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96-434: The area near Hualālai has been inhabited for centuries by Hawaiian natives , dating back to before recorded history. The coast to its west in particular had several royal complexes. The volcano is also important ecologically, is home to many rare species and several nature reserves near the summit, and is a popular hiking attraction. Today the coast near Hualālai is dotted by vacation resorts, some built on historic flows, and

192-423: A National Historical Park . Hualālai stands at 8,271 ft (2,521 m) with a prominence of 3,071 ft (936 m). It is the westernmost of the five major volcanoes that form the island of Hawaiʻi . Being in the post-shield stage of development, Hualālai is overall much rougher in shape and structure than the more youthful Mauna Loa and Kīlauea . Hualālai's structure is denoted by three rift zones :

288-455: A break, separating the older Emperor Seamount Chain from the younger Hawaiian Ridge; the V-shaped bend of the chain is easily noticeable on maps. The volcanoes are progressively younger to the southeast; the oldest dated volcano, located at the northern end, is 81 million years old. The break between the two subchains is 43 million years; in comparison, the oldest of the principal islands, Kauaʻi ,

384-403: A combination of pāhoehoe and ʻaʻā. It is during this stage, that the low-profile " shield " shape of Hawaiian volcanoes is formed, named for the shape of a warrior's shield. Eruption rates and frequencies peak, and about 95% of the volcano's eventual volume forms during a period of roughly 500,000 years. The lava erupted in this stage form flows of pāhoehoe or ʻaʻā. During this subaerial stage,

480-508: A coral-capped seamount. These flat-topped seamounts are called guyots . Most, if not all, of the volcanoes west of Kure Atoll, as well as most, if not all, of the volcanoes in the Emperor Seamount chain, are guyots or seamounts . Eventually the guyot will be taken to a subduction plate were it will be destroyed like Meiji Seamount in a few million years. Not all Hawaiian volcanoes go through all of these stages of activity. An example

576-449: A deep source off the coast of the north-western rift zone and are not related to the movement of magma. Hualālai has been a home to native people since ancient times. Centuries ago, the Ahu A Umi Heiau was built on the dry plateau east of the mountain. The Kaloko-Honokōhau National Historical Park lies on the shore west of Hualālai, over the site of an ancient Hawaiian settlement. Although it

672-544: A distinctive structure known as the Puʻu Anahulu ridge. Hualālai's westward-facing flank forms a large underwater slump known as the North Kona slump. An area of about 1,000 km (390 sq mi), the slump consists of an intricate formation of beaches and scarps 2,000 to 4,500 m (6,600 to 14,800 ft) below the waterline. This area was explored more closely in a 2001 joint Japan-United States project to explore

768-481: A famous creation story, the demigod Māui fished the islands of Hawaiʻi from the sea after a little mistake he made on a fishing trip. From Haleakalā , Māui ensnared the sun in another story, forcing him to slow down so there were equal periods of darkness and light each day. The Hawaiian mystical worldview allows for different gods and spirits to imbue any aspect of the natural world. From this mystical perspective, in addition to his presence in lightning and rainbows,

864-421: A few ōhiʻa lehua trees ( Metrosideros polymorpha ) grow along the summit. Many of the collapse craters in particular have vegetation, and a few even have respectably-sized "vertical forests" inside, including several eucalyptus tree groves. The volcano is populated by many birds and animals; the coast in particular attracts many fish and sea-dependent animals, such as the green sea turtle ( Chelonia mydas ) and

960-457: A few meters or feet at a time to form a broad and gently sloping shape. Hawaiian islands undergo a systematic pattern of submarine and subaerial growth that is followed by erosion. An island's stage of development reflects its distance from the Hawaii hotspot . The Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain is remarkable for its length and its number of volcanoes. The chain is split into two subsections across

1056-492: A high threat volcano, with an overall threat score of 109, and ranked it 23rd among United States volcanoes most likely to threaten lives and infrastructure. Since 1971, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory has maintained a seismic recording station 3 km (1.9 mi) east of Hualālai's summit to monitor the volcano. During this time, not a single earthquake swarm or harmonic tremor , indicative of activity at

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1152-524: A more recent study using updated radiocarbon dating methods suggested a much later date, somewhere within the mid-14th century. Located on the island of Moloka'i, the Hālawa Dune Site was first discovered in 1964 and consists of two mounds . In the summer of 1970, Patrick Vinton Kirch performed excavations on the larger of the two mounds, Mound B, revealing six major layers. Within the fourth layer were artifacts, faunal remains, and house foundations. Of

1248-465: A period of about 250,000 years, eventually stopping altogether as the volcano becomes dormant . Mauna Kea , Hualālai , and Haleakalā volcanoes are in this stage of activity. After the volcano becomes dormant, the forces of erosion gain control of the mountain. The volcano subsides into the oceanic crust due to its immense weight and loses elevation. Meanwhile, rain also erodes the volcano, creating deeply incised valleys. Coral reefs grow along

1344-466: A possible settlement as early as 124 CE. Patrick Vinton Kirch 's early books on Hawaiian archeology date the first Polynesian settlements to about 300 CE with more recent suggestions by Kirch of 600 CE. Other theories suggest dating as late as 700–800 CE. In 2010, researchers announced new findings using revised, high-precision radiocarbon dating based on more reliable samples than were previously used in many dating studies. This new data indicates that

1440-749: A range of 600 to 1200 CE, however a re-dating of samples in 2007 showed the site dated no earlier than 1300 CE, and was occupied primarily between 1400 and 1650 CE. Early settlers brought along with them clothing, plants (called " canoe plants ") and livestock and established settlements along the coasts and larger valleys. Upon their arrival, the settlers grew kalo ( taro ), maiʻa ( banana ), niu ( coconut ), ulu ( breadfruit ), and raised puaʻa ( pork ), moa ( chicken ), and ʻīlio ( poi dog ), although these meats were eaten less often than fruits, vegetables, and seafood. Popular condiments included paʻakai ( salt ), ground kukui nut , limu ( seaweed ), and ko ( sugarcane ) which

1536-516: A second wave of migrations in 1000–1300 from which different religions and systems were shared between Hawaiʻi and the Society Islands. Had Hawaiʻi been influenced by the Tahitian chiefs, the kapu system would have become stricter, and the social structure would have changed. Human sacrifice would have become a part of their new religious observance, and the aliʻi would have gained more power over

1632-581: A system of apprenticeship existed in which very young students would begin learning a craft or profession by assisting an expert, or kahuna . As spiritual powers were perceived by Hawaiians to imbue all of nature, experts in many fields of work were known as kahuna , a term commonly understood to mean priest . The various types of kahuna passed on knowledge of their profession, be it in "genealogies, or mele , or herb medicine, or canoe building, or land boundaries", etc. by involving and instructing apprentices in their work. More formal schools existed for

1728-441: A testbed for long term ecological research about Hawaiian moist forest and dry forest biomes , and lies within a mile of the volcano's summit on its northwestern flank. Elevation differs from sea level near the coastal edge to 6,300 ft (1,920 m) near the summit. Median annual rainfall is about 46.7 in (1,186 mm). Plentiful lava flows from the 19th century provide unique niches for vegetative and soil growth in

1824-532: A type of volcanic lava not found on other volcanoes on the island. Trachyte flows move more slowly than the typically "runny" Hawaiian lavas due to its high (over 62%) silica composition (typical basalt is only 50% silica). Geologists hypothesize that Puʻu Waʻawaʻa originally formed during a pumice eruption a little over 100,000 years ago, and has continued to build since then, with at least three distinct trachyte flows recognized. The eruptions, although partially covered by flows from Hualālai and Mauna Loa, have built

1920-409: A volcanic cone standing 372 m (1,220 ft) tall and measuring over 1.6 km (1 mi) in diameter. It extends for 9 km (6 mi), and has a prominence of 275 m (902 ft), north of the summit at 19°46′15″N 155°49′56″W  /  19.77083°N 155.83222°W  / 19.77083; -155.83222  ( Puu Waa Waa ) . The cone is constructed of trachyte ,

2016-484: A volcano is created near the Hawaiian hotspot, it begins its growth in the submarine preshield stage, characterized by infrequent, typically low volume eruptions. The volcano is steep-sided, and it usually has a defined caldera and has two or more rift zones radiating from the summit. The type of lava erupted in this stage of activity is alkali basalt . Due to stretching forces, the development of two or more rift zones

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2112-418: A well-developed one approximately 50° to the northwest, a moderately developed one to the southeast, and a poorly developed one trending northward about 3 mi (5 km) east of the summit. Over 100 cinder and spatter cones are arranged along these rift zones. Hualālai has no summit caldera , although there is a collapse crater about 0.3 mi (0.48 km) across atop a small lava shield . Much of

2208-457: Is Koʻolau Range on Oʻahu , which was prehistorically devastated by a cataclysmic landslide , never underwent the postshield stage and went dormant for hundreds of thousands of years after the shield stage before coming back to life. Some volcanoes never made it above sea level; there is no evidence to suggest that West Molokai went through the rejuvenated stage, while its younger neighbors, East Molokai and West Maui , have evidently done so. It

2304-458: Is believed to account for the "remarkable uniformity of East Polynesia culture, biology and language". According to Hawaiian mythology, there were other settlers in Hawaiʻi: peoples who were forced back into remote valleys by newer arrivals. They claim that stories about menehune , little people who built heiau and fishponds, prove the existence of ancient peoples who settled the islands before

2400-449: Is called kekaha ʻaʻole wai (lands without water), the rugged volcanic terrain attracted much sea life, making it an appealing place to settle. There are two main attractions within the park: the Kaloko fishpond, an area of loko kuapa (rockwall fishponds) constructed of interlocking rocks across a natural embayment on the coast, and Honokōhau, a former extensive settlement on the south side of

2496-437: Is common. The lava accumulates in a shallow magma storage reservoir. Because the eruptions occur with the volcano underwater, the form of lava typically erupted is pillow lava . Pillow lava is rounded balls of lava that was given very little time to cool due to immediate exposure to water. Water pressure prevents the lava from exploding upon contact with the cold ocean water, forcing it to simmer and solidify quickly. This stage

2592-428: Is listed as threat level 4. For comparison, almost all of Kīlauea and Mauna Loa is listed as threat levels 1 through 3. The volcano's flanks do not pose a lower threat to the population than the area near the rift zones because the distance is short and the slopes are steep; lava poses as much of a threat as it does near its source. The 2018 U.S. Geological Survey National Volcanic Threat Assessment classified Hualālai as

2688-529: Is little more than 5 million years. The "assembly line" that forms the volcanoes is driven by a hotspot , a plume of magma deep within the Earth producing lava at the surface. As the Pacific Plate moves in a west-northwest direction, each volcano moves with it away from its place of origin above the hotspot. The age and location of the volcanoes are a record of the direction, rate of movement, and orientation of

2784-442: Is now located, 11 km (6.8 mi) north of Kailua-Kona. The eruption at Hualālai is believed to have been concurrent with an eruption at the nearby Mauna Loa . It is theorized that in the near past, Hualālai has been active around the same time as both Mauna Loa and Kilauea, although precise dating is impossible. A severe earthquake swarm shook the volcano in 1929, lasting about a month. This caused $ 100,000 worth of damage to

2880-491: Is often referred to in Hawaiian chant. Different varieties of the root were used by different castes, and the brew served as an "introduction to mysticism". The four biggest islands, the island of Hawaiʻi , Maui , Kauaʻi and Oʻahu were generally ruled by their own aliʻi nui (supreme ruler) with lower ranking subordinate chiefs called aliʻi ʻaimoku , ruling individual districts with land agents called konohiki . All these dynasties were interrelated and regarded all

2976-576: Is still the primary factor controlling the volcano's development. After this stage the volcano becomes extinct and never erupts again. Eventually, erosion and subsidence break the volcano down to sea level. At this point, the volcano becomes an atoll, with a ring of coral and sand islands surrounding a lagoon . All the Hawaiian islands west of the Gardner Pinnacles in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are in this stage. Atolls are

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3072-400: Is the breakup of Maui Nui , initially a seven-volcano island, which was transformed into five islands as a result of subsidence. High rainfall due to the trade wind effect impacts on the severity of erosion on many of the major volcanoes. Coastline collapses, a notable part of the history of many of the Hawaiian volcanoes, are often devastating and destroy large parts of the volcanoes. When

3168-411: Is thought to last about 200,000 years, but lavas erupted during this stage make up only a tiny fraction of the final volume of the volcano. As time progresses, eruptions become stronger and more frequent. The only example of a Hawaiian volcano in this stage is Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount (formerly Lōʻihi), which is thought to be transitioning from the submarine preshield stage into the submarine phase of

3264-457: The ahupuaʻa as their source of water management. Each ahupuaʻa was a sub-division of land from the mountain to the sea. The Hawaiians used the water from the rain that ran through the mountains as a form of irrigation. Hawaiians also settled around these parts of the land because of the farming that was done. Religion held ancient Hawaiian society together, affecting habits, lifestyles, work methods, social policy and law. The legal system

3360-428: The 1801 event , contain xenoliths of large size and abundant quantity. Lava attributed to a shield-stage Hualālai has been found just offshore of its northwest rift zone. Tholeiitic basalt , indicative of the submarine subphase of the volcano's construction, has been found in wells driven into the volcano at a depth of 75 ft (23 m). These lavas persisted until an estimated 130,000 years ago. Hualālai entered

3456-526: The 2011 Sendai earthquake . The Hawaii Belt Road traverses the western slopes with an upper route called the Mamalahoa Highway and lower route named for Queen Kaʻahumanu . Much of the Kona coffee crop grows on Hualālai's western slope near the town of Holualoa . The family of early coffee merchant Henry Nicholas Greenwell owned a large ranch on the western side of the volcano. The road from Kailua-Kona up

3552-474: The Hawaiian people (and possibly all humans) as descendants of legendary parents, Wākea (symbolizing the air) and his wife Papa (symbolizing the earth). Up to the late eighteenth century, the island of Hawaiʻi had been ruled by one line descended from Umi-a-Liloa . At the death of Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku , a lower ranking chief, Alapainui , overthrew the two sons of the former ruler who were next in line as

3648-570: The Kingdom of Hawaiʻi by Kamehameha the Great . Traditionally, researchers estimated the first settlement of the Hawaiian islands as having occurred sporadically between 400 and 1100 CE by Polynesian long-distance navigators from the Samoan , Marquesas , and Tahiti islands within what is now French Polynesia . In 2010, a study was published based on radiocarbon dating of more reliable samples which suggests that

3744-468: The Kona district ($ 1.2 million as of 2010), and two earthquakes with magnitudes of 5.5 and 6.5 were felt as far away as Honolulu . This was probably caused by magma movement near the surface, but there was no surface activity or eruption. The 2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake , with epicenter just to the north in Kiholo Bay near Māhukona , caused much damage in the area. Hualālai is expected to erupt again in

3840-645: The Pacific Plate . The pronounced 43-million-year-old break separating the Hawaiian Ridge from the Emperor Chain marks a dramatic change in direction of plate movement. Initial, deeper-water volcanic eruptions are characterized by pillow lava , so named for their shape, while shallow-water eruptions tend to be composed mainly of volcanic ash . Once the volcano is high enough so as to eliminate interference from water, its lava flows become those of ropey pāhoehoe and blocky ʻAʻā lava. Our current understanding of

3936-454: The black-winged stilt ( Himantopus himantopus ). Hualālai averages 18.27 in (46 cm) of rainfall per year. The summit gets more rain than the coast and is typically obscured in heavy cloud cover and vog . Several ecological reserves lie on the flanks of Hualālai. The Puʻu Waʻa Waʻa forest sanctuary was established in 1992 (along with the Laupahoehoe sister reserve on Mauna Kea) as

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4032-525: The post-shield stage , the stage it is now in, about 100,000 years ago. Pumice and trachyte eruptions at Puʻu Waʻawaʻa may be a sign of this change. Geological mapping of Hualālai indicates that as much as 80% of its surface has been topped by lava flows during the last 5,000 years, entirely composed of shield alkalic basalt . More than half of this is under 3,000 years old, and about 12% is less than 1,000 years old. Between 1700 and 2016, eruptions originated from six vents; four of these lava flows poured into

4128-399: The westernization of Hawaii. It was here that Kamehameha I rested after his eight-year campaign to unite the Hawaiian isles. His death in 1819 triggered social chaos. Mokuaikaua Church , built for missionaries in 1837 of lava rock and crushed coral, still stands today. Huliheʻe Palace , where many of Hawaii's last kings spent their time, has been maintained as a museum since 1927. Today,

4224-411: The "shield" shape that shield volcanoes are named for. It is also the stage at which the volcano's eruptive frequency reaches its peak. As eruptions become more and more frequent at the end of the preshield stage, the composition of the lava erupted from the Hawaiian volcano changes from alkalic basalt to tholeiitic basalt and the volcano enters the submarine phase of the shield stage. In this phase,

4320-513: The 496 artifacts unearthed in this layer, the most significant included fishhooks and adzes . The adzes recovered from Mound B were similar to those found in Nihoa and the Necker Islands and, according to Kirch and McCoy, served as "evidence that the Hālawa Dune Site represented an early phase in the development of Hawaiian material culture." Initial radiocarbon dating for the site by Kirch suggested

4416-792: The Americas was done, and researchers found a genetic link that proves the root made it to Polynesia from the Andes around 1100. The findings, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , offer more evidence that ancient Polynesians may have interacted with people in South America long before the Europeans set foot on the continent. The Pacific rat accompanied humans on their journey to Hawaiʻi. David Burney argues that humans, along with

4512-709: The Ancient Hawaiʻi period. After Cook's visit and the publication of several books relating his voyages, the Hawaiian Islands attracted European and American explorers, traders, and whalers, who found the islands to be a convenient harbor and source of supplies. Within a few decades Kamehameha I used European warfare tactics and some firearms and cannons to unite the islands into the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi . Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes#Postshield stage The evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes occurs in several stages of growth and decline. The fifteen volcanoes that make up

4608-536: The Europeans, however, the population steeply dropped due to various diseases including smallpox . A traditional town of ancient Hawaiʻi included several structures. Listed in order of importance: Ancient Hawaiʻi was a caste society developed from ancestral Polynesians . In The overthrow of the kapu system in Hawaii , Stephenie Seto Levin describes the main classes: Hawaiian youth learned life skills and religion at home, often with grandparents. For "bright" children

4704-542: The Hawaiians. The Wai'ahukini Rockshelter, site H8, lies within a lava tube about 600 feet inland from the shore on the southern part of the island of Hawai'i. Based on the lack of light and space necessary for normal living conditions, it was unlikely that site H8 was used as a dwelling. Excavations of site H8 began in 1954 by William J. Bonk and students from the University of Hawaii, Hilo, and concluded in 1958. Excavation of

4800-543: The children learning from their grandparents, children who were apprentices learned by watching and participating in daily life. Children were discouraged from asking questions in traditional Hawaiian culture. In Hawaiian ideology, one does not "own" the land, but merely dwells on it. The belief was that both the land and the gods were immortal. This then informed the belief that land was also godly, and therefore above mortal and ungodly humans, and humans therefore could not own land. The Hawaiians thought that all land belonged to

4896-649: The coast west of Hualālai is a popular location for vacation resorts, since the rain shadow of the mountain causes many sunny days. The first, Kona Village resort , was built in 1961. Since then the Four Seasons Resort and the Kūkiʻo golf course and vacation home complex have also been built on the 1800 flow. Both the Kona Village Resort and the Four Seasons Resort were damaged by the tsunami generated by

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4992-539: The conquered lands as rewards to his warriors. In practice, commoners had some security against capricious re-possession of their houses and farms. They were usually left in place, to pay tribute and supply labor to a new chief, under the supervision of a new konohiki , or overseer. This system of land tenure has similarities with the feudal system prevalent in Europe during the Middle Ages . The ancient Hawaiians had

5088-425: The counsel of experts on the islands. Kapu was derived from traditions and beliefs from Hawaiian worship of gods, demigods and ancestral mana . The forces of nature were personified as the main gods of Kū (God of war), Kāne (god of light and life), Kanaloa (god of death), and Lono (god of peace and growth). Well-known lesser gods include Pele (goddess of fire) and her sister Hiʻiaka (goddess of dance). In

5184-585: The eight principal islands of Hawaii are the youngest in a chain of more than 129 volcanoes that stretch 5,800 kilometers (3,600 mi) across the North Pacific Ocean , called the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain . Hawaiʻi's volcanoes rise an average of 4,600 meters (15,000 ft) to reach sea level from their base. The largest, Mauna Loa , is 4,169 meters (13,678 ft) high. As shield volcanoes , they are built by accumulated lava flows, growing

5280-592: The explosive reactions with lava that take place, begins when the volcano just breaches the surface. The pressure and instantaneous cooling of being underwater stops, replaced instead by contact with air. Lava and seawater make intermittent contact, resulting in a lot of steam. The change in environment also engenders a change in lava type, and the lava from this stage is mostly fragmented into volcanic ash. These explosive eruptions continue intermittently for several hundred thousand years. Calderas continually develop and fill, and rift zones remain prominent. The phase ends when

5376-450: The exposed lava flows and tephra erupted by Hualālai volcano during the last 112,000 years into 419 rock units of eight chronostratigraphic age groups. These are summarized in the table below: Hualālai last erupted in 1800–1801. This eruption produced very fluid alkalic basalt lava flows that entered the ocean off the western tip of Hawaiʻi island. Although five vents were active at the time, only two produced flows that eventually reached

5472-658: The feather cloaks of the aliʻi , canoe builders. Soon, entire islands began to specialize in certain skilled trades. Oʻahu became the chief kapa (tapa bark cloth) manufacturer. Maui became the chief canoe manufacturer. The island of Hawaiʻi exchanged bales of dried fish. By chance in January 1778, British Captain James Cook encountered the Hawaiian Islands while crossing the Pacific during his third voyage of exploration . He landed first on Kauaʻi, then Niʻihau before leaving

5568-492: The first settlements were on the southern end of the Big Island of Hawaiʻi and that they quickly extended northwards, along the seacoasts and the easily accessible river valleys. As the population increased, settlements were made further inland. With the islands being so small, the population was very dense. Before European contact, the population had reached somewhere in the range of 200,000 to 1,000,000 people. After contact with

5664-413: The flanks of the growing volcanoes are unstable and as a result, large landslides may occur. At least 17 major landslides have occurred around the major Hawaiian islands. This stage is arguably the most well-studied, as all eruptions that occurred in the 20th century on the island of Hawaii were produced by volcanoes in this phase. Mauna Loa and Kīlauea volcanoes are in this phase of activity. As

5760-414: The god of light and life, Kāne , can be present in rain and clouds and a peaceful breeze (typically the "home" of Lono). Although all food and drink had religious significance to the ancient Hawaiians, special cultural emphasis was placed on ʻawa ( kava ) due to its narcotic properties. This root-based beverage, a psychoactive and a relaxant, was used to consecrate meals and commemorate ceremonies. It

5856-400: The gods ( akua ). The aliʻi were believed to be "managers" of land. That is, they controlled those who worked on the land, the makaʻāinana . On the death of one chief and the accession of another, lands were re-apportioned—some of the previous "managers" would lose their lands, and others would gain them. Lands were also re-apportioned when one chief defeated another and re-distributed

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5952-506: The gods, the flow was finally stopped when Kamehameha I threw a lock of his own hair into the fire. The Ka'ūpūlehu flow is also known for the particularly large quantity of mafic and ultramafic xenoliths that came up with it. The other major outflow from the event reached the sea south of Kiholo Bay , destroying the village of Kaʻūpūlehu . This 1801 flow, known as the Huʻehuʻe flow, formed Keahole Point where Kona International Airport

6048-427: The growth of homes, businesses, and resorts on its flanks. The most recent major activity at the volcano was in 1929, when an intense earthquake swarm rocked it, most likely caused by magmatic action near its peak. Although it has been relatively placid in the recent past, Hualālai is still potentially active, and is expected to erupt again in the next 100 years. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) has divided

6144-638: The island's aliʻi nui . Assuming five to ten generations per century, the Aliʻi ʻAimoku dynasties were around three to six centuries old at 1800 CE. The Tahitian settlement of the Hawaiian islands is believed to have taken place in the thirteenth century. The aliʻi and other social castes were presumably established during this period. The ancient Hawaiian economy became complex over time. People began to specialize in specific skills. Generations of families became committed to certain careers: roof thatchers, house builders, stone grinders, bird catchers who would make

6240-518: The islands were settled much later, within a short timeframe, in about 1219 to 1266. The islands in Eastern Polynesia have been characterized by the continuities among their cultures, and the short migration period would be an explanation of this result. Diversified agroforestry and aquaculture provided sustenance for Native Hawaiian cuisine . Tropical materials were adopted for housing. Elaborate temples (called heiau ) were constructed from

6336-475: The lava is a sign of what stage the volcano is in, as over time the volcano's lavas shift from alkalic to tholeiitic lava, and then back to alkalic. Although volcanism and erosion are the chief factors in the growth and denudation of a volcano, other factors are also involved. Subsidence is known to occur. Changes in sea level, occurring mostly during the Pleistocene , have caused drastic changes; an example

6432-507: The lava rocks available. The rich natural resources supported a relatively dense population, organized by a ruling class and social system with religious leaders. Captain James Cook made the first known European contact with ancient Hawaiians in 1778. He was followed by many other Europeans and Americans. There have been changing views about initial Polynesian discovery and settlement of Hawai'i. Radiocarbon dating in Hawai'i initially indicated

6528-401: The lavas erupted in this stage is usually alkalic. The stage commonly occurs between 0.6 and 2 million years after it has entered the weathering cycle. The Koʻolau Range and West Maui volcanoes are examples of volcanoes in this stage of development. Note, however, that because in this stage eruptions are very infrequent (occurring thousands or even tens of thousands of years apart), erosion

6624-679: The most advanced of the original peoples of the Pacific. A notable example is the Menehune Fishpond dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko (Kaua'i). At the time of Captain James Cook's arrival, there were at least 360 fishponds producing 2,000,000 pounds (900,000 kg) of fish per year. Over the course of the last millennium, Hawaiians undertook "large-scale canal-fed pond field irrigation" projects for kalo (taro) cultivation. The new settlers built hale (homes) and heiau (temples). Archaeologists currently believe that

6720-473: The near future, as a 200- to 300-year estimated pause in activity is coming to an end. This presents a distinct hazard to the communities around it; for example, in the event of an eruption similar to the 1801 event, Kailua-Kona, which is 15 mi (24 km) from the volcano's summit, could be covered completely in a matter of hours. According to the USGS lava-flow hazard zones , on a scale of 1 to 9, all of Hualālai

6816-505: The ocean. The total output volume of the flow is estimated at over 300,000,000 m (0.072 cu mi). One volcanic vent, situated high on the slope, produced a large ʻaʻā flow, dubbed the Kaʻūpūlehu flow , that reached the ocean as two distinct lobes. On its way down, it overran a village and a valuable 3 mi (5 km) fishing pond. There is a local legend that after the failure of several offerings of animals and other items to

6912-403: The park. "Outside the (royal) enclosure, by the edge of the sea, was a spring called Ki'ope ... It was a gathering place for those who went swimming and a place where the surf rolled in and dashed on land when it was rough. It was deep enough there for boats to land when the tide was high". Kamakahonu , Holualoa Bay , and Keauhou Bay were favored retreats of Hawaiian royalty long before

7008-493: The period of eastern and northern Polynesian colonization took place much later, in a shorter time frame of two waves: the "earliest in the Society Islands c. 1025–1120, four centuries later than previously assumed; then after 70–265 years, dispersal continued in one major pulse to all remaining islands c. 1190–1290." According to this research, settlement of the Hawaiian Islands took place c. 1219–1266. This rapid colonization

7104-517: The process of evolution originates from the first half of the 20th century. The understanding of the process was advanced by frequent observation of volcanic eruptions, study of contrasting rock types, and reconnaissance mapping. More recently our understanding has been aided by geophysical studies, offshore submersible studies, the advent of radioactive dating, advances in petrology and geochemistry, advanced surveillance and monitoring, and detailed geological studies. The ratio of magnesium to silica in

7200-419: The product of the growth of tropical marine organisms , so this island type is only found in warm tropical waters . Eventually, the Pacific Plate carries the volcanic atoll into waters too cold for these marine organisms to maintain a coral reef by growth. Volcanic islands located beyond the warm water temperature requirements of reef-building organisms become seamounts as they subside and are eroded away at

7296-675: The region. The southern section of the reserve, closest to the summit, has been split into a bird sanctuary . The Honuaula forest reserve on the southwestern flank of the volcano at 19°30′25″N 155°54′41″W  /  19.50694°N 155.91139°W  / 19.50694; -155.91139  ( Honuaula State Forest ) , preserves an extensive koa ( Acacia koa ) forest stand, with smaller Naio ( Myoporum sandwicense ) and Māmane ( Sophora chrysophylla ) trees and an undergrowth of ʻĀkala ( Rubus hawaiensis ) and various ferns . The reserve measures 655 acres (265 ha) and protects an ecosystem that has since been largely deforested in

7392-407: The sea to the west coast. Hualālai is the third most active volcano on the island of Hawaiʻi, behind Kīlauea and Mauna Loa. Although the two larger volcanos have each erupted over 150 times in the last 1,000 years, Hualālai has done so only thrice. Activity seems to recur at the volcano every 200 to 300 years. A recent calm period, with almost no earthquake or magmatic activity at Hualālai, has seen

7488-410: The shield stage. All older volcanoes have had their preshield stage lavas buried by younger lavas, so everything that is known about this stage comes from research done on Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount . The shield stage of the volcano is subdivided into three phases: the submarine, explosive, and subaerial. During this stage of growth, the volcano accumulates about 95 percent of its mass and it takes on

7584-449: The ships arrived during the Makahiki season dedicated to peace. Later, Cook was killed during a violent confrontation and left behind on the beach by his retreating sailors. The British demanded that his body be returned, but the Hawaiians had already performed funerary rituals of their tradition. This first European contact with the Hawaiian islands marked the beginning of the end of

7680-513: The shoreline. The volcano becomes a skeleton of its former self. Kohala , Māhukona , Lānaʻi , and Waiʻanae volcanoes are examples of volcanoes in this stage of development. After a long period of dormancy and erosion of the surface, the volcano may become active again, entering a final stage of activity called the rejuvenated stage. During this stage, the volcano erupts small volumes of lava very infrequently. These eruptions are often spread out over several millions of years. The composition of

7776-425: The site revealed eight fireplaces at varying depths, as well as 1671 artifacts which included faunal remains, fishhooks, and lithic materials made of basalt and volcanic glass. The distribution of artifacts in site H8 indicated that it was continuously used as a fishing shelter until the eruption of Mauna Loa in 1868. An early estimation of the site's initial occupation was A.D. 750 by Emory and Sinoto in 1969, but

7872-604: The slopes of Hualālai is named for Frank "Palani" Greenwell. Hawaii Route 200 known as the Saddle Road, crosses the plateau north of Hualālai, where the Pohakuloa Training Area provides a remote training ground for the United States Army and United States Marine Corps . Although some of Hualālai is bare volcanic rock, most of it is covered by some form of vegetation. Bushes, ferns, and grass are common, and even

7968-401: The southern slope (above the modern town of Kailua-Kona ) consists of lava flows covered by a layer of volcanic ash from 10 to 100 cm (4 to 39 in) thick. Of the volcanoes on the island, it is the third-tallest, third-youngest, third-most active, and second-smallest, making up just 7% of the island. A major subfeature of Hualālai is Puʻu Waʻawaʻa , Hawaiian for "many-furrowed hill",

8064-403: The stage before it. Some Hawaiian volcanoes diverge from this, however. Lava is erupted as stocky, pasty ʻaʻā flows along with a lot of cinder . Caldera development stops, and the rift zones become less active. The new lava flows increase the slope grade, as the ʻaʻā never reaches the base of the volcano. These lavas commonly fill and overflow the caldera . Eruption rate gradually decreases over

8160-410: The study of hula , and likely for the study of higher levels of sacred knowledge. The kahuna took the apprentice into his household as a member of the family, although often "the tutor was a relative". During a religious "graduation" ceremony, "the teacher consecrated the pupil, who thereafter was one with the teacher in psychic relationship as definite and obligatory as blood relationship". Like

8256-482: The surface. An island that is located where the ocean water temperatures are just sufficiently warm for upward reef growth to keep pace with the rate of subsidence is said to be at the Darwin point . Islands in more northerly latitudes evolve towards seamounts or guyots; islands closer to the equator evolve towards atolls (see Kure Atoll ). After the reef dies, the volcano subsides or erodes below sea level and becomes

8352-420: The surrounding area. The Wai Aha spring reserve on the lower slopes of the mountain is somewhat swampy and is home to the flowering evergreen ōhiʻa ( Metrosideros polymorpha ), the woody climber ʻIeʻie ( Freycinetia arborea ), and a dense undergrowth of ʻAmaʻu ( Sadleria cyatheoides ). Ancient Hawaii Ancient Hawaiʻi is the period of Hawaiian history preceding the unification in 1795 of

8448-414: The vertebrate animals they brought with them (pigs, dogs, chickens and rats), caused many native species of birds, plants and large land snails to become extinct in the process of colonization. Estuaries and streams were adapted into fishponds by early Polynesian settlers, as long ago as 500 CE or earlier. Packed earth and cut stone were used to create habitat, making ancient Hawaiian aquaculture among

8544-529: The vicinity to continue his mission to explore the Pacific coast of North America. Cook's two ships returned to the islands in November to re-supply, first sailing along the coast of Maui before eventually reaching an anchorage at Kealakekua Bay on Hawaii island. Some Hawaiians believed Cook was a sign from their god Lono. Cook's mast and sails coincidentally resembled the emblem (a mast and sheet of white kapa ) that symbolized Lono in their religious rituals;

8640-433: The volcano continues to erupt pillow lava. Calderas form, fill, and reform at the volcano's summit and the rift zones remain prominent. The volcano builds its way up to sea level. The submarine phase ends when the volcano is only shallowly submerged. The only example of a volcano in this stage is Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount, which is now transitioning into this phase from the preshield stage. This volcanic phase, so named for

8736-437: The volcano has sufficient mass and height (about 1,000 meters (3,000 ft) above sea level) that the interaction between sea water and erupting lava fades away. Once a volcano has added enough mass and height to end frequent contact with water, the subaerial substage begins. During this stage of activity, the explosive eruptions become much less frequent and the nature of the eruptions become much more gentle. Lava flows are

8832-400: The volcano reaches the end of the shield stage, the volcano goes through another series of changes as it enters the postshield stage. The type of lava erupted changes from tholeiitic basalt back to alkalic basalt and eruptions become slightly more explosive. Eruptions in the postshield stage cap the volcano with a carapace of lava, containing low silica and high alkali contents, the reverse of

8928-510: The volcano's flanks, utilizing the remotely operated vehicle ROV Kaikō . Data collected showed that the lava flows there originated in shallow water 500 to 1,000 m (1,600 to 3,300 ft) deep, and that unlike similar slumps at other volcanoes, the slump at Hualālai formed gradually. Hualālai is a known source for xenoliths , rock from the Earth's mantle that have been brought up in lava flows. Many prehistoric deposits, as well as those from

9024-504: The volcano, has occurred. Hualālai is also monitored by several other instruments, including one continuous GPS instrument and several instruments on the flanks of adjacent volcanoes. In addition, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory uses GPS to measure slight changes in tilt and slope of Hualālai, indicative of magmatic movement. Although Hualālai does experience several magnitude-4 earthquakes per year, these are attributed to

9120-402: Was based on religious kapu , or taboos . There was a correct way to live, to worship, and even to eat. Examples of kapu included the provision that men and women could not eat together (ʻAikapu religion). Fishing was limited to specified seasons of the year. The shadow of the aliʻi must not be touched as it was stealing his mana . The rigidity of the kapu system might have come from

9216-455: Was used as both a sweet and a medicine. In addition to the foods they brought, the settlers also acquired ʻuala ( sweet potato ), which began to be cultivated across Polynesia around the year 1000 or earlier, with the earliest evidence of cultivation in Hawaii around 1300. The sweet potato is native to South America. Recently, an analysis of the DNA of 1,245 sweet potato varieties from Asia and

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