78-680: Horse-flies and deer flies are true flies in the family Tabanidae in the insect order Diptera . The adults are often large and agile in flight. Only female horseflies bite land vertebrates, including humans, to obtain blood . They prefer to fly in sunlight, avoiding dark and shady areas, and are inactive at night. They are found all over the world except for some islands and the polar regions (Hawaii, Greenland, Iceland). Both horse-flies and botflies (Oestridae) are sometimes referred to as gadflies . Adult horse-flies feed on nectar and plant exudates ; males have weak mouthparts , but females have mouthparts strong enough to bite large animals. This
156-417: A bite to not be noticed by the host at the time, bites from tabanids are immediately irritating to the victim, so that they are often brushed off, and may have to visit multiple hosts to obtain sufficient blood. This behaviour means that they may carry disease-causing organisms from one host to another. Large animals and livestock are generally powerless to dislodge the fly, so there is no selective advantage for
234-729: A blood meal before they are able to reproduce effectively. To obtain the blood, the females, but not the males, bite animals, including humans. The female needs about six days to fully digest her blood meal and after that, she needs to find another host. The flies seem to be attracted to a potential victim by its movement, warmth, and surface texture, and by the carbon dioxide it breathes out. The flies mainly choose large mammals such as cattle, horses, camels, and deer, but few are species-specific. They have also been observed feeding on smaller mammals, birds, lizards, and turtles, and even on animals that have recently died. Unlike many biting insects such as mosquitoes , whose biting mechanism and saliva allow
312-439: A body length between 5 and 25 mm (0.2 and 1.0 in), with the largest having a wingspan of 60 mm (2.4 in). Deer flies in the genus Chrysops are up to 10 mm (0.4 in) long, have yellow to black bodies and striped abdomens, and membranous wings with dark patches. Horse-flies (genus Tabanus ) are larger, up to 25 mm (1 in) in length and are mostly dark brown or black, with dark eyes, often with
390-422: A female. Tabanids are found worldwide, except for the polar regions, but they are absent from some islands such as Greenland , Iceland , and Hawaii . The genera Tabanus , Chrysops , and Haematopota all occur in temperate, subtropical, and tropical locations, but Haematopota is absent from Australia and South America. They mostly occur in warm areas with suitable moist locations for breeding, but also occupy
468-555: A fossil insect that has elongated mouthparts is not necessarily a bloodsucker, as it may instead have fed on nectar. The ancestral tabanids may have co-evolved with the angiosperm plants on which they fed. With a necessity for high-protein food for egg production, the diet of early tabanomorphs was probably predatory, and from this, the bloodsucking habit may have evolved. In the Santana Formation in Brazil, no mammals have been found, so
546-456: A length of up to 7 cm (2.8 in), is generally considered to be the largest fly in the world, while the smallest is Euryplatea nanaknihali , which at 0.4 mm (0.016 in) is smaller than a grain of salt. Brachycera are ecologically very diverse, with many being predatory at the larval stage and some being parasitic. Animals parasitised include molluscs , woodlice , millipedes , insects, mammals , and amphibians . Flies are
624-405: A meal. For visual course control, flies' optic flow field is analyzed by a set of motion-sensitive neurons. A subset of these neurons is thought to be involved in using the optic flow to estimate the parameters of self-motion, such as yaw, roll, and sideward translation. Other neurons are thought to be involved in analyzing the content of the visual scene itself, such as separating figures from
702-441: A metallic sheen. Yellow flies (genus Diachlorus ) are similar in shape to deer flies, but have yellowish bodies and the eyes are purplish-black with a green sheen. Some species in the subfamily Pangoniinae have an exceptionally long proboscis (tubular mouthpart). The larvae are long and cylindrical or spindle-shaped with small heads and 12 body segments. They have rings of tubercles (warty outgrowths) known as pseudopods around
780-401: A mobile head, with a pair of large compound eyes , and mouthparts designed for piercing and sucking (mosquitoes, black flies and robber flies), or for lapping and sucking in the other groups. Their wing arrangement gives them great manoeuvrability in flight, and claws and pads on their feet enable them to cling to smooth surfaces. Flies undergo complete metamorphosis ; the eggs are often laid on
858-410: A particular nuisance near swimming pools. Since tabanids prefer to be in sunshine, they normally avoid shaded places such as barns, and are inactive at night. Attack patterns vary with species; clegs fly silently and prefer to bite humans on the wrist or bare leg; large species of Tabanus buzz loudly, fly low, and bite ankles, legs, or backs of knees; Chrysops flies somewhat higher, bites the back of
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#1733084725802936-407: A partitioned cylinder in the center of which the larva settled to pupate after closing the entrance; this adaption protects the pupae against mudcracks when the mud dries up, as a spreading crack would change direction when it hit the wall of the cylinder. The pupae are brown and glossy, rounded at the head end, and tapering at the other end. Wing and limb buds can be seen and each abdominal segment
1014-440: A single day to tabanid flies, a loss which can weaken or even kill them. Anecdotal reports of bites leading to fatal anaphylaxis in humans have been made, an extremely rare occurrence. Control of tabanid flies is difficult. Malaise traps are most often used to capture them, and these can be modified with the use of baits and attractants that include carbon dioxide or octenol . A dark shiny ball suspended below them that moves in
1092-600: A study comparing horse-fly behaviour when approaching horses wearing either striped or check-patterned rugs, when compared with plain rugs, found that both patterns were equally effective in deterring the insects. Mating often occurs in swarms, generally at landmarks such as hilltops . The season, time of day, and type of landmark used for mating swarms are specific to particular species. Eggs are laid on stones or vegetation near water, in clusters of up to 1000, especially on emergent water plants. The eggs are white at first but darken with age. They hatch after about six days, with
1170-802: A tabanid with a blue-black abdomen common to the southeastern United States. Paul Muldoon ’s chapbook Binge contains a poem "Clegs and Midges" which uses gadflies, real and metaphoric, "cleg" being a British term for the horse-fly. In Norse mythology Loki took the form of a gadfly to hinder Brokkr during the manufacture of the hammer Mjölnir , weapon of Thor (Hammer of Thor). Flies Housefly (Muscidae) (top left) Haematopota pluvialis (Tabanidae) (top right) Ctenophora pectinicornis (Tipulidae) (mid left) Ochlerotatus notoscriptus (Culicidae) (mid right) Milesia crabroniformis (Syrphidae) (bottom left) Holcocephala fusca (Asilidae) (bottom right) Nematocera ( paraphyletic ) (inc Eudiptera ) Brachycera Flies are insects of
1248-438: A variety of hosts. The larvae of the shore flies (Ephydridae) and some Chironomidae survive in extreme environments including glaciers ( Diamesa sp., Chironomidae ), hot springs, geysers, saline pools, sulphur pools, septic tanks and even crude oil ( Helaeomyia petrolei ). Adult hoverflies (Syrphidae) are well known for their mimicry and the larvae adopt diverse lifestyles including being inquiline scavengers inside
1326-453: A very hard, stiff, and well-compacted sting, with which he strikes through the Oxe his hide; he is in fashion like a great Fly, and forces the beasts for fear of him only to stand up to the belly in water, or else to betake themselves to wood sides, cool shades, and places where the wind blows through." The " Blue Tail Fly " in the eponymous song was probably the mourning horsefly ( Tabanus atratus ),
1404-521: A wide range of habitats from deserts to alpine meadows. They are found from sea level to at least 3,300 m (10,800 ft). The oldest records of the family come from the Early Cretaceous , with the oldest record being Eotabanoid , known from wings found in the Berriasian (145–140 million years ago) Purbeck Group of England. Although the bloodsucking habit is associated with a long proboscis,
1482-485: Is Spilomyia longicornis , which is a fly but mimics a vespid wasp. Flies have a mobile head with a pair of large compound eyes on the sides of the head, and in most species, three small ocelli on the top. The compound eyes may be close together or widely separated, and in some instances are divided into a dorsal region and a ventral region, perhaps to assist in swarming behaviour. The antennae are well-developed but variable, being thread-like, feathery or comb-like in
1560-551: Is for the purpose of obtaining enough protein from blood to produce eggs . The mouthparts of females are formed into a stout stabbing organ with two pairs of sharp cutting blades, and a spongelike part used to lap up the blood that flows from the wound. The larvae are predaceous and grow in semiaquatic habitats. Female horse-flies can transfer blood-borne diseases from one animal to another through their feeding habit. In areas where diseases occur, they have been known to carry equine infectious anaemia virus , some trypanosomes ,
1638-412: Is fringed with short spines. After about two weeks, metamorphosis is complete, the pupal case splits along the thorax, and the adult fly emerges. Males usually appear first, but when both sexes have emerged, mating takes place, courtship starting in the air and finishing on the ground. The female needs to feed on blood before depositing her egg mass. Eggs are often attacked by tiny parasitic wasps , and
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#17330847258021716-461: Is known as deer flies, perhaps because of their abundance on moorland where deer roam, and buffalo-flies, moose-flies and elephant-flies emanate from other parts of the world where these animals are found. The term "horse-fly" refers primarily to Tabaninae that are typically larger and stouter, and that lack the banded wings deer flies have. Other common names include tabanids , gadflies , green-headed flies , and green flies . The word "Tabanus"
1794-547: Is one of the major insect orders and of considerable ecological and human importance. Flies are major pollinators, second only to the bees and their Hymenopteran relatives. Flies may have been among the evolutionarily earliest pollinators responsible for early plant pollination . Fruit flies are used as model organisms in research, but less benignly, mosquitoes are vectors for malaria , dengue , West Nile fever , yellow fever , encephalitis , and other infectious diseases ; and houseflies , commensal with humans all over
1872-631: Is thrust downwards and the stylets slice into the flesh. Some of these have sawing edges and muscles can move them from side-to-side to enlarge the wound. Saliva containing anticoagulant is injected into the wound to prevent clotting. The blood that flows from the wound is lapped up by another mouthpart which functions as a sponge. Bites can be painful for a day or more; fly saliva may provoke allergic reactions such as hives and difficulty with breathing. Tabanid bites can make life outdoors unpleasant for humans, and can reduce milk output in cattle. They are attracted by polarized reflections from water, making them
1950-518: Is widely thought to be a member of Mecopterida , along with Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Trichoptera (caddisflies), Siphonaptera (fleas), Mecoptera (scorpionflies) and possibly Strepsiptera (twisted-wing flies). Diptera has been grouped with Siphonaptera and Mecoptera in the Antliophora, but this has not been confirmed by molecular studies. Diptera were traditionally broken down into two suborders, Nematocera and Brachycera , distinguished by
2028-560: The Actium battlefield to that of a cow chased by a gadfly: "The breeze [gadfly] upon her, like a cow in June / hoists sail and flies", where "June" may allude not only to the month but also to the goddess Juno , who torments Io, and the cow in turn may allude to Io, who is changed into a cow in Ovid 's Metamorphoses . The physician and naturalist Thomas Muffet wrote that the horse-fly "carries before him
2106-615: The Jurassic , some 180 million years ago. A third radiation took place among the Schizophora at the start of the Paleogene , 66 million years ago. The phylogenetic position of Diptera has been controversial. The monophyly of holometabolous insects has long been accepted, with the main orders being established as Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera and Diptera, and it is the relationships between these groups which has caused difficulties. Diptera
2184-1060: The Mecopterida , alongside the Mecoptera , Siphonaptera , Lepidoptera and Trichoptera . The possession of a single pair of wings distinguishes most true flies from other insects with "fly" in their names. However, some true flies such as Hippoboscidae (louse flies) have become secondarily wingless. The cladogram represents the current consensus view. Hymenoptera (sawflies, wasps, ants, bees) [REDACTED] Raphidioptera (snakeflies) [REDACTED] Megaloptera (alderflies and allies) [REDACTED] Neuroptera (Lacewings and allies) [REDACTED] Coleoptera (beetles) [REDACTED] Strepsiptera (twisted-wing parasites) [REDACTED] Trichoptera (caddisflies) [REDACTED] Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths) [REDACTED] Diptera [REDACTED] Mecoptera (scorpionflies) [REDACTED] Siphonaptera (fleas) [REDACTED] The first true dipterans known are from
2262-649: The Middle Triassic (around 240 million years ago), and they became widespread during the Middle and Late Triassic . Modern flowering plants did not appear until the Cretaceous (around 140 million years ago), so the original dipterans must have had a different source of nutrition other than nectar . Based on the attraction of many modern fly groups to shiny droplets, it has been suggested that they may have fed on honeydew produced by sap-sucking bugs which were abundant at
2340-633: The Strepsiptera . In contrast to the flies, the Strepsiptera bear their halteres on the mesothorax and their flight wings on the metathorax. Each of the fly's six legs has a typical insect structure of coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus, with the tarsus in most instances being subdivided into five tarsomeres . At the tip of the limb is a pair of claws, and between these are cushion-like structures known as pulvilli which provide adhesion. Chrysops Deer flies (also known in some parts of
2418-543: The equine infectious anaemia virus and various species of Trypanosoma which cause diseases in animals and humans. Species of the genus Chrysops transmit the parasitic filarial worm Loa loa between humans, and tabanids are known to transmit anthrax among cattle and sheep, and tularemia between rabbits and humans. Blood loss is a common problem in some animals when large flies are abundant. Some animals have been known to lose up to 300 ml (11 imp fl oz; 10 US fl oz) of blood in
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2496-498: The filarial worm Loa loa , anthrax among cattle and sheep, and tularemia . They can reduce growth rates in cattle and lower the milk output of cows if suitable shelters are not provided. Horse-flies have appeared in literature ever since Aeschylus in Ancient Greece mentioned them driving people to "madness" through their persistent pursuit. Tabanidae are known by a large number of common names. The subfamily Chrysopsinae
2574-620: The mid-Atlantic United States as sheep flies ) are bloodsucking insects considered pests to humans and cattle. They are large flies with large brightly coloured compound eyes , and large clear wings with dark bands. They are larger than the common housefly and smaller than the horse-fly . There are 250 species of deer fly in the genus Chrysops . Their distribution is worldwide, though they have not been reported in Iceland , Greenland , or Hawaii . Deer flies lay between 100 and 800 eggs in batches on vegetation near water or dampness. During
2652-566: The order Diptera , the name being derived from the Greek δι- di- "two", and πτερόν pteron "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advanced mechanosensory organs known as halteres , which act as high-speed sensors of rotational movement and allow dipterans to perform advanced aerobatics. Diptera is a large order containing more than 150,000 species including horse-flies , crane flies , hoverflies , mosquitoes and others. Flies have
2730-465: The superfamily Tabanoidea . Along with the Rhagionoidea, this superfamily makes up the infraorder Tabanomorpha . Tabanoid families seem to be united by the presence of a venom canal in the mandible of the larvae. Worldwide, about 4,455 species of Tabanidae have been described , over 1,300 of them in the genus Tabanus . Tabanid identification is based mostly on adult morphological characters of
2808-548: The thorax , bears the wings and contains the flight muscles on the second segment, which is greatly enlarged; the first and third segments have been reduced to collar-like structures, and the third segment bears the halteres , which help to balance the insect during flight. The third tagma is the abdomen consisting of 11 segments, some of which may be fused, and with the 3 hindmost segments modified for reproduction. Some Dipterans are mimics and can only be distinguished from their models by very careful inspection. An example of this
2886-620: The Australian March flies, are known for being extremely noisy during flight, though clegs, for example, fly quietly and bite with little warning. Tabanids are agile fliers; Hybomitra species have been observed to perform aerial manoeuvres similar to those performed by fighter jets, such as the Immelmann turn . Horseflies can lay claim to being the fastest flying insects; the male Hybomitra hinei wrighti has been recorded reaching speeds of up to 145 kilometres per hour (90 mph) when pursuing
2964-795: The Brachycera includes broader, more robust flies with short antennae. Many nematoceran larvae are aquatic. There are estimated to be a total of about 19,000 species of Diptera in Europe, 22,000 in the Nearctic region, 20,000 in the Afrotropical region, 23,000 in the Oriental region and 19,000 in the Australasian region. While most species have restricted distributions, a few like the housefly ( Musca domestica ) are cosmopolitan. Gauromydas heros ( Asiloidea ), with
3042-1392: The Nematocera. The construction of a phylogenetic tree has been the subject of ongoing research. The following cladogram is based on the FLYTREE project. Ptychopteromorpha (phantom and primitive crane-flies) [REDACTED] Culicomorpha (mosquitoes, blackflies and midges) [REDACTED] Blephariceromorpha (net-winged midges, etc) [REDACTED] Bibionomorpha (gnats) [REDACTED] Psychodomorpha (drain flies, sand flies, etc) [REDACTED] Tipulomorpha (crane flies) [REDACTED] Stratiomyomorpha (soldier flies, etc) [REDACTED] Xylophagomorpha (stink flies, etc) [REDACTED] Tabanomorpha (horse flies, snipe flies, etc) [REDACTED] Nemestrinoidea [REDACTED] Asiloidea (robber flies, bee flies, etc) [REDACTED] Empidoidea (dance flies, etc) [REDACTED] Aschiza (in part) Phoroidea (flat-footed flies, etc) [REDACTED] Syrphoidea (hoverflies) [REDACTED] Hippoboscoidea (louse flies, etc) [REDACTED] Muscoidea (house flies, dung flies, etc) [REDACTED] Oestroidea (blow flies, flesh flies, etc) [REDACTED] Acalyptratae (marsh flies, etc) [REDACTED] Flies are often abundant and are found in almost all terrestrial habitats in
3120-668: The Scionini also being monophyletic apart from the difficult-to-place genus Goniops . Adersia was recovered within the Pangoniini as were the genera previously placed in the Scepcidinae, and Mycteromyia and Goniops were recovered within the Chrysopsini. The Tabaninae lack ocelli (simple eyes) and have no spurs on the tips of their hind tibiae . In the Pangoniinae, ocelli are present and
3198-652: The Tabanidae and moved into the Rhagionidae before being elevated into a separate family. The infraorder Tabanomorpha shares the blood-feeding habit as a common primitive characteristic, although this is restricted to the female. Two well-known genera are the common horse-flies, Tabanus , named by Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus in 1758, and the deer flies, Chrysops , named by the German entomologist Johann Wilhelm Meigen in 1802. Meigen did pioneering research on flies and
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3276-519: The antennae and the maxillary palps bear the main olfactory receptors, while the gustatory receptors are in the labium, pharynx, feet, wing margins and female genitalia, enabling flies to taste their food by walking on it. The taste receptors in females at the tip of the abdomen receive information on the suitability of a site for ovipositing. Flies that feed on blood have special sensory structures that can detect infrared emissions, and use them to home in on their hosts, Many blood-sucking flies can detect
3354-446: The antennae is pointed and annulated, appearing to be composed of several tapering rings. There are no hairs or arista stemming from the antennae. Both the head and thorax are clad in short hairs, but no bristles are on the body. The membranous forewings are clear, either shaded uniformly grey or brown, or patterned in some species; they have a basal lobe (or calypter) that covers the modified knob-like hindwings or halteres . The tips of
3432-560: The antennal flagellum (whip-like structure) usually has eight annuli (or rings). In the Chrysopsinae, the antennal flagellum has a basal plate and the flagellum has four annuli. Females have a shining callus on the frons (front of the head between the eyes). The Adersiinae have a divided tergite on the ninth abdominal segment, and the Scepsidinae have highly reduced mouthparts. Members of the family Pelecorhynchidae were initially included in
3510-428: The breeze can also attract them and forms a key part of a modified "Manitoba trap" that is used most often for trapping and sampling the Tabanidae. Cattle can be treated with pour-on pyrethroids which may repel the flies, and fitting them with insecticide-impregnated eartags or collars has had some success in killing the insects. Tabanid bites can be painful to humans. Usually, a weal (raised area of skin) occurs around
3588-480: The deer fly include tularemia , anthrax , anaplasmosis , equine infectious anemia , hog cholera , and filiariasis . DEET is not an effective repellent. Predators of the deer fly (and other Tabanidae) include nest-building wasps and hornets, dragonflies, and some birds, including the killdeer . They are difficult to control because insecticides cannot be applied in the sensitive wetlands where their larvae typically develop. Additionally, adults may have developed
3666-404: The differences in antennae. The Nematocera are identified by their elongated bodies and many-segmented, often feathery antennae as represented by mosquitoes and crane flies. The Brachycera have rounder bodies and much shorter antennae. Subsequent studies have identified the Nematocera as being non-monophyletic with modern phylogenies placing the Brachycera within grades of groups formerly placed in
3744-431: The different families. The mouthparts are adapted for piercing and sucking, as in the black flies, mosquitoes and robber flies, and for lapping and sucking as in many other groups. Female horse-flies use knife-like mandibles and maxillae to make a cross-shaped incision in the host's skin and then lap up the blood that flows. The gut includes large diverticulae , allowing the insect to store small quantities of liquid after
3822-420: The emerging larvae using a special hatching spike to open the egg case. The larvae fall into the water or onto the moist ground below. Chrysops species develop in particularly wet locations, while Tabanus species prefer drier places. The larvae are legless grubs, tapering at both ends. They have small heads and 11 or 13 segments and moult six to 13 times over the course of a year or more. In temperate species,
3900-457: The families Bombyliidae and Tachinidae, and Hymenoptera in the family Pteromalidae . When fully developed, the larvae move into drier soil near the surface of the ground to pupate . In dry places a "remarkable" adaptation was discovered in the 1920s by W.A. Lamborn in Malawi (then Nyasaland ). The larvae were discovered to tunnel in a spiral motion while the mud was still wet and plastic, forming
3978-399: The flies to evolve a less immediately painful bite. The mouthparts of females are of the usual dipteran form and consist of a bundle of six chitinous stylets that, together with a fold of the fleshy labium , form the proboscis . On either side of these are two maxillary palps. When the insect lands on an animal, it grips the surface with its clawed feet, the labium is retracted, the head
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#17330847258024056-749: The flies, principally in the family Cecidomyiidae (gall midges). Many flies (most importantly in the family Agromyzidae) lay their eggs in the mesophyll tissue of leaves with larvae feeding between the surfaces forming blisters and mines. Some families are mycophagous or fungus feeding. These include the cave dwelling Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) whose larvae are the only diptera with bioluminescence. The Sciaridae are also fungus feeders. Some plants are pollinated by fungus feeding flies that visit fungus infected male flowers. The larvae of Megaselia scalaris (Phoridae) are almost omnivorous and consume such substances as paint and shoe polish. The Exorista mella (Walker) fly are considered generalists and parasitoids of
4134-401: The fossil tabanids found there likely fed on reptiles. Cold bloodsucking probably preceded warm bloodsucking, but some dinosaurs are postulated to have been warm-blooded and may have been early hosts for the horse-flies. The Tabanidae are true flies and members of the insect order Diptera. With the families Athericidae , Pelecorhynchidae and Oreoleptidae , Tabanidae are classified in
4212-527: The ground using motion parallax. The H1 neuron is responsible for detecting horizontal motion across the entire visual field of the fly, allowing the fly to generate and guide stabilizing motor corrections midflight with respect to yaw. The ocelli are concerned in the detection of changes in light intensity, enabling the fly to react swiftly to the approach of an object. Like other insects, flies have chemoreceptors that detect smell and taste, and mechanoreceptors that respond to touch. The third segments of
4290-522: The head, wing venation, and sometimes the last abdominal segment. The genitalia are very simple and do not provide clear species differentiation as in many other insect groups. In the past, most taxonomic treatments considered the family to be composed of three subfamilies: Pangoniinae (tribes Pangoniini, Philolichini, Scionini), Chrysopsinae (tribes Bouvieromyiini, Chrysopsini, Rhinomyzini), and Tabaninae (tribes Diachlorini, Haematopotini, Tabanini). Some treatments increased this to five subfamilies, adding
4368-454: The larvae are consumed by birds, as well as being paratised by tachinid flies , fungi, and nematodes . Adults are eaten by generalized predators such as birds, and some specialist predators, such as the horse guard wasp (a bembicinid wasp ), also preferentially attack horse-flies, catching them to provision their nests . Tabanids are known vectors for some blood-borne bacterial, viral, protozoan , and worm diseases of mammals, such as
4446-530: The larvae have a quiescent period during winter (diapause), while tropical species breed several times a year. In the majority of species, they are white, but in some, they are greenish or brownish, and they often have dark bands on each segment. A respiratory siphon at the hind end allows the larvae to obtain air when submerged in water. Larvae of nearly all species are carnivorous , often cannibalistic in captivity, and consume worms , insect larvae, and arthropods . The larvae may be parasitized by nematodes, flies of
4524-431: The larval food-source and the larvae, which lack true limbs, develop in a protected environment, often inside their food source. Other species are ovoviviparous , opportunistically depositing hatched or hatching larvae instead of eggs on carrion , dung, decaying material, or open wounds of mammals. The pupa is a tough capsule from which the adult emerges when ready to do so; flies mostly have short lives as adults. Diptera
4602-498: The larval stage, which lasts one to three years, they feed on small creatures or rotting organic matter near or in the water. After a pupal stage, they emerge as adults in late spring and summer. While male deer flies collect pollen , female deer flies feed on blood , which they require to produce eggs. Females feed primarily on mammals. They are attracted to prey by sight, smell, or the detection of carbon dioxide . Other attractants are body heat, movement, dark colours, and lights in
4680-484: The legs have two lobes on the sides (pulvilli) and a central lobe (empodium) in addition to two claws that enable them to grip to surfaces. Species recognition is based on details of head structures (antennae, frons , and maxillae ), wing venation, and body patterning; minute variations of surface structure cause subtle alterations of the overlying hairs, which alters the appearance of the body. Tabanid species range from medium-sized to very large, robust insects. Most have
4758-399: The neck, and has a high buzzing note. The striped hides of zebras may have evolved to reduce their attractiveness to horse-flies and tsetse flies . The closer together the stripes, the fewer flies are visually attracted; the zebra's legs have particularly fine striping, and this is the shaded part of the body that is most likely to be bitten in other, unstriped equids. More recent research by
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#17330847258024836-419: The nests of social insects. Some brachycerans are agricultural pests, some bite animals and humans and suck their blood, and some transmit diseases. Flies are adapted for aerial movement and typically have short and streamlined bodies. The first tagma of the fly, the head, bears the eyes, the antennae , and the mouthparts (the labrum, labium, mandible, and maxilla make up the mouthparts). The second tagma,
4914-406: The neural ganglia , and concentration of nerve tissue in the thorax, a feature that is most extreme in the highly derived Muscomorpha infraorder. Some flies such as the ectoparasitic Nycteribiidae and Streblidae are exceptional in having lost their wings and become flightless. The only other order of insects bearing a single pair of true, functional wings, in addition to any form of halteres, are
4992-414: The night. They are active under direct sunshine and hours when the temperature is above 22 °C (71.6°). When feeding, the females use scissor-like mandibles and maxillae to make a cross-shaped incision and then lap up the blood. Their bite can be painful. Anti-coagulants in the saliva of the fly prevents blood from clotting and may cause severe allergic reactions. Parasites and diseases transmitted by
5070-481: The prick, the stab of gadfly-sting! O earth, earth, hide, the hollow shape—Argus—that evil thing—the hundred-eyed." William Shakespeare , inspired by Aeschylus, has Tom o' Bedlam in King Lear , "Whom the foul fiend hath led through fire and through flame, through ford and whirlpool, o'er bog and quagmire", driven mad by the constant pursuit. In Antony and Cleopatra , Shakespeare likens Cleopatra's hasty departure from
5148-405: The raised concentration of carbon dioxide that occurs near large animals. Some tachinid flies (Ormiinae) which are parasitoids of bush crickets , have sound receptors to help them locate their singing hosts. Diptera have one pair of fore wings on the mesothorax and a pair of halteres , or reduced hind wings, on the metathorax . A further adaptation for flight is the reduction in number of
5226-399: The same lead author shows that the stripes were no less attractive to tabanids, but they merely touched—and could not make a controlled landing to bite. This suggests that a function of the stripes was interfering with optic flow . This does not preclude the possible use of stripes for other purposes such as signaling or camouflage . Another disruptive mechanism may also be in play, however:
5304-562: The second largest group of pollinators after the Hymenoptera (bees, wasps and relatives). In wet and colder environments flies are significantly more important as pollinators. Compared to bees, they need less food as they do not need to provision their young. Many flowers that bear low nectar and those that have evolved trap pollination depend on flies. It is thought that some of the earliest pollinators of plants may have been flies. The greatest diversity of gall forming insects are found among
5382-452: The segments, and also bands of short setae (bristles). The posterior tip of each larva has a breathing siphon and a bulbous area known as Graber's organ. The outlines of the adult insect's head and wings are visible through the pupa , which has seven moveable abdominal segments, all except the front one of which bears a band of setae. The posterior end of the pupa bears a group of spine-like tubercles. Some species, such as deer flies and
5460-539: The site; other symptoms may include urticaria (a rash), dizziness, weakness, wheezing, and angioedema (a temporary itchy, pink or red swelling occurring around the eyes or lips). A few people experience an allergic reaction. The National Health Service of the United Kingdom recommends that the site of the bite should be washed and a cold compress applied. Scratching the wound should be avoided at all times and an antihistamine preparation can be applied. In most cases,
5538-467: The subfamily Adersiinae , with the single genus Adersia , and the subfamily Scepcidinae , with the two genera Braunsiomyia and Scepsis . A 2015 study by Morita et al. using nucleotide data , aimed to clarify the phylogeny of the Tabanidae and supports three subfamilies. The subfamilies Pangoniinae and Tabaninae were shown to be monophyletic . The tribes Philolichini, Chrysopsini, Rhinomyzini, and Haematopotini were found to be monophyletic, with
5616-460: The symptoms subside within a few hours, but if the wound becomes infected, medical advice should be sought. In Prometheus Bound , which is attributed to the Athenian tragic playwright Aeschylus , a gadfly sent by Zeus 's wife Hera pursues and torments his mistress Io , who has been transformed into a cow and is watched constantly by the hundred eyes of the herdsman Argus : "Io: Ah! Hah! Again
5694-588: The time, and dipteran mouthparts are well-adapted to softening and lapping up the crusted residues. The basal clades in the Diptera include the Deuterophlebiidae and the enigmatic Nymphomyiidae . Three episodes of evolutionary radiation are thought to have occurred based on the fossil record. Many new species of lower Diptera developed in the Triassic , about 220 million years ago. Many lower Brachycera appeared in
5772-618: The wide bodies of the insects and "dun-flies" to their sombre colouring. In Australia and the UK they are also known as March flies, a name used in other Anglophonic countries to refer to the non-bloodsucking Bibionidae . Adult tabanids are large flies with prominent compound eyes , short antennae composed of three segments, and wide bodies. In females, the eyes are widely separated; in males, however, they are almost touching. The eyes are often patterned and brightly coloured in living tabanids but appear dull in preserved specimens. The terminal segment of
5850-473: The world apart from Antarctica. They include many familiar insects such as house flies, blow flies, mosquitoes, gnats, black flies, midges and fruit flies. More than 150,000 have been formally described and the actual species diversity is much greater, with the flies from many parts of the world yet to be studied intensively. The suborder Nematocera include generally small, slender insects with long antennae such as mosquitoes, gnats, midges and crane-flies, while
5928-607: The world, spread foodborne illnesses . Flies can be annoyances especially in some parts of the world where they can occur in large numbers, buzzing and settling on the skin or eyes to bite or seek fluids. Larger flies such as tsetse flies and screwworms cause significant economic harm to cattle. Blowfly larvae, known as gentles , and other dipteran larvae, known more generally as maggots , are used as fishing bait , as food for carnivorous animals, and in medicine in debridement , to clean wounds . Dipterans are holometabolans , insects that undergo radical metamorphosis. They belong to
6006-522: Was first recorded by Pliny the Younger and has survived as the generic name. In general, country folk did not distinguish between the various biting insects that irritated their cattle and called them all "gad-flies", from the word "gad" meaning "spike". Other common names include "cleg[g]", "gleg" or "clag", which come from Old Norse and may have originated from the Vikings . Other names such as "stouts" refer to
6084-672: Was the author of Die Fliegen ( The Flies ); he gave the name Haematopota , meaning "blood-drinker", to another common genus of horse-flies. Adult tabanids feed on nectar and plant exudates , and some are important pollinators of certain specialised flowers; several South African and Asian species in the Pangoniinae have spectacularly long probosces adapted for the extraction of nectar from flowers with long, narrow corolla tubes, such as Lapeirousia , and certain Pelargonium . Both males and females engage in nectar-feeding, but females of most species are anautogenous , meaning they require
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