The Honda EV Plus was an experimental electric vehicle which was the first battery electric vehicle from a major automaker that did not use lead–acid batteries . Roughly 340 EV Plus models were produced and released. Production of the EV Plus was discontinued in 1999 after Honda announced the release of its first hybrid electric vehicle , the Honda Insight .
124-788: The EV Plus served to test advanced battery chemistry in an electric car and also met California Air Resources Board requirements for zero-emission vehicles, like the General Motors EV1 . It also tested the pancake-style motor, electronic control unit , power control unit and the Nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH) later used in Honda hybrids and developed further in the first Honda FCX Fuel Cell Vehicles , which were rebuilt from returned (decommissioned) EV Plus chassis. Honda began development of an electric vehicle (EV) in April 1988, inspired in part by
248-470: A bottle or hub dynamo . The first horseless carriages used carriage lamps, which proved unsuitable for travel at speed. The earliest lights used candles as the most common type of fuel. The earliest headlamps, fuelled by combustible gas such as acetylene gas or oil, operated from the late 1880s. Acetylene gas lamps were popular in 1900s because the flame is resistant to wind and rain. Thick concave mirrors combined with magnifying lenses projected
372-532: A LVW 3,751–5,750 lb (1,701–2,608 kg)); LEV II closed that discrepancy and defined a single emissions standard for all PCs and LDTs. Under LEV III, medium-duty passenger vehicles (MDPV) were brought under the most stringent standards alongside PCs and LDTs. Rather than providing a single standard for vehicles based on age, purpose, and weight, the LEV ;I standards introduced different tiers of limits for smog -forming compound emissions starting in
496-407: A LVW up to 3,750 lb (1,700 kg) (these "light" LDTs were later denoted LDT1 under LEV II). LEV II increased the scope of vehicles classed as light-duty trucks to encompass a higher GVWR up to 8,500 lb (3,900 kg), compared to the LEV I standard of 6,000 lb (2,700 kg). In addition, LEV I had defined less stringent limits for heavier LDTs (denoted LDT2 with
620-629: A PBS program and depicted in a scene from the documentary Who Killed the Electric Car? . A few Honda EV Plus chassis were used as the base for some of Honda's first hydrogen ( H 2 ) fuel cell vehicle prototypes. The platform and drivetrain of the EV Plus were reused for the Honda FCX , a fuel cell vehicle. Instead of the high-voltage traction battery of the EV Plus, the FCX used hydrogen stored on board in
744-598: A Presidential Memorandum directing the EPA to reconsider the waiver. In the initial denial, EPA Administrator Stephen L. Johnson stated the Clean Air Act was not "intended to allow California to promulgate state standards for emissions from new motor vehicles designed to address global climate change problems" and further, that he did not believe "the effects of climate change in California are compelling and extraordinary compared to
868-545: A ZEV with a fuel-fired heater, as long as the heater was unable to be operated at ambient temperatures above 40 °F (4 °C) and did not have any evaporative emissions. Under LEV II (ZEV-99), the ZEV definition was updated to include precursor pollutants, but did not consider upstream emissions from power plants. The ZEV regulation has evolved and been modified several times since 1990, and several new partial or low-emission categories were created and defined, including
992-471: A car? What the heck did you just make? Why don't you just dig a hole, and bury it!" Over the next two hours, Araki explained his anger: the finished product was a shameful compromise and merely an excuse for Honda's inexperience with EVs. "As long as we continue trying a variety of measures in a project, each car we produce must constitute a learning experience that leads to the next step. If a car doesn't lead to greater experience, we might as well not build it. I
1116-606: A credit has a market value of $ 3-4,000, and some automakers have more credits than required. CARB held a public workshop in September 2020 where several new consumer-friendly regulations for ZEVs were proposed to improve adoption: In May 2021, additional draft requirements were added: To improve access to ZEVs, CARB added proposed environmental justice (EJ) credits in August 2021 for manufacturers who improve options for clean transportation to underserved communities, such as by providing
1240-568: A discount on a ZEV that would be used in a community-based clean mobility program. The August workshop also included additional regulations for ZEVs: The final workshop in October 2021 proposed that ZEVs would be taken out of fleet calculations for vehicle emissions and provided yearly targets for ZEV vehicle sales as a percent of total sales, including potential EJ credits. Additionally, the required warranty period and requirements to take credit for PHEV sales were defined: The California DMV implements
1364-402: A distribution of light designed to provide forward and lateral illumination, with limits on light directed towards the eyes of other road users to control glare. This beam is intended for use whenever other vehicles are present ahead, whether oncoming or being overtaken. The international ECE Regulations for filament headlamps and for high-intensity discharge headlamps specify a beam with
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#17328772035171488-459: A downward/leftward bias to show the driver the road and signs ahead without blinding oncoming traffic. Headlamps for right-traffic countries have low beams that "dip to the right", with most of their light directed downward/rightward. Within Europe, when driving a vehicle with right-traffic headlamps in a left-traffic country or vice versa for a limited time (as for example on vacation or in transit), it
1612-483: A few areas, illegal to drive above this speed at night. Some countries require automobiles to be equipped with daytime running lights (DRL) to increase the conspicuity of vehicles in motion during the daytime. Regional regulations govern how the DRL function may be provided. In Canada, the DRL function required on vehicles made or imported since 1990 can be provided by the headlamps, the fog lamps , steady-lit operation of
1736-510: A fuel cell reactor to generate electricity. Then those prototypes were also destroyed. California Air Resources Board The California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) is an agency of the government of California that aims to reduce air pollution . Established in 1967 when then-governor Ronald Reagan signed the Mulford-Carrell Act, combining the Bureau of Air Sanitation and
1860-437: A left- or a right-traffic low beam by means of a two-position bulb holder. Because wrong-side-of-road headlamps blind oncoming drivers and do not adequately light the driver's way, and blackout strips and adhesive prismatic lenses reduce the safety performance of the headlamps, some countries require all vehicles registered or used on a permanent or semi-permanent basis within the country to be equipped with headlamps designed for
1984-409: A manufacturer was required to meet increasingly stringent requirements starting in 1994. The calculation of fleet average NMOG emissions was based on a weighted sum of vehicle NMOG emissions, based on the number sold and type of certification (i.e., TLEV, LEV, ULEV, etc.), divided by the total number of vehicles produced, including ZEVs. Manufacturers whose fleet average NMOG emissions met or exceeded
2108-518: A new record for electric vehicles at the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb in 1999 by finishing in 15:19.91. The special EV Plus, prepared and driven by Teruo Sugita, had been converted to mid-engine, rear-wheel drive and fitted with extra batteries. The EV Plus was listed with an MSRP of $ 53,999, but Honda never allowed them to be sold, instead offering the cars on a 3-year, lease-only program for $ 455.00 per month. The cost of
2232-673: A purpose-built prototype, which led to the EV-X , a working concept vehicle exhibited at Tokyo in 1993 , then powertrain testing with the Clean Urban Vehicle-4 ( CUV-4 ), a converted Civic hatchback , gathering test data starting in August 1994. Over the next two years, the fleet of ten CUV-4s would be driven for an aggregate 80,000 miles (130,000 km) in partnership with California utilities Pacific Gas & Electric (operating five) and Southern California Edison (three). These tests convinced Honda that lead–acid batteries were unsuitable as
2356-453: A rate of just over 5 kW. At introduction, Honda cautioned potential drivers that actual driving range was limited to 60 to 80 mi (97 to 129 km). Southern California Edison tested a Honda EV Plus at Pomona, California and determined the range was between 78.8 mi (126.8 km) (freeway loop, with auxiliary loads) to 105.3 mi (169.5 km) (urban loop, without auxiliary loads). As with virtually all vehicles, range
2480-601: A sharp, asymmetric cutoff preventing significant amounts of light from being cast into the eyes of drivers of preceding or oncoming cars. Control of glare is less strict in the North American SAE beam standard contained in FMVSS / CMVSS 108 . High beam (main beam, driving beam, full beam) headlamps provide a bright, center-weighted distribution of light with no particular control of light directed towards other road users' eyes. As such, they are only suitable for use when alone on
2604-478: A similar "smog score" on new vehicles sold starting in 2013; the standards were realigned for labels applied to 2018 model year vehicles. The LEV program has established several categories of reduced emissions vehicles. LEV I defined LEV and ULEV vehicles, and added TLEV and Tier 1 temporary classifications that would not be sold after 2003. LEV II added SULEV and PZEV vehicles, and LEV III tightened emission standards. The actual emission levels depend on
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#17328772035172728-445: Is a lamp attached to the front of a vehicle to illuminate the road ahead. Headlamps are also often called headlights , but in the most precise usage, headlamp is the term for the device itself and headlight is the term for the beam of light produced and distributed by the device. Headlamp performance has steadily improved throughout the automobile age, spurred by the great disparity between daytime and nighttime traffic fatalities:
2852-539: Is a fuel adjustment factor depending on the alternative fuel used (1.03 for natural gas , 0.89 for LPG , and 0.74 for E85 ). ZEVs are also required to calculate GHG as the processes to generate the energy (or fuel) used also produce GHG. For ZEVs, C O 2 e q u i v a l e n t = U + A C d i r e c t {\displaystyle CO_{2}^{\mathrm {equivalent} }=U+AC^{\mathrm {direct} }} , where U {\displaystyle U}
2976-603: Is a legal requirement to adjust the headlamps temporarily so that their wrong-side beam distribution does not dazzle oncoming drivers. This may be achieved by methods including adhering opaque decals or prismatic lenses to a designated part of the lens. Some projector-type headlamps can be made to produce a proper left- or right-traffic beam by shifting a lever or other movable element in or on the lamp assembly. Many tungsten (pre-halogen) European-code headlamps made in France by Cibié, Marchal, and Ducellier could be adjusted to produce either
3100-461: Is a regulatory framework aimed at reducing emissions from commercial vessels operating in California's harbors and ports. The rule primarily targets diesel-powered vessels such as ferries, tugboats, and other workboats that operate in and around California's ports. Since the original adoption of regulation in 2008, and its amendments in 2010 and 2022, vessel owners in the state have been required to either replace their engines or send their boats out of
3224-656: Is aimed to reduce the state’s dependence on petroleum, create a market for clean transportation technology, and stimulate the production and use of alternative, low-carbon fuels in California. On April 23, 2009, CARB approved the specific rules for the LCFS that will go into effect in January 2011. The rule proposal prepared by its technical staff was approved by a 9-1 vote, to set the 2020 maximum carbon intensity reference value to 86 grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced. HID headlight A headlamp
3348-598: Is also responsible for two appointees from members of the public, and the final governor appointee is the Board's Chair. The first Chair of CARB was Dr. Arie Jan Haagen-Smit , who was previously a professor at the California Institute of Technology and started research into air pollution in 1948. Dr. Haagen-Smit is credited with discovering the source of smog in California, which led to the development of air pollution controls and standards. In honor of his legacy, CARB started
3472-458: Is bright, and above is dark. On the side of the beam facing away from oncoming traffic (right in right-traffic countries, left in left-traffic countries), this cutoff sweeps or steps upward to direct light to road signs and pedestrians. SAE low beams may or may not have a cutoff, and if a cutoff is present, it may be of two different general types: VOL , which is conceptually similar to the ECE beam in that
3596-714: Is funded by the California Air Resources Board (CARB), offered throughout the State of California and administered by the California Center for Sustainable Energy (CCSE). The CARB first adopted the Low-Emission Vehicle (LEV) Program standards in 1990 to address smog-forming pollutants, which covered automobiles sold in California from 1994 through 2003. An amendment to the LEV Program, known as LEV II,
3720-615: Is made up of 16 members, with 2 non-voting members appointed for legislative oversight, one each by the California State Assembly and Senate . 12 of the 14 voting members are appointed by the governor and subject to confirmation by the Senate: five from local air districts, four air pollution subject-matter experts, two members of the public, and the Chair. The other two voting members are appointed from environmental justice committees by
3844-636: Is one of three sections within the Modeling & Meteorology Branch. The other two sections are the Regional Air Quality Modeling Section and the Meteorology Section. The air quality and atmospheric pollution dispersion models routinely used by this Section include a number of the models recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The section uses models which were either developed by CARB or whose development
Honda EV Plus - Misplaced Pages Continue
3968-452: Is the consideration of the various ways they are designed and arranged on a motor vehicle. Headlamps were round for many years because that is the native shape of a parabolic reflector . Using principles of reflection, the simple symmetric round reflective surface projects light and helps focus the beam. There was no requirement in Europe for headlamps of standardized size or shape, and lamps could be designed in any shape and size, as long as
4092-505: Is the upstream emissions factor (130 g/mi for battery electric vehicles, 210 for hydrogen/fuel cell, and 290 for hydrogen/internal combustion). Direct CO 2 emissions could be calculated in a relatively straightforward fashion based on fuel consumption. Manufacturers that do not wish to measure N 2 O emissions may assume a value of 0.006 g/mi. An update was issued in 2010 which allowed manufacturers to calculate GHG emissions using CAFE data; for conventionally powered vehicles,
4216-668: The General Motors Sunraycer , which won the World Solar Challenge in 1987, and with an intent to meet increasingly stringent future emissions standards. The first electric vehicle team at Honda had just four people. At the time, Honda was the last automotive company in Japan to start work on electric vehicles. Early obstacles were discovered; electric traction motors that were powerful or efficient were too large to fit, energy storage density using existing lead–acid technology
4340-465: The Gordon-Keeble , Jensen CV8 , Triumph Vitesse , and Bentley S3 Continental used such an arrangement as well. In 1968, the newly initiated Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108 required all vehicles to have either the twin or quad round sealed beam headlamp system and prohibited any decorative or protective element in front of an operating headlamp. Glass-covered headlamps like those used on
4464-509: The Jaguar E-Type , pre-1968 VW Beetle , 1965 Chrysler and Imperial models, Porsche 356 , Citroën DS , and Ferrari Daytona were no longer permitted, and vehicles had to be equipped with uncovered headlamps for the US market. This made it difficult for vehicles with headlamp configurations designed for good aerodynamic performance to achieve it in their US-market configurations. The FMVSS 108
4588-689: The Ranger EV for the 1998 model year, and Nissan stated they planned to offer the Altra in the 1998 model year as well to fulfill the MOA. As an acceptable alternative, Mazda stated they would purchase ZEV credits from Ford. The Low-Emission Vehicle Program was revised to define modified ZEV regulations for 2015 models. CARB estimates that ACC will result in 10% of all sales to be ZEVs by 2025. The share remained at 3% between 2014 and 2016. Battery vehicles receive 3 or 4 credits, while fuel cell cars receive 9. As of 2016 ,
4712-624: The US headlamp regulations were amended to allow replaceable-bulb, nonstandard-shape, architectural headlamps with aerodynamic lenses that could for the first time be made of hard-coated polycarbonate . This allowed the first US-market car since 1939 with replaceable bulb headlamps: the 1984 Lincoln Mark VII . These composite headlamps were sometimes referred to as "Euro" headlamps since aerodynamic headlamps were common in Europe. Though conceptually similar to European headlamps with non-standardized shape and replaceable-bulb construction, these headlamps conform to
4836-560: The acetylene flame light . A number of car manufacturers offered Prest-O-Lite calcium carbide acetylene gas generator cylinder with gas feed pipes for lights as standard equipment for 1904 cars. The first electric headlamps were introduced in 1898 on the Columbia Electric Car from the Electric Vehicle Company of Hartford, Connecticut , and were optional. Two factors limited the widespread use of electric headlamps:
4960-460: The existing three-door hatchback Civic , retrofitted with commercially available electric motor and lead–acid batteries, and modified with numerous weight-saving measures, including aluminum body panels and acrylic plastic windows; it was completed in July 1991 and ran without issues. Although EV project team members were relieved that it was operable, project leader Junichi Araki was furious: "You call this
5084-528: The 1965 model year, the Buick Riviera had concealable stacked headlamps. Various Mercedes models sold in America used this arrangement because their home-market replaceable-bulb headlamps were illegal in the US. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, some Lincoln , Buick , and Chrysler cars had the headlamps arranged diagonally with the low-beam lamps outboard and above the high-beam lamps. British cars including
Honda EV Plus - Misplaced Pages Continue
5208-509: The 1966–1967 Dodge Charger . Modern headlamps are electrically operated, positioned in pairs, one or two on each side of the front of a vehicle. A headlamp system is required to produce a low and a high beam, which may be produced by multiple pairs of single-beam lamps or by a pair of dual-beam lamps, or a mix of single-beam and dual-beam lamps. High beams cast most of their light straight ahead, maximizing seeing distance but producing too much glare for safe use when other vehicles are present on
5332-517: The 1995 model year. After 2003, LEV was the minimum standard to be met. CARB adopted regulations for limits on greenhouse gas emissions in 2004 starting with the 2009 model year to support the direction provided by AB 1493. In June 2005, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed Executive Order S-03-05 , which required a reduction in California GHG emissions, targeting an 80% reduction compared to 1990 levels by 2050. Assembly Bill 32, better known as
5456-658: The Advanced Clean Cars II (ACC II) Program, focusing on emissions of vehicles sold after 2025. ACC II reiterated the aim to have all new passenger cars, trucks and SUVs sold in the state to be zero emissions vehicles by 2035, and was scheduled for consideration before CARB in June 2022. The regulations of ACC II were adopted by California in August 2022. LEV I defined a ZEV as one that produces "zero emissions of any criteria pollutants under any and all possible operational modes and conditions." A vehicle could still qualify as
5580-722: The Advanced Clean Cars Program (ACC), adopted in 2012, which included regulations for cars sold through the 2025 model year. The regulations include updates to regulations for LEV III (for smog-forming emissions), LEV III GHG (for greenhouse gas emissions), and ZEV. Since then, in September 2020 Governor Gavin Newsom signed an executive order directing that by 2035, all new cars and passenger trucks sold in California will be zero-emission vehicles. Executive Order N-79-20 directs CARB to develop regulations to require that ZEVs be an increasing share of new vehicles sold in
5704-511: The Assembly and Senate. Five of the governor-appointed board members are chosen from regional air pollution control or air quality management districts , including one each from: Four governor-appointed board members are subject matter experts in specific fields: automotive engineering , currently Dan Sperling ; science, agriculture, or law, currently John Eisenhut; medicine, currently John R. Balmes, M.D.; and air pollution control. The governor
5828-527: The CARB. The red sticker program began in 1994 when CARB adopted standards for emissions from two-stroke engines used primarily on dirt bikes. Between 1998 and 2003, the red sticker program was refined allowing vehicles that did not meet peak ozone season standards to be operated only at specific times of the year. As of model year 2022, the CARB no longer authorizes issuing of red stickers. The California Air Resources Board's (CARB) Commercial Harbor Craft regulation
5952-707: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , codified these requirements. CARB filed a waiver request with the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under Section 209(b) of the Clean Air Act in December 2005 to permit it to establish limits on greenhouse gas emissions; although the waiver request was initially denied in March 2008, it was later approved on June 30, 2009 after President Barack Obama signed
6076-622: The California State Assembly passed AB 1229, which required all new vehicles manufactured after January 1, 2009 to bear an Environmental Performance Label, which scored the emissions performance of the vehicle on two scales ranging between 1 (worst) and 10 (best): one for global warming (emissions of GHG such as N 2 O , CH 4 , air conditioning refrigerants , and CO 2 ) and one for smog-forming compounds (non-methane organic gases (NMOG), NO x , and HC ). The Federal Government followed suit and required
6200-587: The ECE system claim that the SAE system produces too much glare. Comparative studies have repeatedly shown that there is little or no overall safety advantage to either SAE or ECE beams; the two systems' acceptance and rejection by various countries is based primarily on which system is already in use. In North America, the design, performance, and installation of all motor vehicle lighting devices are regulated by Federal and Canada Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108 , which incorporates SAE technical standards. Elsewhere in
6324-608: The Government of Canada entered into a Memorandum of Understanding in June 2019 to cooperate on greenhouse gas emissions mitigation. The CARB Zero-Emission Vehicle (ZEV) program was enacted by the California government starting in 1990 to promote the use of zero emission vehicles. The program goal is to reduce the pervasive air pollution affecting the main metropolitan areas in the state, particularly in Los Angeles , where prolonged pollution episodes are frequent. The California ZEV rule
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#17328772035176448-832: The Governor's Office in the Executive Branch of California State Government. CARB has 15 divisions and offices: The division assesses the extent of California's air quality problems and the progress being made to abate them, coordinates statewide development of clean air plans and maintains databases pertinent to air quality and emissions. The division's technical support work provides a basis for clean air plans and CARB's regulatory programs. This support includes management and interpretation of emission inventories, air quality data, meteorological data and of air quality modeling . The Air Quality Planning and Science Division has five branches: The Atmospheric Modeling & Support Section
6572-637: The Haagen-Smit Clean Air Awards program in 2001 to recognize individuals who have had significant accomplishments in the field of air quality and climate change. The two legislature-appointed board members work directly with communities affected by air pollution. They are currently Diane Takvorian and Dean Florez, appointed by the Assembly and Senate respectively. CARB is a part of the California Environmental Protection Agency , an organization which reports directly to
6696-513: The LEV Program have been codified as specific sections in Title 13 of the California Code of Regulations ; in general, LEV I is § 1960.1; LEV II is § 1961; Pavley is § 1961.1; LEV III is § 1961.2 (smog-forming pollutants) and 1961.3 (GHG). The ZEV regulations, which were initially part of LEV I, have been broken out separately into § 1962. For comparison,
6820-650: The March 2008 denial of the GHG emissions regulation. CARB decided to adopt regulation of GHG emissions under Executive Order G-05-061, which provided phase-in targets for fleet average GHG emissions in CO 2 -equivalent grams per mile starting with the 2009 model year. The calculation of CO 2 -equivalent emissions was based on contributions from four different chemicals: CO 2 , N 2 O , CH 4 , and air conditioning refrigerants . The emissions in g/mi CO 2 -equivalent are calculated according to
6944-544: The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency adopted the California regulations. In August 2022, Virginia, citing to a 2021 law, announced it would follow California regulations for ZEV registrations. Arizona and New Mexico had previously adopted California LEV regulations under Section 177, but later repealed those states' clean car standards in 2012 and 2013, respectively. In Canada, the province of Quebec adopted CARB standards effective in 2010. CARB and
7068-520: The Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board, CARB is a department within the cabinet -level California Environmental Protection Agency . The stated goals of CARB include attaining and maintaining healthy air quality ; protecting the public from exposure to toxic air contaminants; and providing innovative approaches for complying with air pollution rules and regulations. CARB has also been instrumental in driving innovation throughout
7192-480: The NMOG emissions goal would be subjected to civil penalties; those which fell below the goal would receive credits, which could then be marketed to other manufacturers. The 1996 amendments to the ZEV regulations in LEV I (ZEV-96) introduced credits where a ZEV could be counted more than once based on vehicle range or battery specific energy to encourage deployment of ZEVs prior to 2003. Under LEV II/ZEV-99,
7316-904: The Netherlands in 1976 concluded that yellow and white headlamps are equivalent as regards traffic safety, though yellow light causes less discomfort glare than white light. Researchers note that tungsten filament lamps emit only a small amount of the blue light blocked by a selective-yellow filter, so such filtration makes only a small difference in the characteristics of the light output, and suggest that headlamps using newer kinds of sources such as metal halide (HID) bulbs may, through filtration, give off less visually distracting light while still having greater light output than halogen ones. Selective yellow headlamps are no longer common, but are permitted in various countries throughout Europe as well as in non-European locales such as South Korea, Japan and New Zealand. In Iceland , yellow headlamps are allowed and
7440-461: The PZEV and AT PZEV categories were introduced, and the percentage of ZEVs sold by a manufacturer could be partially met by the sales of PZEV and AT PZEVs. If a vehicle met PZEV criteria, it qualified for a credit equal to 0.2 of one ZEV for the purposes of calculating that manufacturer's ZEV production. AT PZEVs capable of traveling with zero emissions for a limited range were allowed additional credit if
7564-509: The US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration states that nearly half of all traffic-related fatalities occur in the dark, despite only 25% of traffic travelling during darkness. Other vehicles, such as trains and aircraft, are required to have headlamps. Bicycle headlamps are often used on bicycles, and are required in some jurisdictions. They can be powered by a battery or a small generator like
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#17328772035177688-676: The US, SAE standard headlamps are aimed without regard to headlamp mounting height. This gives vehicles with high-mounted headlamps a seeing distance advantage, at the cost of increased glare to drivers in lower vehicles. By contrast, ECE headlamp aim angle is linked to headlamp mounting height, to give all vehicles roughly equal seeing distance and all drivers roughly equal glare. Headlamps are generally required to produce white light, according to both ECE and SAE standards. ECE Regulation 48 currently requires new vehicles to be equipped with headlamps emitting white light. Different headlamp technologies produce different characteristic types of white light;
7812-471: The United States to 37,500 candela on each side of the car until 1978, when the limit was raised to 75,000. An increase in high-beam intensity to take advantage of the higher allowance could not be achieved without a move to halogen technology, and so sealed- beam headlamps with internal halogen lamps became available for use on 1979 models in the United States. As of 2010 halogen sealed beams dominate
7936-454: The United States. This headlamp format was not widely accepted in continental Europe, which found replaceable bulbs and variations in the size and shape of headlamps useful in car design. Technology moved forward in the rest of the world. In 1962 a European consortium of bulb- and headlamp-makers introduced the first halogen lamp for vehicle headlamp use, the H1 . Shortly thereafter headlamps using
8060-475: The ZEV requirements until at least 2003. In conjunction with relaxing the requirements in ZEV-96, CARB signed memoranda of agreement (MOAs) with the seven large scale manufacturers to begin rolling out demonstration fleets of ZEVs with limited public availability in the near term. The GM EV1 was the first battery electric vehicle (BEV) offered to the public, in partial fulfillment of the agreement with CARB. The EV1
8184-413: The ambient temperature was below 40 °F (4 °C) to comply with California ZEV standards. The heater had an output of 7 kW (24,000 BTU/h). The EV Plus came with a 12 V battery to power standard automotive accessories and lighting. Vehicles also featured: The traction motor output rating was 49 kW (66 hp) at 8,750 RPM and 203 lb⋅ft (275 N⋅m). Battery capacity
8308-399: The amount of glare permitted toward other drivers on low beam (SAE permits much more glare), the minimum amount of light required to be thrown straight down the road (SAE requires more), and the specific locations within the beam at which minimum and maximum light levels are specified. ECE low beams are characterized by a distinct horizontal "cutoff" line at the top of the beam. Below the line
8432-453: The average new car sold in 1965 would produce approximately 2,000 lb (910 kg) of hydrocarbons over 100,000 mi (160,000 km) of driving; under the LEV I standards, the average new car sold in 1998 was projected to produce hydrocarbon emissions of 50 lb (23 kg) over the same distance, and under LEV II, the average new car in 2010 would further reduce hydrocarbon emissions to 10 lb (4.5 kg). In 2005,
8556-650: The battery pack alone was estimated at US$ 20,000 (equivalent to $ 38,000 in 2023), and consumers were warned the battery would need to be replaced every three years, necessitating the lease program. Lease customers were required to install a 220-volt charger. The lease cost included comprehensive and collision coverage, all maintenance, and roadside assistance. The EV Plus was first available to California drivers starting on May 14, 1997, with four dealerships (three in Southern California and one in Sacramento) offering
8680-509: The bulbs. It also made aiming the headlight beams simpler and eliminated non-standard bulbs and lamps. The Tucker 48 included a defining "cyclops-eye" feature: a third center-mounted headlight connected to the car's steering mechanism. It only illuminated if the steering was moved more than ten degrees off center and the high beams were turned on. A system of four round lamps, rather than two, one high/low and one high-beam 5 + 3 ⁄ 4 in (146 mm) sealed beam on each side of
8804-490: The car's bodywork with aerodynamic glass covers, such as those on the 1961 Jaguar E-Type , and on pre-1967 VW Beetles . Headlight design in the U.S. changed very little from 1940 to 1983. In 1940, a consortium of state motor vehicle administrators standardized upon a system of two 7 in (178 mm) round sealed beam headlamps on all vehicles—the only system allowed for 17 years. This requirement eliminated problems of tarnished reflectors by sealing them together with
8928-416: The car's styling. When the lamps are switched on, the covers are swung out of the way, usually downward or upward, for example on the 1992 Jaguar XJ220 . The door mechanism may be actuated by vacuum pots, as on some Ford vehicles of the late 1960s through early 1980s such as the 1967–1970 Mercury Cougar , or by an electric motor as on various Chrysler products of the middle 1960s through late 1970s such as
9052-404: The carbon intensity of California's transportation fuels by 2020. These reductions include not only tailpipe emissions but also all other associated emissions from production, distribution and use of transport fuels within the state. Therefore, California LCFS considers the fuel's full life cycle , also known as the "well to wheels" or "seed to wheels" efficiency of transport fuels. The standard
9176-404: The contribution from the nitrous oxide and methane terms could be assumed to be 1.9 g/mi. CARB voted unanimously in March 2017 to require automakers to average 54.5 miles per US gallon (4.32 L/100 km; 65.5 mpg ‑imp ) for new cars in 2025. Because California had emissions regulations prior to the 1977 Clean Air Act , under Section 177 of that bill, other states may adopt
9300-435: The conventional two-filament type, and the intermediate beam combined low beam on the driver's side with high beam on the passenger's side, so as to maximise the view of the roadside while minimizing glare toward oncoming traffic. The last vehicles with a foot-operated dimmer switch were the 1991 Ford F-Series and E-Series [Econoline] vans. Fog lamps were new for 1938 Cadillacs, and their 1952 "Autronic Eye" system automated
9424-447: The correct traffic-handedness. North American vehicle owners sometimes privately import and install Japanese-market (JDM) headlamps on their car in the mistaken belief that the beam performance will be better, when in fact such misapplication is quite hazardous and illegal. Vehicle headlamps have been found unable to illuminate an assured clear distance ahead at speeds above 60 km/h (40 mph). It may be unsafe and, in
9548-459: The cutoff is located at the top of the left side of the beam and aimed slightly below horizontal, or VOR , which has the cutoff at the top of the right side of the beam and aimed at the horizon. Proponents of each headlamp system decry the other as inadequate and unsafe: US proponents of the SAE system claim that the ECE low beam cutoff gives short seeing distances and inadequate illumination for overhead road signs, while international proponents of
9672-473: The effects in the rest of the country." Johnson's successor, Lisa P. Jackson , signed the waiver overturning Johnson's denial, writing that "EPA must grant California a waiver if California determines that its standards are, in the aggregate, at least as protective of the public health and welfare as applicable Federal standards." Jackson also noted that in the history of the waiver process, over 50 waivers had been granted and only one had been fully denied, namely
9796-418: The existing 7-inch round format, or a system of four 165 by 100 mm (6.5 by 3.9 in) units, two high/low and two high-beam. corresponding to the existing 5 + 3 ⁄ 4 in (146 mm) round format. The rectangular headlamp design became so prevalent in U.S.-made cars that only a few models continued using round headlamps by 1979. In 1983, granting a 1981 petition from Ford Motor Company,
9920-626: The formula C O 2 e q u i v a l e n t = C O 2 + 296 × N 2 O + 23 × C H 4 − A C d i r e c t − A C i n d i r e c t {\displaystyle CO_{2}^{\mathrm {equivalent} }=CO_{2}+296\times N_{2}O+23\times CH_{4}-AC^{\mathrm {direct} }-AC^{\mathrm {indirect} }} , which has two terms for direct and indirect emissions allowances of air conditioning refrigerants, depending on
10044-644: The front turn signals , or by special daytime running lamps. Functionally dedicated daytime running lamps not involving the headlamps are required on all new cars first sold in the European Union since February 2011. In addition to the EU and Canada, countries requiring DRL include Albania, Argentina, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech republic, Colombia (no more from Aug/2011), Iceland, Israel, Macedonia, Norway, Moldova, Russia, Serbia, and Uruguay. There are two different beam pattern and headlamp construction standards in use in
10168-472: The front fenders, which were smooth until the lights were cranked out—each with its own small dash-mounted crank—by the operator. They aided aerodynamics when the headlamps were not in use and were among the Cord's signature design features. Later hidden headlamps require one or more vacuum-operated servos and reservoirs, with associated plumbing and linkage, or electric motors , geartrains and linkages to raise
10292-468: The global automotive industry through programs such as its ZEV mandate . One of CARB's responsibilities is to define vehicle emissions standards . California is the only state permitted to issue emissions standards under the federal Clean Air Act , subject to a waiver from the United States Environmental Protection Agency . Other states may choose to follow CARB or the federal vehicle emission standards but may not set their own. CARB's governing board
10416-425: The goals until 2003, and small volume manufacturers were exempted. These percentages were calculated based on total production of passenger cars and light-duty trucks with a loaded vehicle weight (LVW) less than 3,750 lb (1,700 kg). The LEV I rules also introduced the concept of emission credits. Under LEV I, the vehicle fleet average emissions rate of non-methane organic gases (NMOG) produced by
10540-473: The headlamp design, construction, and performance specifications of US Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108 rather than the internationalized European safety standards used outside North America. Nevertheless, this change to US regulations made it possible for headlamp styling in the US market to move closer to that in Europe. Hidden headlamps were introduced in 1936, on the Cord 810/812 . They were mounted in
10664-663: The introduction of PZEV and AT PZEV categories in ZEV-99. Under ZEV-90, CARB classified manufacturers according to the average sales per year between 1989 and 1993; small volume manufacturers were those that sold 3,000 or fewer new vehicles per year; intermediate volume manufacturers sold between 3,001 and 35,000; and large volume manufacturers sold more than 35,000 per year. For large volume manufacturers, CARB required that 2% of 1998 to 2000 model year vehicles sold were ZEVs, ramping up to 5% ZEVs by 2001 and 10% ZEVs in 2003 and beyond. Intermediate volume manufacturers were not required to meet
10788-546: The lamps met the engineering and performance requirements contained in the applicable European safety standards . Rectangular headlamps were first used in 1960, developed by Hella for the German Ford Taunus P3 and by Cibié for the Citroën Ami 6 . They were prohibited in the United States where round lamps were required until 1975. Another early headlamp styling concept involved conventional round lamps faired into
10912-559: The lamps to an exact position to assure correct aiming despite ice, snow, and age. Some hidden headlamp designs, such as those on the Saab Sonett III, used a lever-operated mechanical linkage to raise the headlamps into position. During the 1960s and 1970s, many notable sports cars used this feature such as the Chevrolet Corvette (C3) , Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer and Lamborghini Countach as they allowed low bonnet lines but raised
11036-453: The lights to the required height, but since 2004 no modern volume-produced car models use hidden headlamps because they present difficulties in complying with pedestrian-protection provisions added to international auto safety regulations regarding protuberances on car bodies to minimize injury to pedestrians struck by cars. Some hidden headlamps themselves do not move, but rather are covered when not in use by panels designed to blend in with
11160-458: The line at Takanezawa in April 1997. The EV Plus featured on-board conductive charging with the Avcon connector, passive battery balancing, regenerative braking and deceleration, AC/ heat pump climate control, HID headlights , 4 seats, and electrically heated windshield. The car was equipped with an oil-fired heater for faster cabin heating and passenger comfort, but the heater was not operable until
11284-497: The low beams in their conventional outboard location, and the high beams vertically stacked at the centerline of the car, but no such designs reached volume production. An example arrangement includes the stacking of two headlamps on each side, with low beams above high beams. The Nash Ambassador used this arrangement in the 1957 model year. Pontiac used this design starting in the 1963 model year; American Motors , Ford , Cadillac , and Chrysler followed two years later. Also in
11408-410: The main storage for a production-level electric vehicle. The CUV-4 had a limited range of just 25 to 31 miles (40 to 50 km), prompting tweaks to the basic vehicle specifications that were later realized in the EV Plus, including battery voltage, chemistry, and motor power. A prototype EV Plus was assembled in December 1995, and production was approved in January 1996; the first production EV Plus left
11532-424: The modern vehicle electrical system. The Guide Lamp Company introduced "dipping" (low-beam) headlamps in 1915, but the 1917 Cadillac system allowed the light to be dipped using a lever inside the car rather than requiring the driver to stop and get out. The 1924 Bilux bulb was the first modern unit, having the light for both low (dipped) and high (main) beams of a headlamp emitting from a single bulb. A similar design
11656-604: The more stringent California emissions regulations as an alternative to federal standards. Thirteen other states and the District of Columbia have chosen to do so, and ten of those have additionally adopted the California Zero-Emission Vehicle regulations. In December 2020, Minnesota announced its intention to adopt California LEV and ZEV rules; following a hearing before an administrative law judge in February 2021,
11780-401: The new light source were introduced in Europe. These were effectively prohibited in the US, where standard-size sealed beam headlamps were mandatory and intensity regulations were low. US lawmakers faced pressure to act, due both to lighting effectiveness and to vehicle aerodynamics/fuel savings. High-beam peak intensity, capped at 140,000 candela per side of the car in Europe, was limited in
11904-570: The new model; eight were leased within a week of release. By December, only 79 had been leased. From May 1997 to July 1998, Honda leased 177 EV Plus vehicles in southern California. In 1998 additional dealerships were authorized in northern California. 15 EV Plus vehicles were leased to the University of California, Riverside as the basis of a car-sharing program; on average, 100 trips per day were taken by faculty, staff, and students, with most trips lasting less than 4 miles (6.4 km). The final EV Plus
12028-542: The policy dictates of the California Air Resources Board (CARB) with respect to registration of off-highway motor vehicles (OHVs). Registration consists of ID plates or placards issued by the DMV. Operating a motorized vehicle off-highway in California requires either a Green Sticker or a Red Sticker ID. The Green Sticker indicates that the vehicle has passed emission requirements. The Red Sticker (issued through 2021) restricts OHV use due to not meeting emission standards established by
12152-703: The refrigerant used, such as HFC134a , and the system design. Vehicles powered by alternative fuels use a slightly modified formula, C O 2 e q u i v a l e n t = ( C O 2 + A C i n d i r e c t ) × F + 296 × N 2 O + 23 × C H 4 + A C d i r e c t {\displaystyle CO_{2}^{\mathrm {equivalent} }=(CO_{2}+AC^{\mathrm {indirect} })\times F+296\times N_{2}O+23\times CH_{4}+AC^{\mathrm {direct} }} , where F {\displaystyle F}
12276-408: The road, as the glare they produce will dazzle other drivers. International ECE Regulations permit higher-intensity high-beam headlamps than are allowed under North American regulations . Most low-beam headlamps are specifically designed for use on only one side of the road . Headlamps for use in left-traffic countries have low-beam headlamps that "dip to the left"; the light is distributed with
12400-495: The road. Because there is no special control of upward light, high beams also cause backdazzle from fog , rain and snow due to the retroreflection of the water droplets . Low beams have stricter control of upward light, and direct most of their light downward and either rightward (in right-traffic countries) or leftward (in left-traffic countries), to provide forward visibility without excessive glare or backdazzle. Low beam (dipped beam, passing beam, meeting beam) headlamps provide
12524-453: The sealed-beam market, which has declined steeply since replaceable- bulb headlamps were permitted in 1983. High-intensity discharge (HID) systems appeared in the early 1990s, first in the BMW 7 Series . 1996's Lincoln Mark VIII was an early American effort at HIDs, and was the only car with DC HIDs. Beyond the engineering, performance, and regulatory-compliance aspects of headlamps, there
12648-469: The selection of high and low beams. Directional lighting, using a switch and electromagnetically shifted reflector to illuminate the curbside only, was introduced in the rare, one-year-only 1935 Tatra . Steering-linked lighting was featured on the 1947 Tucker Torpedo's center-mounted headlight and was later popularized by the Citroën DS . This made it possible to turn the light in the direction of travel when
12772-587: The short life of filaments in the harsh automotive environment, and the difficulty of producing dynamos small enough, yet powerful enough to produce sufficient current. Peerless made electric headlamps standard in 1908. A Birmingham, England firm called Pockley Automobile Electric Lighting Syndicate marketed the world's first electric car-lights as a complete set in 1908, which consisted of headlamps, sidelamps, and tail lights that were powered by an eight-volt battery. In 1912 Cadillac integrated their vehicle's Delco electrical ignition and lighting system, forming
12896-484: The standards in use. LEV I defined emission limits for several different classes of vehicle, including passenger cars (PC), light-duty trucks (LDT), and medium-duty vehicles (MDV). Heavy-duty vehicles were specifically excluded from LEV I. LEV I also defined a loaded vehicle weight (LVW) as the vehicle's Curb weight plus an allowance of 300 lb (140 kg). In general, the most stringent standards were applied to passenger cars and light-duty trucks with
13020-419: The state, with light-duty cars and trucks and off-road vehicles and equipment meeting the 100% ZEV goal by 2035 and medium and heavy-duty trucks and buses meeting the same 100% ZEV goal by 2045. The order also directs Caltrans to develop near-term actions to encourage "an integrated, statewide rail and transit network" and infrastructure to support bicycles and pedestrians. In response, CARB began development of
13144-502: The state. The Low-Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS) requires oil refineries and distributors to ensure that the mix of fuel they sell in the Californian market meets the established declining targets for greenhouse gas emissions measured in CO 2 -equivalent grams per unit of fuel energy sold for transport purposes. The 2007 Governor's LCFS directive calls for a reduction of at least 10% in
13268-687: The steering wheel turned. The standardized 7-inch (178 mm) round sealed-beam headlamp, one per side, was required for all vehicles sold in the United States from 1940, virtually freezing usable lighting technology in place until the 1970s for Americans. In 1957 the law changed to allow smaller 5.75-inch (146 mm) round sealed beams, two per side of the vehicle, and in 1974 rectangular sealed beams were permitted as well. Britain, Australia, and some other Commonwealth countries, as well as Japan and Sweden , also made extensive use of 7-inch sealed beams, though they were not mandated as they were in
13392-518: The urban all-electric range was at least ten miles. ZEVs that were introduced prior to 2003 received a multiplier, with a value ranging up to 10× a single ZEV depending on the all-electric range and fast-charging capability. In March 1996, ZEV-96 eliminated the ZEV ramp-up planned to start in 1998, but the goal of 10% ZEVs by 2003 was retained, with credits granted for sales of partial ZEVs (PZEVs). According to comment responses, CARB determined that advanced batteries would not be ready in time to meet
13516-552: The vehicle, was introduced on some 1957 Cadillac, Chrysler, DeSoto, and Nash models in states that permitted the new system. Separate low and high beam lamps eliminated the need for compromise in lens design and filament positioning required in a single unit. Other cars followed suit when all states permitted the new lamps by the time the 1958 models were brought to market. The four-lamp system permitted more design flexibility and improved low and high beam performance. Auto stylists such as Virgil Exner carried out design studies with
13640-507: The white specification is quite large and permits a wide range of apparent colour from warm white (with a brown-orange-amber-yellow cast) to cold white (with a blue-violet cast). Previous ECE regulations also permitted selective yellow light. A research experiment done in the UK in 1968 using tungsten (non-halogen) lamps found that visual acuity is about 3% better with selective yellow headlamps than with white ones of equal intensity. Research done in
13764-565: The world, ECE internationalized regulations are in force either by reference or by incorporation in individual countries' vehicular codes. US laws required sealed beam headlamps on all vehicles between 1940 and 1983, and other countries such as Japan, United Kingdom, and Australia also made extensive use of sealed beams. In most other countries, and in the US since 1984, replaceable-bulb headlamps predominate. Headlamps must be kept in proper aim. Regulations for aim vary from country to country and from beam specification to beam specification. In
13888-467: The world: The ECE standard, which is allowed or required in virtually all industrialized countries except the United States, and the SAE standard that is mandatory only in the US. Japan formerly had bespoke lighting regulations similar to the US standards, but for the left side of the road. However, Japan now adheres to the ECE standard. The differences between the SAE and ECE headlamp standards are primarily in
14012-418: Was 28.7 kWh; the battery weighed 486.1 kg (1,072 lb) and occupied a volume of 292 L (10.3 cu ft). Using a 120 V "emergency" charger, approximately 24 hours were required for a complete charge; in contrast, the 240 V charger was able to restore 80% of charge in 2 hours. Under instrumented testing, the EV Plus required approximately 7 hours to fully charge its battery at
14136-518: Was adopted in 1999, and covered vehicles for the 2004 through 2014 model years. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission regulations were adopted in 2004 starting for the 2009 model year, and are named the "Pavley" standards after Assemblymember Fran Pavley , who had written Assembly Bill 1493 in 2002 to establish them. A second amendment, LEV III, was adopted in 2012, and covers vehicles sold from 2015 onward for both smog (superseding LEV II) and GHG (superseding Pavley) emissions. The rules created under
14260-668: Was affected by driving style: rapid acceleration, high speeds, and fast stops lowered the all-electric range significantly. United States Environmental Protection Agency rated the range at 81 miles (130 km), and careful driving would give it a range of just over 100 miles (160 km). Consumption is rated at 710 watt-hours per mile (1,600 kJ/km); using an electricity equivalent of 33.7 kWh per gallon of gasoline, that gives an equivalent efficiency of 48 mpg ‑US (4.9 L/100 km) combined, 49 / 46 mpg ‑US (4.8 / 5.1 L/100 km) city/highway. A race-prepared EV Plus set
14384-416: Was amended in 1974 to permit rectangular sealed-beam headlamps. This allowed manufacturers flexibility to lower the hoods on new cars. These could be placed in horizontal arrays or in vertically stacked pairs. As previously with round lamps, the US permitted only two standardized sizes of rectangular sealed-beam lamp: A system of two 200 by 142 mm (7.9 by 5.6 in) high/low beam units corresponding to
14508-483: Was assembled in April 1999; in total, approximately 325 were leased to customers: 300 in the United States, 20 in Japan, and 5 in Europe. At the time Honda announced it would discontinue production, it promised to continue to re-lease and service the EV Plus indefinitely. Honda allowed some customers to extend their EV Plus lease for a few years. At the end of the leases, all EV Plus cars were taken back by Honda, decommissioned, and eventually destroyed, shown on camera in
14632-475: Was available only through a US$ 399 (equivalent to $ 780 in 2023)/month lease starting in December 1996; the initial markets were South Coast, San Diego, and Arizona, and expanded to Sacramento and the Bay Area. GM also offered an electric S-10 pickup truck to fleet operators. In 1997, Honda ( EV Plus , May 1997), Toyota ( RAV4 EV , October 1997), and Chrysler ( EPIC , 1997) followed suit. Ford also introduced
14756-399: Was first adopted by CARB as part of the 1990 Low-Emission Vehicle (LEV I) Program. The focus of the 1990 rules (ZEV-90) was to meet air quality standards for ozone rather than the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Under LEV II in 1999, the ZEV regulations were moved to a separate section (13 CCR § 1962) and the requirements for ZEVs as a percentage of fleet sales
14880-479: Was funded by CARB, such as: The California Air Resources Board is charged with implementing California's comprehensive suite of policies to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases . In part due to CARB, California has successfully decoupled greenhouse gas emissions from economic growth, and achieved its goal of reducing emissions to 1990 levels four years earlier than the target date of 2020. Alternative Fuel Vehicle Incentive Program (also known as Fueling Alternatives)
15004-436: Was introduced in 1925 by Guide Lamp called the "Duplo". In 1927 the foot-operated dimmer switch or dip switch was introduced and became standard for much of the century. 1933–1934 Packards featured tri-beam headlamps, the bulbs having three filaments. From highest to lowest, the beams were called "country passing", "country driving" and "city driving". The 1934 Nash also used a three-beam system, although in this case with bulbs of
15128-598: Was made more formal. Executive Order S-03-05 (2005) and Assembly Bills 1493 (2002) and 32 (2006) prompted CARB to reevaluate the ZEV program as last amended in 1996, which had been primarily concerned with reducing emissions of smog-forming pollutants. By the time AB 32 passed in 2006, vehicles complying with PZEV and AT PZEV standards had become commercially successful, and the ZEV program could then shift towards reducing both smog-forming compounds and greenhouse gases. The next set of ZEV regulations were adopted in 2012 with LEV III. CARB put both LEV and ZEV rules together as
15252-417: Was similarly too low, and the time required to recharge was inconvenient. Besides the technical challenges, California issued a Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) mandate in late 1990, requiring manufacturers to sell 2% of their total sales as ZEVs, starting in 1998. With that in mind, Honda devoted approximately 100 employees to begin full-scale EV development early in 1991. A first prototype was designed, based on
15376-562: Was so disappointed that they hadn't put more passion into the project." The team refocused their goal "to make a good electric vehicle, with no compromises." As an example, the Honda EV project's powerplant team began working with battery manufacturers, proposing a battery format and size that were later adopted as a global standard. In addition, they began developing their own DC brushless motor, since commercially available motors were not efficient enough. By June 1992, Honda had begun development of
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