Huan Tan ( c. 43 BC – AD 28) was a Chinese philosopher, poet, and politician of the Western Han and its short-lived interregnum between AD 9 and 23, known as the Xin dynasty .
88-533: Huan worked as an official under the administrations of Emperor Ai of Han ( r . 27–1 BC), Wang Mang ( r . AD 9–23), the Gengshi Emperor ( r . 23–25), and Emperor Guangwu of Han ( r . 25–57). Huan was a close associate of the court astronomer and mathematician Liu Xin , as well as the author and poet Yang Xiong . In addition to his many rhapsodies, essays, and memorials, Huan's major work
176-561: A long line of emperors, all married of course, with male companions listed in their official histories. Ai bestowed honors on Dong at a rate which alarmed the court. Dong and his wife moved into the palace, and Dong's sister became an imperial consort. Dong's father was made an acting marquess (關內侯). Emperor Ai also ordered that a residence as luxurious as an imperial palace be built for Dong. All who opposed these honors for Dong were severely punished. In 3 BC, against opposition by his prime minister Wang Jia (王嘉), Emperor Ai created Dong
264-519: A 'mixed' or hybrid constitution , partly formally codified and partly uncodified. The codified part originally made no reference whatsoever to a prime minister and still gives no parameters of the office. Instead, their powers, duties, appointment and termination follow uncodified conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 only establishes the Queen's Privy Council for Canada , to which all federal ministers (among others) are appointed and with Members of which
352-545: A bear which had broken loose. Princess Dowager Feng, realizing that Empress Dowager Fu was behind the investigation, went back to her palace and died by suicide. In total, 17 members of the Feng clan died as a result of the investigations. This was immediately viewed as a political case, and officials and the people all became disappointed in Emperor Ai. In 5 BC, Empress Dowager Fu would finally get what she wanted. Emperor Ai removed
440-449: A codified constitution, however, do have a term of office of the prime minister linked to the period in office of the parliament. Hence, for example, Latvian prime minister Krišjānis Kariņš , who was first appointed in 2018 , had to be reappointed as head of a new government following the 2022 Latvian parliamentary election . The position of prime minister is usually chosen from the political party that commands - whether by itself or as
528-446: A eunuch, Shi Li (史立), to serve as investigator, and Shi tortured a good number of Princess Dowager Feng's relations (including her sister Feng Xi (馮習) and her sister-in-law Junzhi (君之)), some to death, but still could not build a solid case against Princess Dowager Feng. Shi Li decided to show Princess Dowager Feng who was actually behind the investigation, by referring to an incident in which then-Consort Feng defended Emperor Yuan against
616-457: A major controversy. Initially, Grand Empress Dowager Wang decreed that Princess Dowager Fu and Consort Ding see him periodically, every 10 days. However, Princess Dowager Fu quickly began to visit her grandson everyday, and she insisted that two things be done: that she receive an empress dowager title, and that her relatives be granted titles, like the Wangs. Grand Empress Dowager Wang, sympathetic of
704-510: A presidency), regardless of the correct title of the head of government as applied in his or her respective country. The few exceptions to the rule are Germany and Austria, whose head of government's title is Federal Chancellor ; Monaco, whose head of government is referred to as the Minister of State; and Vatican City, for which the head of government is titled the Secretary of State. A stand-out case
792-431: A prime minister is the official appointed to manage the civil service and execute the directives of the head of state . Today, the prime minister is often, but not always, a member of the legislature or its lower house, and is expected with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the legislature . In some monarchies the monarch may also exercise executive powers (known as the royal prerogative ) without
880-465: A prime minister, even if the label is different. The term goes back to ancient Roman times as head of the chancellery . This title as head of government or the administration existed in ancient China as Grand Chancellor (Chinese: 宰相; pinyin: Zǎixiàng ), sometimes translated as "prime minister", existed since 685 BCE and ancient Japan Chancellor of the Realm (太政大臣 Daijō-daijin ) since the 7th century CE. In
968-420: A specific term in office and in effect may remain in power through a number of elections and parliaments. For example, Margaret Thatcher was only ever appointed prime minister on one occasion, in 1979. She remained continuously in power until 1990, though she used the assembly of each House of Commons after a general election to reshuffle her cabinet . Newer parliamentary systems that operate based on
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#17328840768511056-621: Is done for his birth father. Emperor Cheng's desire to have Prince Xin act as only his son extended to the arena of Prince Xin's relationship with his grandmother Consort Fu and his mother Consort Ding. Emperor Cheng decreed that Consort Fu (now princess dowager of Dingtao) and Consort Ding be required to remain in Dingtao and not be allowed to come to Chang'an to visit Prince Xin. Some time later, Emperor Cheng's mother Empress Dowager Wang , not wanting to continue these harsh regulations, decreed that Princess Dowager Fu be allowed to see Prince Xin, under
1144-436: Is equivalent to that of a vice president which is the second in-command and assumes the presidency in the absence of the president. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within the government. In most systems, the prime minister is the presiding member and chairman of the cabinet. In a minority of systems, notably in semi-presidential systems ,
1232-534: Is the president of Iran, who is not actually a head of state, but the head of the government of Iran. He is referred to as "president" in both the Persian and English languages. In non-Commonwealth countries, the prime minister may be entitled to the style of Excellency like a president. In some Commonwealth countries, prime ministers and former prime ministers are styled Honourable or Right Honourable associated with their position (the prime minister of Australia or
1320-712: Is titled Chairman of the government . The Irish prime minister is called the Taoiseach (which is rendered into English as prime minister ), in Israel the prime minister is Rosh HaMemshalah, meaning "head of the government", and the Spanish prime minister is the President of the Government ( Presidente del Gobierno ). The head of government of the People's Republic of China is referred to as
1408-632: Is usually called the Office of the Prime Minister or Cabinet Office . The U.K.’s Cabinet Office includes the Prime Minister’s Office. Conversely, some Prime Minister's Offices incorporate the role of Cabinet, while Australia’s Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet joins them at par. In Israel, the prime minister's executive office is officially titled the "Prime Minister's Office" in English, but
1496-612: The Abbasid caliphate and the Ottoman Empire . They both had an official title of Grand Vizier simply the Head of the Government which is called Prime Minister nowadays. Grand Vizier was the most powerful person after sultan but sometimes the Grand Vizier of Ottoman Empire was more powerful than sultan himself. The position of Chancellor is the same or comparable in some countries as
1584-463: The Holy Roman Empire the position of Archchancellor was the highest dignitary and traces to 860 CE, out of which later derived the positions of head of government such as the modern Chancellor of Germany , who is head of the federal government and an executive prime minister. The power of these ministers depended entirely on the personal favour of the monarch. Although managing the parliament
1672-798: The Netherlands , Norway , Malaysia , Morocco , Spain , Sweden , Thailand , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom ) and in parliamentary republics , in which the head of state is an elected official (such as Bangladesh , Finland , the Czech Republic , France , Greece , Hungary , India , Indonesia (1945–66) , Ireland , Nigeria (1960–66) , Pakistan , Montenegro , Croatia , Bulgaria , Romania , Serbia , Turkey (1923–2018) and Italy ). See also " First Minister ", " Premier ", " Chief Minister ", " Chancellor ", " Taoiseach ", "Minister of State ( Statsminister )", "President of
1760-669: The Premier of the State Council . Other common forms include president of the council of ministers (for example in Italy, Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri ), President of the Executive Council, or Minister-President . In the Nordic countries the prime minister is called Statsminister , meaning "Minister of State". In federations , the head of government of a federated entity (such as
1848-544: The Scottish , Northern Irish and Welsh Governments are styled First Minister . Between 1921 and 1972, when Northern Ireland had a majority rule Parliament , the head of government was the prime minister of Northern Ireland . In Bangladesh , the prime minister is called Prodhan Montri , literally meaning "the head of ministers" or "prime minister". In India, the prime minister is called Pradhān Mantrī , literally meaning "the head of ministers" or "prime minister". In Pakistan,
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#17328840768511936-620: The Tory ministers Harley and Viscount Bolingbroke shared power. In the mid 17th century, after the English Civil War (1642–1651), Parliament strengthened its position relative to the monarch then gained more power through the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights in 1689. The monarch could no longer establish any law or impose any tax without its permission and thus
2024-460: The confidence of the legislature . The head of state is typically a ceremonial officer, though they may exercise reserve powers to check the Prime Minister in unusual situations. Under some presidential systems , such as South Korea and Peru , the prime minister is the leader or the most senior member of the cabinet, but not the head of government. As such, in South Korea, the prime minister
2112-437: The presidential system , in which the president (or equivalent) is both the head of state and the head of the government. In some presidential and all semi-presidential systems, such as those of Algeria , Argentina , China , France , Poland , Russia , South Korea or Ukraine , the prime minister is an official generally appointed by the president but usually approved by the legislature and responsible for carrying out
2200-501: The prime minister of Canada , for example). In the United Kingdom, the prime minister and former prime ministers are also often styled Honourable or Right Honourable ; however, this is not due to their position as head of government, but a privilege of being current members of His Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council . In the UK, where devolved government is in place, the leaders of
2288-432: The province or territory of Canada , the province of Argentina or the state of Brazil ) is most commonly known as the premier , chief minister , governor or minister-president . It is convention in the English language to call nearly all national heads of government "prime minister" (or sometimes the equivalent term "premier"), except in cases where the head of state and head of government are one position (usually
2376-657: The "Tyranny" of French Absolute Monarchy; therefore, being implicitly compared with Richelieu was no compliment to Walpole. Over time, however, the title became honorific and remains so in the 21st century. The position of a head of government separate from the head of state, or as the most important government administrator or minister after the monarch in rank developed in multiple countries separate from each other. The names given could be "prime minister", although other terms were also used such as "chief minister", "grand chancellor", "chancellor", "grand vizier", "counselor", and others. The literal title itself can be traced back to
2464-607: The British model. Bangladesh's constitution clearly outlines the functions and powers of the prime minister , and also details the process of his/her appointment and dismissal. The People's Republic of China constitution set a premier just one place below the National People's Congress in China. Premier read as ( Simplified Chinese : 总理; pinyin : Zŏnglĭ) in Chinese. Canada has
2552-587: The Fu and Ding clans in their stead (which, ironically, caused the people, who were not enamored with the Wangs initially, to long for their return to power as they associated the departure of the Wangs from power with Emperor Ai's incompetence in administration). In an unpopular act, Emperor Ai had his prime minister Wang Jia (王嘉, unrelated to the Wang clan mentioned above) put to death for criticizing him, an act that made him appear tyrannical. Emperor Ai's shortcomings quickly led to
2640-625: The Government", "President of the Council of Ministers" and " Secretary of State ": alternative titles usually equivalent in meaning to, or translated as, "prime minister". Both Indonesia and Nigeria lost their positions as prime ministers in 1966. Brazil , Iran , the Philippines and Turkey also lost their positions as prime ministers. Chile , Mexico , Switzerland and the United States never had positions as prime ministers. This contrasts with
2728-554: The House of Commons became a part of the government. It is at this point that a modern style of prime minister begins to emerge. A tipping point in the evolution of the prime ministership came with the death of Anne in 1714 and the accession of George I to the throne. George spoke no English, spent much of his time at his home in Hanover , and had neither knowledge of, nor interest in, the details of British government. In these circumstances it
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2816-499: The Marquess of Gao'an. The following year, the prime minister submitted a report to Emperor Ai, in which he urged that the honors bestowed on Dong be curbed. This report was carefully worded to appear to be looking out for Dong. It warned that Dong might suffer the same fate of Emperor Wen 's favorite Deng Tong (鄧通), who starved to death after his assets were confiscated by Emperor Wen's heir, or of Emperor Wu 's favorite Han Yan (韓嫣), who
2904-456: The Monarch or their Governor General normally performs executive government (as King- or Governor-in-Council ). The Constitution Act, 1982 , adds passing reference to the " Prime Minister of Canada " [French: premier ministre du Canada ] but as detail of conferences of federal and provincial first ministers .) Czech Republic's constitution clearly outlines the functions and powers of
2992-576: The Second World War, Winston Churchill was also Minister of Defence (although there was then no Ministry of Defence ). Another example is the Thirty-fourth government of Israel (2015–2019) , when Benjamin Netanyahu at one point served as the prime minister and minister of Communications , Foreign Affairs , Regional Cooperation , Economy , Defense and Interior . The term "prime minister"
3080-483: The U.S. system in which the president directly exercises executive authority. Bahrain 's former prime minister, Sheikh Khalifah bin Sulman Al Khalifah , occupied the post for about 50 years, from 1970 to November 2020, making him the longest serving non-elected prime minister. The post of prime minister may be encountered both in constitutional monarchies (such as Belgium , Denmark , Japan , Luxembourg ,
3168-659: The administration. Several members of the Dong clan became important officials as well, displacing the Fus and the Dings after Grand Empress Dowager Fu died in February 2 BC. Emperor Ai died in August 1 BC. It is not clear what the exact cause of death was, but he appeared to succumb to illnesses from which he had always suffered. On his deathbed, Ai ordered that his throne be passed on to Dong Xian, but this
3256-523: The approval of parliament. As well as being head of government, being prime minister may require holding other roles or posts—the prime minister of the United Kingdom , for example, is also First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service . In some cases, prime ministers may choose to hold additional ministerial posts (e.g. when the portfolio is critical to that government's mandate): during
3344-432: The bind that Emperor Ai was in, first granted Prince Kang the unusual title of "Emperor Gong of Dingtao" (定陶共皇) and then, under the rationale of that title, granted Princess Dowager Fu the title "Empress Dowager Gong of Dingtao" (定陶共皇太后) and Consort Ding the title "Empress Gong of Dingtao" (定陶共皇后). Several members of the Fu and Ding clans were created marquesses. Grand Empress Dowager Wang also ordered her nephew Wang Mang ,
3432-437: The capital, each with a full budget. That year, the new Empress Dowager Ding died on 9 July. During these years, other than the palatial infighting, what plagued Emperor Ai's administration (not unlike how it plagued his uncle Emperor Cheng's administration) was the general situation where good proposals would be made to Emperor Ai, and then he would approve of them personally but not take any actual actions on them. Further, he
3520-480: The chief of the executive under either a monarch or a president in a republican form of government . In parliamentary systems of government (be they constitutional monarchies or parliamentary republics ), the Prime Minister (or occasionally a similar post with a different title, such as the Chancellor of Germany ) is the most powerful politician and the functional leader of the state, by virtue of commanding
3608-443: The commander of the armed forces, to resign and transfer power to the Fus and the Dings. Emperor Ai declined and begged Wang Mang to stay in his administration. Several months later, however, Wang Mang would come into direct confrontation with now-Empress Dowager Fu. At a major imperial banquet, the official in charge of seating placed Empress Dowager Fu's seat next to Grand Empress Dowager Wang's. When Wang Mang saw this, he rebuked
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3696-561: The council" or "chancellor" were adopted, but the essentials of the office were the same. In the late 20th century, many of the world's countries had prime ministers or equivalent ministers, holding office under either constitutional monarchies or ceremonial presidents. The main exceptions to this system include Switzerland and the United States, as well as the presidential republics in Latin America, such as Chile and Mexico, modelled on
3784-458: The daughter of his grandmother Princess Dowager Fu's cousin Fu Yan (傅晏), empress. Emperor Ai, aged 20 at his ascension, quickly ended Emperor Cheng's practice of delegating imperial authorities to his uncles and cousins of the Wang clan and appeared diligent in his rule. He also reduced spending greatly. Both the officials and the people thought that after the reigns of the indecisive Emperor Yuan and
3872-446: The demoralization of the people towards the government and the acquisition of power by Wang Mang , in a backlash, after Ai died in 1 BC. Emperor Ai was also famous for being the most effusive homosexual emperor of the Han dynasty. Traditional historians characterized the relationship between Emperor Ai and Dong Xian as one between homosexual lovers and referred to their relationship as "
3960-458: The directives of the president and managing the civil service. The premier of the Republic of China (Taiwan) is also appointed by the president but does not require any approval by the legislature. Appointment of the prime minister of France does not require any approval by the parliament either, but the parliament may force the resignation of the government. In these systems, it is possible for
4048-560: The domineering Consort Fu , and not by his mother. Prince Kang died in September or October 23 BC, and the two-year-old Prince Xin became the Prince of Dingtao. In 9 BC, the then-18-year-old Prince Xin impressed his uncle Emperor Cheng when on an official visit to the capital Chang'an , when he brought three key officials of his principality—his teacher, his prime minister, and the commander of his capital's defense forces—to accompany him and cited
4136-440: The fact that he was also constantly ill, although the nature of the illness is not known. Circa 4 BC, Emperor Ai began to favor the minor official Dong Xian , and historians largely believe that they had a homosexual relationship. Both men were married, but that would not have been seen as conflicting with a homosexual love affair, as it was typical for Chinese men of the time to have multiple sexual relationships. Ai came from
4224-437: The honor of living at the crown prince's palace, stating that he was only at the capital to serve Emperor Cheng until Emperor Cheng would produce an heir and that he should stay at the Dingtao mission in the capital. Whether Emperor Cheng was formally adopting Prince Xin would quickly become a major controversy. Emperor Cheng viewed his recognition of Prince Xin as crown prince as formal adoption, and he believed that Prince Xin
4312-403: The impulsive and lavish spending Emperor Cheng, there would finally be a capable emperor. In 7 BC, under Emperor Ai's auspices, a major proposal to reduce involuntary servitude was made by several officials—princes would be limited to 200 servants (it was as many as they like before), marquesses and princesses to 100 servants (it was 200 before), and other nobility and commoners to 30 servants (it
4400-408: The king, and also that when the cabinet had agreed on a policy, all ministers must defend it in public, or resign. As a later prime minister, Lord Melbourne , said, "It matters not what we say, gentlemen, so long as we all say the same thing." Walpole always denied that he was "prime minister", and throughout the 18th century parliamentarians and legal scholars continued to deny that any such position
4488-536: The largest member of a coalition - the majority of seats in the lower house of parliament, though this is not a requirement either; for example, following the 2018 Latvian parliamentary election , after two failed attempts by larger parties to form a coalition headed by them, the leader of the smallest party in parliament - Krišjānis Kariņš - was eventually appointed as a compromise candidate. Italy has seen several emergency technocratic governments , such as Carlo Azeglio Ciampi 's and Mario Draghi 's governments, where
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#17328840768514576-497: The more proper heir. The majority, perhaps seeing that Emperor Cheng was leaning toward Prince Xin, recommended him, citing the general rule of succession that when one lacked an heir, he should adopt a brother's child to be his own son and heir; one official recommended Prince Xing under the rationale that he was closer in bloodline with the emperor. Emperor Cheng, whose mind was fairly made up, created him Crown Prince Xin . In an act praised one as showing humility, Prince Xin declined
4664-551: The name of an alternative prime minister; if the motion of no confidence is successful, the alternative prime minister automatically takes office in place of the incumbent government, which cannot appeal this replacement to the electorate. In Australia , the prime minister is expected to step down if they lose the majority support of their party under a spill motion as have many such as Tony Abbott , Julia Gillard , Kevin Rudd and Malcolm Turnbull . The prime minister's executive office
4752-442: The official and ordered that Empress Dowager Fu's seat be moved to the side, which drew great ire from Empress Dowager Fu, who refused to attend the banquet. To soothe her anger, Wang Mang resigned, and Emperor Ai approved his resignation. After Wang Mang's resignation, the Wangs gradually and inexorably began to lose their power. At Empress Dowager Fu's behest, the Fus and the Dings were installed in their place. Empress Dowager Fu
4840-451: The original Hebrew term can also be translated as the Prime Minister's Ministry. The Prime Minister's Department is also used, as is Cabinet Department. Wilfried Martens , who served as Prime Minister of Belgium, described his role as follows: In many cases, though commonly used, "prime minister" is not the official title of the office-holder. In the Russian constitution , the prime minister
4928-441: The others, so the term was no longer in use. In the 18th century in the United Kingdom, members of parliament disparagingly used the title in reference to Sir Robert Walpole (whose official title was First Lord of the Treasury ). During the whole of the 18th century, Britain was involved in a prolonged conflict with France, periodically bursting into all-out war, and Britons took outspoken pride in their "Liberty" as contrasted to
5016-415: The passion of the cut sleeve " (斷袖之癖) after a story that one afternoon after falling asleep for a nap on the same bed, Emperor Ai cut off his sleeve rather than disturb the sleeping Dong Xian when he had to get out of bed. Dong was noted for his relative simplicity contrasted with the highly ornamented court, and was given progressively higher and higher posts as part of the relationship, eventually becoming
5104-405: The people and the officials to yearn for the return of the Wangs. Consorts: Prime minister A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government , often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system . A prime minister is not the head of state , but rather the head of government , serving as
5192-594: The political scene extended until her death in February 2 BC, including an episode where her jealousy of Consort Feng Yuan —another consort of Emperor Yuan's (and therefore her romantic rival) and a grandmother of the future Emperor Ping —resulted in Consort Feng being falsely accused of witchcraft and subsequently being forced to die by suicide. During Emperor Ai's reign, he also stripped the Wang clan (Empress Wang's clan), which had been powerful during Emperor Cheng's reign, of much of their power, and substituted members of
5280-731: The power of the post. The title "prime minister" was first referred to on government documents during the administration of Benjamin Disraeli but did not appear in the formal British Order of precedence until 1905. The prestige of British institutions in the 19th century and the growth of the British Empire saw the British model of cabinet government, headed by a prime minister, widely copied, both in other European countries and in British colonial territories as they developed self-government. In some places alternative titles such as "premier", "chief minister", "first minister of state", "president of
5368-410: The power, rarely exercise it). Where they lose a vote of confidence , have a motion of no confidence passed against them, or where they lose supply, most constitutional systems require either: The latter in effect allows the government to appeal the opposition of parliament to the electorate . However, in many jurisdictions a head of state may refuse a parliamentary dissolution, requiring
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#17328840768515456-428: The president and the prime minister to be from different political parties if the legislature is controlled by a party different from that of the president. When it arises, such a state of affairs is usually referred to as (political) cohabitation . In parliamentary systems a prime minister may enter into office by several means. In older, convention-based parliamentary systems , prime ministers are not appointed for
5544-422: The prime minister is referred to as Wazir-e-Azam , meaning "grand vizier". The position, power and status of prime ministers differ depending on the age of the constitution. Algeria's constitution (1962) lists the powers, functions and duties of the prime minister of Algeria . Australia's constitution makes no mention of a prime minister of Australia and the office only exists by convention, based on
5632-456: The prime minister was a non-partisan expert backed by the confidence and supply of a broad cross-section of the parliament . In parliamentary systems, governments are generally required to have the confidence of the lower house of parliament (though a small minority of parliaments, by giving a right to block supply to upper houses , in effect make the cabinet responsible to both houses, though in reality upper houses, even when they have
5720-560: The proper legal regulations that, in his opinion, required and allowed him to bring them with him (even though it was customary that princes would bring only their teachers). He also showed clear understanding of the Confucian classic Shi Jing , further impressing Emperor Cheng. At that time, the sonless Emperor Cheng was beginning to consider making either his younger brother Liu Xing, Prince of Zhongshan (中山王劉興) or his nephew Prince Xin his heir. Emperor Cheng became convinced that Prince Xin
5808-480: The qualification "of Dingtao" from his father's posthumous title (thus making him simply "Emperor Gong"), and then gave his grandmother a variation of the grand empress dowager title ( ditaitaihou (帝太太后), compared to Grand Empress Dowager Wang's title taihuangtaihou (太皇太后)) and his mother a variation of the empress dowager title ( ditaihou (帝太后), compared to Empress Dowager Zhao's title huangtaihou (皇太后)), and there were therefore now four official empresses dowager in
5896-615: The rationale that she, having raised him, was merely in the role of a wet nurse . Consort Ding, however, would continue to not be allowed to see Prince Xin. Emperor Cheng died suddenly in April 7 BC, apparently from a stroke (although historians also report the possibility of an overdose of aphrodisiacs given to him by Consort Zhao Hede). Crown Prince Xin ascended the throne as Emperor Ai. Empress Dowager Wang, as his step-grandmother (and "legal" grandmother) became grand empress dowager, and Empress Zhao became empress dowager. He created Consort Fu ,
5984-416: The resignation of the prime minister and his or her government. In most modern parliamentary systems, the prime minister is the person who decides when to request a parliamentary dissolution. Older constitutions often vest this power in the cabinet . In the United Kingdom, for example, the tradition whereby it is the prime minister who requests a dissolution of parliament dates back to 1918. Prior to then, it
6072-471: The strange; on the other, however, he was reported to admit the practice as genuine and efficient. Possible explanation lies in the fact that the Xinlun was a later compilation which might have confused his own statements with the quotations of his opponents. Emperor Ai of Han Emperor Ai of Han , personal name Liu Xin (劉欣; 25 BC – 15 August 1 BC), was an emperor of China's Han dynasty . He ascended
6160-425: The supreme commander of the armed forces by the time of Emperor Ai's death. Dong was afterward forced to die by suicide . Emperor Ai was born to Liu Kang (劉康), Prince of Dingtao, a brother of then-reigning Emperor Cheng and son of Emperor Yuan, and his concubine Consort Ding, in 25 BC, presumably at Prince Kang's principality (roughly modern Heze , Shandong ). From birth, he was raised by his paternal grandmother,
6248-422: The throne when he was 20, having been made heir by his childless uncle Emperor Cheng , and he reigned from 7 to 1 BC. The people and the officials were initially excited about his ascension, as he was viewed by them (as well as Emperor Cheng) to be intelligent, articulate, and capable. However, under Emperor Ai, corruption became even more prevalent and heavy taxes were levied on the people. Furthermore, Emperor Ai
6336-459: Was 100 before, and that servants would be set free after a service of three years. However, after the proposal was leaked, many slave owners pushed to have the proposal tabled, and Emperor Ai only issued a limited version of the proposal—freeing servants over age 50. The issue of the roles of Princess Dowager Fu and Consort Ding (and what honor, if any, to posthumously bestow on Emperor Ai's father Prince Kang), however, would quickly again erupt into
6424-588: Was among the necessary skills of holding high office, they did not depend on a parliamentary majority for their power. Although there was a cabinet , it was appointed entirely by the monarch, and the monarch usually presided over its meetings. The monarch could dismiss the minister at any time, or worse: Cromwell was executed and Clarendon driven into exile when they lost favour. Kings sometimes divided power equally between two or more ministers to prevent one minister from becoming too powerful. Late in Anne's reign, for example,
6512-413: Was executed by Empress Dowager Wang after being accused of improperly assuming imperial style. Later in 2 BC, when Wang Jia opposed the expansion of Dong's march , Emperor Ai had him accused falsely of crimes and forced him to die by suicide through fasting. On January 1 BC, Dong was made the commander of the armed forces—at age 22 (by East Asian reckoning) —and effectively the most powerful official in
6600-457: Was harsh in his punishments of officials who disagreed with him—including, but not limited to, the issue of his grandmother and mother's titles. He would often backtrack in these punishments as well after some time, which also made him appear indecisive. He would also quickly promote officials that he saw as capable and honest and then, as soon as that capability or honesty offended him in some way, demote them. His temper might have been related to
6688-600: Was highly controlled by his grandmother Consort Fu (consort of his grandfather and his predecessor's father Emperor Yuan ), who demanded the title of Grand Empress Dowager —even though she had never been an empress previously and therefore did not properly hold that title, and this led to the unprecedented and unrepeated situation of four women possessing empress dowager titles at the same time—Empress Wang Zhengjun (Emperor Cheng's mother and Emperor Yuan's wife), Empress Zhao Feiyan (Emperor Cheng's wife), Consort Fu, and Consort Ding (Emperor Ai's mother). Consort Fu's control of
6776-580: Was himself afflicted with a psychiatric condition (probably bipolar disorder ), and when he got to Zhongshan, he suddenly, in a rage, left there and returned to Chang'an. Once he did and was ordered to explain his conduct, he made up a false reason—that he had discovered that Princess Dowager Feng was using witchcraft to curse Emperor Ai and Empress Dowager Fu. Empress Dowager Fu and Princess Dowager Feng were romantic rivals when they were both consorts to Emperor Yuan, and Empress Dowager Fu decided to use this opportunity to strike at Princess Dowager Feng. She sent
6864-488: Was ignored by imperial counselors. The Grand Empress Dowager acted quickly to seize his seal and to take power back from Dong Xian, reinstating Wang Mang as the regent. Dong Xian and his wife died by suicide. Emperor Ai would officially be succeeded by his cousin, Prince Jizi, as Emperor Ping , but this was merely a pretext for Wang Mang to seize the throne nine years later. Emperor Ai's abuse of power, first influenced by his grandmother and then by his love for Dong, caused
6952-585: Was inevitable that the king's first minister would become the de facto head of the government. From 1721, this was the Whig politician Robert Walpole , who held office for twenty-one years. Walpole chaired cabinet meetings, appointed all the other ministers, dispensed the royal patronage and packed the House of Commons with his supporters. Under Walpole, the doctrine of cabinet solidarity developed. Walpole required that no minister other than himself have private dealings with
7040-581: Was known to the Constitution. George II and George III made strenuous efforts to reclaim the personal power of the monarch, but the increasing complexity and expense of government meant that a minister who could command the loyalty of the Commons was increasingly necessary. The long tenure of the wartime prime minister William Pitt the Younger (1783–1801), combined with the mental illness of George III, consolidated
7128-533: Was more capable, and at the same time, Prince Xin's grandmother Consort Fu was endearing herself to Emperor Cheng's wife Empress Zhao Feiyan , her sister and Emperor Cheng's favorite Consort Zhao Hede , and Emperor Cheng's uncle Wang Gen with lavish gifts, and so the Zhaos and Wang Gen both praised Prince Xin as well. Emperor Cheng therefore seriously considered making Prince Xin his heir. In 8 BC, Emperor Cheng summoned several key officials to discuss with him who would be
7216-578: Was not satisfied with what she saw was her inferior title (as only empress dowager, not grand empress dowager, and with the qualifier "of Dingtao"). Several key officials who opposed her move were reduced to commoner status without any other fault—including the prime minister Kong Guang (孔光) and the prime inspector Shi Dan (師丹)—two of the top three officials of the administration. The third one, Empress Dowager Fu's cousin Fu Xi (傅喜), who also opposed Empress Dowager Fu's actions notwithstanding his relationship with her,
7304-400: Was now his son, no longer Prince Kang's. When he created a cousin to be the new Prince of Dingtao to serve as Prince Kang's heir in c. December 8 BC, Prince Xin, grateful that his father would continue to be worshipped as an ancestor, submitted a formal note of thanksgiving—at which Emperor Cheng was highly offended, believing that Prince Xin should not be grateful any more for whatever
7392-706: Was removed from his position and sent back to his march . In 6 BCE, Empress Dowager Fu would further display her power and at the same time cause the people to be even more disappointed in Emperor Ai. Emperor Ai's cousin Liu Jizi (劉箕子), the Prince of Zhongshan (Prince Xing's son), had a congenital heart disorder, and his grandmother Feng Yuan, the princess dowager, cared for his treatment and often worshipped gods to pray for his healing. Emperor Ai, up on hearing his cousin's illness, sent imperial physicians along with his attendant Zhang You (張由) to go to Zhongshan (roughly modern Baoding , Hebei ) to treat Prince Jizi. Zhang, however,
7480-413: Was supported by other contemporaries such as the naturalist and mechanistic philosopher Wang Chong (27– c. 100 ), the latter who Crespigny states was probably heavily influenced by Huan Tan. Huan Tan is reported by Yu Yingshi (b. 1930) to uphold self-contradictory views on immortality . On one hand, he is quoted to say that "the way of immortals" is a fabrication of the lovers for
7568-595: Was the Xinlun (新论)or New Discussions , which was admired by Emperor Guangwu despite Huan Tan's besmirched reputation for having closely associated himself with the regime of the usurper Wang Mang. His Xinlun is also the earliest text to describe the trip hammer device powered by hydraulics (i.e., a waterwheel ), which was used to pound and decorticate grain. Huan's mode of philosophical thought belonged to an Old Text realist tradition. He drew explicitly on Legalism in his writings on government, saying that in certain historical epochs harsher punishments are needed. He
7656-576: Was the entire government that made the request. Similarly, though the modern 1937 Irish constitution grants to the Taoiseach the right to make the request, the earlier 1922 Irish Free State Constitution vested the power in the Executive Council (the then name for the Irish cabinet). Some systems, such as Germany and Spain , require motions of no confidence to be constructive : i.e., they must include
7744-520: Was used as (vazîr-i aʾzam) or the Grand Vizier in 8th century by the Abbasid caliphate . in 17th century sources referring to Cardinal Richelieu , after he was named premier ministre to head the French royal council in 1624. The title was used alongside the principal ministre d'État ("chief minister of the state") more as a job description. After 1661, Louis XIV and his descendants refused to allow one of their Ministers to be more important than
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