucrative product, the growing expansion of tobacco demand was intimately tied to the history of slavery in

4257-523: The comet assay , cytokinesis-block micronucleus test and chromosome aberrations test. In humans, this damage can happen in primary parotid gland cells, lymphocytes , and respiratory tract cells. Nicotine has been shown to produce birth defects in some animal species, but not others; consequently, it is considered to be a possible teratogen in humans. In animal studies that resulted in birth defects, researchers found that nicotine negatively affects fetal brain development and pregnancy outcomes;

4356-519: The heart , liver , and lungs as well as many cancers . In 2008, the World Health Organization named tobacco use as the world's single greatest preventable cause of death. The English word 'tobacco' originates from the Spanish word tabaco . The precise origin of this word is disputed, but it is generally thought to have derived, at least in part, from Taíno , the Arawakan language of

4455-404: The nicotinic receptor subtypes, nicotine has the highest binding affinity at the α4β2 receptor (k i =1  nM ), which is also the biological target that mediates nicotine's addictive properties. Nicotine has potential beneficial effects, but it also has paradoxical effects , which may be due to the inverted U-shape of the dose-response curve or pharmacokinetic features. Nicotine

4554-456: The performance-enhancing effects of nicotine on cognition. A 2010 meta-analysis of 41  double-blind , placebo -controlled studies concluded that nicotine or smoking had significant positive effects on aspects of fine motor abilities, alerting and orienting attention, and episodic and working memory. A 2015 review noted that stimulation of the α4β2 nicotinic receptor is responsible for certain improvements in attentional performance; among

4653-468: The tobacco mosaic virus (TMV); fungi; bacteria and nematodes); weed management via herbicide tolerance; resistance against insect pests; resistance to drought and cold; and production of useful products such as pharmaceuticals; and use of GM plants for bioremediation , have all been tested in over 400 field trials using tobacco. Currently, only the US is producing GM tobacco. The Chinese virus-resistant tobacco

4752-404: The ventral tegmental area and within the mesolimbic pathway where it appears to cause the release of dopamine . This nicotine-induced dopamine release occurs at least partially through activation of the cholinergic–dopaminergic reward link in the ventral tegmental area . Nicotine can modulate the firing rate of the ventral tegmental area neurons. These actions are largely responsible for

4851-671: The α7 subtype , and to a lesser extent, β-adrenergic receptors (β-ARs). Activation of these receptors triggers several signaling cascades crucial in cancer biology, notably the MAPK/ERK pathway , PI3K/AKT pathway , and JAK-STAT signaling . Nicotine promotes lung cancer development by enhancing proliferation, angiogenesis, migration, invasion, and epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) via nAChRs, which are present in lung cancer cells. Additionally, nicotine-induced EMT contributes to drug resistance in cancer cells. Nicotine in tobacco can form carcinogenic tobacco-specific nitrosamines through

4950-432: The "smoothness" of the smoke. Starch is converted to sugar, which glycates protein, which is oxidized into advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs), a caramelization process that also adds flavor. Inhalation of these AGEs in tobacco smoke contributes to atherosclerosis and cancer . Levels of AGEs are dependent on the curing method used. Tobacco can be cured through several methods, including: Some tobaccos go through

5049-940: The 2007–08 growing season. The child-laborers complained of low pay and long hours, as well as physical and sexual abuse by their supervisors. They also reported experiencing green tobacco sickness , a form of nicotine poisoning. When wet leaves are handled, nicotine from the leaves gets absorbed in the skin and causes nausea, vomiting, and dizziness. Children were exposed to levels of nicotine equivalent to smoking 50 cigarettes, just through direct contact with tobacco leaves. The effects of nicotine on human brain development in children can permanently alter brain structure and function. Major tobacco companies have encouraged global tobacco production. Philip Morris , British American Tobacco , and Japan Tobacco each own or lease tobacco-manufacturing facilities in at least 50 countries and buy crude tobacco leaf from at least 12 more countries. This encouragement, along with government subsidies, has led to

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5148-891: The African-tuned karimba, and an 8-note beginner's kalimba. In 1954, Tracey founded the International Library of African Music (ILAM) and became its director. ILAM publishes the African Music Society Journal . As part of the ILAM, Tracey made over 35,000 recording of African folk music during multiple recording tours throughout Africa. Notable tours include: Hugh's sons, Andrew and Paul, also became well known ethnomusicologists and musicians specializing in African music. Andrew took over ILAM as director following his father's death. Paul and his wife Barbara composed several songs for

5247-596: The Arabic طُبّاق ṭubbāq (also طُباق ṭubāq ), a word reportedly dating to the ninth century, referring to various herbs. According to Iroquois mythology , tobacco first grew out of Earth Woman's head after she died giving birth to her twin sons , Sapling and Flint . Tobacco has long been used in the Americas, with some cultivation sites in Mexico dating back to 1400–1000 BC. Many Native American tribes traditionally grow and use tobacco. Historically, people from

5346-548: The Caribbean. The alleged benefits of tobacco also contributed to its success. The astronomer Thomas Harriot , who accompanied Sir Richard Grenville on his 1585 expedition to Roanoke Island , thought that the plant "openeth all the pores and passages of the body" so that the bodies of the natives "are notably preserved in health, and know not many grievous diseases, wherewithal we in England are often times afflicted." Production of tobacco for smoking, chewing, and snuffing became

5445-474: The U.S. states in exchange for a combination of yearly payments to the states and voluntary restrictions on advertising and marketing of tobacco products. In the 1970s, Brown & Williamson cross-bred a strain of tobacco to produce Y1 , a strain containing an unusually high nicotine content, nearly doubling from 3.2 to 3.5%, to 6.5%. In the 1990s, this prompted the Food and Drug Administration to allege that tobacco companies were intentionally manipulating

5544-595: The US since 2014, homemade pesticides are banned on organic crops, and caution is recommended for small gardeners. Nicotine pesticides have been banned in the EU since 2009. Foods are imported from countries in which nicotine pesticides are allowed, such as China, but foods may not exceed maximum nicotine levels. Neonicotinoids , such as imidacloprid , which are derived from and structurally similar to nicotine, are widely used as agricultural and veterinary pesticides as of 2016. Nicotine-containing products are sometimes used for

5643-519: The United Nations, tobacco leaf production was expected to hit 7.1 million tons by 2010. This number is a bit lower than the record-high production of 1992, when 7.5 million tons of leaf were produced. The production growth was almost entirely due to increased productivity by developing nations, where production increased by 128%. During that same time, production in developed countries actually decreased. China's increase in tobacco production

5742-519: The United States have access to petroleum, coal, and natural gas, which can be used as alternatives to wood, most developing countries still rely on wood in the curing process. Brazil alone uses the wood of 60 million trees per year for curing, packaging, and rolling cigarettes. In 2017 WHO released a study on the environmental effects of tobacco. Several tobacco plants have been used as model organisms in genetics . Tobacco BY-2 cells , derived from N. tabacum cultivar 'Bright Yellow-2', are among

5841-523: The Wild Life series, which encompasses animal recordings made in Africa. Tobacco Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus Nicotiana of the family Solanaceae , and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the chief commercial crop is N. tabacum . The more potent variant N. rustica

5940-449: The adrenal medulla, stimulating the release of epinephrine. Acetylcholine released by preganglionic sympathetic fibers of these nerves acts on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, causing the release of epinephrine (and norepinephrine) into the bloodstream . By binding to ganglion type nicotinic receptors in the adrenal medulla, nicotine increases flow of adrenaline (epinephrine), a stimulating hormone and neurotransmitter. By binding to

6039-525: The amount of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, slow-wave sleep (SWS), and total sleep time in healthy nonsmokers given nicotine via a transdermal patch , and the reduction is dose-dependent . Acute nicotine intoxication has been found to significantly reduce total sleep time and increase REM latency, sleep onset latency , and non-rapid eye movement (NREM) stage 2 sleep time. Depressive non-smokers experience mood and sleep improvements under nicotine administration; however, subsequent nicotine withdrawal has

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6138-458: The body, it is distributed quickly through the bloodstream and crosses the blood–brain barrier reaching the brain within 10–20 seconds after inhalation. The elimination half-life of nicotine in the body is around two hours. Nicotine is primarily excreted in urine and urinary concentrations vary depending upon urine flow rate and urine pH . The amount of nicotine absorbed by the body from smoking can depend on many factors, including

6237-462: The cardiovascular toxicity of nicotine concluded, "Based on current knowledge, we believe that the cardiovascular risks of nicotine from e-cigarette use in people without cardiovascular disease are quite low. We have concerns that nicotine from e-cigarettes could pose some risk for users with cardiovascular disease." A 2018 Cochrane review found that, in rare cases, nicotine replacement therapy can cause non- ischemic chest pain (i.e., chest pain that

6336-428: The chances of successfully quitting smoking by 50–60% , regardless of setting. Combining nicotine patch use with a faster acting nicotine replacement, like gum or spray, improves the odds of treatment success. In contrast to recreational nicotine products, which have been designed to maximize the likelihood of addiction, nicotine replacement products (NRTs) are designed to minimize addictiveness. The more quickly

6435-419: The country's total cultivated area. In the southern regions of Brazil, Virginia, and Amarelinho, flue-cured tobacco, as well as burley and Galpão Comum air-cured tobacco, are produced. These types of tobacco are used for cigarettes. In the northeast, darker, air- and sun-cured tobacco is grown. These types of tobacco are used for cigars, twists, and dark cigarettes. Brazil's government has made attempts to reduce

6534-405: The ground upwards, so a field of tobacco harvested in this manner entails the serial harvest of a number of "primings", beginning with the volado leaves near the ground, working to the seco leaves in the middle of the plant, and finishing with the potent ligero leaves at the top. Before harvesting, the crop must be topped when the pink flowers develop. Topping always refers to the removal of

6633-513: The groundwork for all genetically modified crops . Because of its importance as a research tool, transgenic tobacco was the first genetically modified (GM) crop to be tested in field trials, in the United States and France in 1986; China became the first country in the world to approve commercial planting of a GM crop in 1993, which was tobacco. Many varieties of transgenic tobacco have been intensively tested in field trials. Agronomic traits such as resistance to pathogens (viruses, particularly to

6732-501: The harmful effects of tobacco. Between 2019 and 2021, concerns about increased COVID-19 health risks due to tobacco consumption facilitated smoking reduction and cessation. Many species of tobacco are in the genus of herbs Nicotiana . It is part of the nightshade family ( Solanaceae ) indigenous to North and South America, Australia, south west Africa, and the South Pacific . Most nightshades contain varying amounts of nicotine ,

6831-456: The health revelations of the late 20th century. Following the scientific revelations of the mid-20th century, tobacco was condemned as a health hazard, and eventually became recognized as a cause of cancer, as well as other respiratory and circulatory diseases. In the United States , this led to the adoption of the 1998 Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement , which settled the many lawsuits by

6930-1028: The heart. Long-term exposure to nicotine may impair endothelial function, potentially contributing to atherosclerosis . Furthermore, nicotine has been associated with the development of cardiac arrhythmias , particularly in individuals who already have underlying heart disease. The effects of nicotine can be differentiated between short-term and long-term use. Short-term nicotine use, such as that associated with nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) for smoking cessation, appears to pose little cardiovascular risk, even for patients with known cardiovascular conditions. In contrast, longer-term nicotine use may not accelerate atherosclerosis but could contribute to acute cardiovascular events in those with pre-existing cardiovascular disease. Many severe cardiovascular effects traditionally associated with smoking may not be solely attributable to nicotine itself. Cigarette smoke contains numerous other potentially cardiotoxic substances, including carbon monoxide and oxidant gases. A 2016 review of

7029-419: The market price. While this price is guaranteed, it is lower than the natural market price, because of the lack of market risk. To further control tobacco in their borders, China founded a State Tobacco Monopoly Administration (STMA) in 1982. The STMA controls tobacco production, marketing, imports, and exports, and contributes 12% to the nation's national income. As noted above, despite the income generated for

7128-482: The mbira known as the kalimba. The kalimba, which literally translates as "little music", was designed so that it could be learned and appreciated internationally. Today, kalimbas continue to be handcrafted in a family run workshop in Grahamstown , South Africa. They come in several different models: the treble and celeste treble (17 notes, 2+ octaves), the alto and TM alto (15 notes, 2 octaves), 11-note pentatonic kalimba,

7227-444: The most effective and widely used insecticides. Nicotine is highly addictive . Slow-release forms (gums and patches, when used correctly) can be less addictive and help in quitting. Animal research suggests that monoamine oxidase inhibitors present in tobacco smoke may enhance nicotine's addictive properties. An average cigarette yields about 2 mg of absorbed nicotine. The estimated lower dose limit for fatal outcomes

7326-411: The most important research tools in plant cytology . Tobacco has played a pioneering role in callus culture research and the elucidation of the mechanism by which kinetin works, laying the groundwork for modern agricultural biotechnology . The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1982, using Agrobacterium tumefaciens to create an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant. This research laid

7425-629: The negative effects on early brain development are associated with abnormalities in brain metabolism and neurotransmitter system function. Nicotine crosses the placenta and is found in the breast milk of mothers who smoke as well as mothers who inhale passive smoke . Nicotine exposure in utero is responsible for several complications of pregnancy and birth: pregnant women who smoke are at greater risk for both miscarriage and stillbirth and infants exposed to nicotine in utero tend to have lower birth weights . A McMaster University research group observed in 2010 that rats exposed to nicotine in

7524-606: The next cigarette. Smokers have a worse mood than they typically would have if they were not nicotine-dependent; they experience normal moods only immediately after smoking. Nicotine dependence is associated with poor sleep quality and shorter sleep duration among smokers. In dependent smokers, withdrawal causes impairments in memory and attention, and smoking during withdrawal returns these cognitive abilities to pre-withdrawal levels. The temporarily increased cognitive levels of smokers after inhaling smoke are offset by periods of cognitive decline during nicotine withdrawal. Therefore,

7623-572: The nicotine content of cigarettes . The desire of many addicted smokers to quit has led to the development of tobacco cessation products . In 2003, in response to growth of tobacco use in developing countries, the World Health Organization successfully rallied 168 countries to sign the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. The convention is designed to push for effective legislation and enforcement in all countries to reduce

7722-505: The nucleus accumbens, resulting in nicotine addiction. Contrary to popular belief , nicotine itself does not cause cancer in humans, although it is unclear whether it functions as a tumor promoter as of 2012 . A 2018 report by the US National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine concludes, "[w]hile it is biologically plausible that nicotine can act as a tumor promoter, the existing body of evidence indicates this

7821-451: The outskirts of Toledo , more specifically in an area known as "Los Cigarrales" named after the continuous plagues of cicadas ( cigarras in Spanish). Before the development of the lighter Virginia and white burley strains of tobacco, the smoke was too harsh to be inhaled. Small quantities were smoked at a time, using a pipe like the midwakh or kiseru , or newly invented waterpipes such as

7920-456: The overall daily cognitive levels of smokers and non-smokers are roughly similar. Nicotine activates the mesolimbic pathway and induces long-term ΔFosB expression (i.e., produces phosphorylated ΔFosB isoforms ) in the nucleus accumbens when inhaled or injected frequently or at high doses, but not necessarily when ingested. Consequently, high daily exposure (possibly excluding oral route ) to nicotine can cause ΔFosB overexpression in

8019-433: The period between planting the seeds in greenhouses and transplanting the young plants to the field. Pesticide use has been worsened by the desire to produce larger crops in less time because of the decreasing market value of tobacco. Pesticides often harm tobacco farmers because they are unaware of the health effects and the proper safety protocol for working with pesticides. These pesticides, as well as fertilizers, end up in

8118-556: The production of tobacco but has not had a successful systematic antitobacco farming initiative. Brazil's government, however, provides small loans for family farms, including those that grow tobacco, through the Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar . The International Labour Office reported that the most child-laborers work in agriculture, which is one of the most hazardous types of work. The tobacco industry houses some of these working children. Use of children

8217-431: The receptors, it causes cell depolarization and an influx of calcium through voltage-gated calcium channels. Calcium triggers the exocytosis of chromaffin granules and thus the release of epinephrine (and norepinephrine) into the bloodstream . The release of epinephrine (adrenaline) causes an increase in heart rate , blood pressure and respiration , as well as higher blood glucose levels. As nicotine enters

8316-641: The same time, or using OTC NRT at the same time as another nicotine-containing product, like cigarettes. The median lethal dose of nicotine in humans is unknown. Nevertheless, nicotine has a relatively high toxicity in comparison to many other alkaloids such as caffeine , which has an LD 50 of 127 mg/kg when administered to mice. At sufficiently high doses, it is associated with nicotine poisoning, which, while common in children (in whom poisonous and lethal levels occur at lower doses per kilogram of body weight ) rarely results in significant morbidity or death. The estimated lower dose limit for fatal outcomes

8415-510: The soil, waterways, and the food chain. Coupled with child labor, pesticides pose an even greater threat. Early exposure to pesticides may increase a child's lifelong cancer risk, as well as harm their nervous and immune systems. As with all crops, tobacco crops extract nutrients (such as phosphorus , nitrogen , and potassium ) from soil, decreasing its fertility. Furthermore, the wood used to cure tobacco in some places leads to deforestation. While some big tobacco producers such as China and

8514-503: The state by profits from state-owned tobacco companies and the taxes paid by companies and retailers, China's government has acted to reduce tobacco use. India's Tobacco Board is headquartered in Guntur in the state of Andhra Pradesh . India has 96,865 registered tobacco farmers and many more who are not registered. In 2010, 3,120 tobacco product manufacturing facilities were operating in all of India. Around 0.25% of India's cultivated land

8613-405: The strongly reinforcing effects of nicotine, which often occur in the absence of euphoria ; however, mild euphoria from nicotine use can occur in some individuals. Chronic nicotine use inhibits class I and II histone deacetylases in the striatum , where this effect plays a role in nicotine addiction. Nicotine also activates the sympathetic nervous system , acting via splanchnic nerves to

8712-399: The tobacco flower before the leaves are systematically harvested. As the industrial revolution took hold, the harvesting wagons which were used to transport leaves were equipped with man-powered stringers, an apparatus that used twine to attach leaves to a pole. In modern times, large fields are harvested mechanically, although topping the flower and in some cases the plucking of immature leaves

8811-429: The types of tobacco, whether the smoke is inhaled, and whether a filter is used. However, it has been found that the nicotine yield of individual products has only a small effect (4.4%) on the blood concentration of nicotine, suggesting "the assumed health advantage of switching to lower-tar and lower-nicotine cigarettes may be largely offset by the tendency of smokers to compensate by increasing inhalation". Nicotine has

8910-475: The user. A 2018 Cochrane Collaboration review lists nine main adverse events related to nicotine replacement therapy: headache , dizziness , lightheadedness , nausea , vomiting , gastrointestinal symptoms, insomnia , abnormal dreams , non- ischemic palpitations and chest pain, skin reactions, oral/nasal reactions, and hiccups . Many of these were also common in the placebo group without nicotine. Palpitations and chest pain were deemed "rare" and there

9009-483: The womb (via parenteral infusion) later in life had conditions including type 2 diabetes , obesity , hypertension , neurobehavioral defects, respiratory dysfunction, and infertility . It is unlikely that a person would overdose on nicotine through smoking alone. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) stated in 2013 that there are no significant safety concerns associated with the use of more than one form of over-the-counter (OTC) nicotine replacement therapy at

9108-512: The workplace by breathing it in, skin absorption, swallowing it, or eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for nicotine exposure in the workplace as 0.5 mg/m skin exposure over an 8-hour workday. The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.5 mg/m skin exposure over an 8-hour workday. At environmental levels of 5 mg/m , nicotine

9207-463: The world. The top producers of tobacco are China (36.3%), India (12.9%), Brazil (11.9%) and Zimbabwe (3.5%). Around the peak of global tobacco production, 20 million rural Chinese households were producing tobacco on 2.1 million hectares of land. While it is the major crop for millions of Chinese farmers, growing tobacco is not as profitable as cotton or sugarcane, because the Chinese government sets

9306-677: Was born in Willand , Devon , in 1903. In the late 1920s Tracey was a farmer in rural Devon, when he decided to travel to Southern Rhodesia , current Zimbabwe . There he continued to work as a farmer, but became deeply interested in the local music. In 1934, he left farming to work in the South African Broadcasting Corporation . In 1947, he established the African Music Society in Roodepoort , South Africa . The kalimba

9405-419: Was found to improve subjects’ reaction time and alertness in given tasks. Nicotine was not found to improve negative , positive , or other cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia. Nicotine has been used as an insecticide since at least 1690, in the form of tobacco extracts (although other components of tobacco also seem to have pesticide effects). Nicotine pesticides have not been commercially available in

9504-561: Was no evidence of an increased number of serious cardiac problems compared to the placebo group, even in people with established cardiac disease. The common side effects from nicotine exposure are listed in the table below. Serious adverse events due to the use of nicotine replacement therapy are extremely rare. At low amounts, it has a mild analgesic effect. However, at sufficiently high doses, nicotine may result in nausea, vomiting, diarrhea , salivation , bradycardia , and possibly seizures , hypoventilation , and death. Nicotine reduces

9603-524: Was sometimes associated with promiscuity ; in Japan, during the Edo period , prostitutes and their clients often approached one another under the guise of offering a smoke. The same was true in 19th-century Europe. Nicotine Nicotine is a naturally produced alkaloid in the nightshade family of plants (most predominantly in tobacco and Duboisia hopwoodii ) and is widely used recreationally as

9702-513: Was the single biggest factor in the increase in world production. China's share of the world market increased from 17% in 1971 to 47% in 1997. This growth can be partially explained by the existence of a low import tariff on foreign tobacco entering China. While this tariff was reduced from 66% in 1999 to 10% in 2004, it has still led to local Chinese cigarettes being preferred over foreign cigarettes because of their lower cost. Every year, about 5.9 million tons of tobacco are produced throughout

9801-479: Was withdrawn from the market in China in 1997. From 2002 to 2010, cigarettes made with GM tobacco with reduced nicotine content were available in the US under the market name Quest. Tobacco is consumed in many forms and through a number of different methods. Some examples are: Tobacco used in the mouth (buccal ( sublabial ), sublingual ): Smoking in public was, for a long time, reserved for men, and smoking by women

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