Civil disorder , also known as civil disturbance , civil unrest , civil strife , or turmoil , are situations when law enforcement struggle to maintain public order or tranquility.
93-638: The King assassination riots , also known as the Holy Week Uprising , were a wave of civil disturbance which swept across the United States following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. on April 4, 1968. Some of the biggest riots took place in Washington, D.C. , Baltimore , Chicago , and Kansas City . The immediate cause of the rioting was the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. King
186-466: A 9 + 1 ⁄ 2 -month occupation by the National Guard – highlighted the depth of Wilmington's racial problem. During the riot, which occurred on April 9–10, 1968, the mayor asked for a small number of National Guardsmen to help restore order. Democratic governor Charles L. Terry (a southern-style Democrat) sent in the entire state National Guard and refused to remove them after the rioting
279-582: A city council. From 1820 to 1871 the mayor was popularly elected. The present-day boundaries of the "Old City" were Rock Creek to the west, Florida Avenue to the north, and the Anacostia River to the east and south. Starting in March 1801 the County of Washington, which included the city (or corporation) of Washington and the city of Georgetown, was governed by a Levy Court, of unfixed number, made up of Justices of
372-488: A citywide curfew. Violence and vandalism continued to rage the next day, but had subdued somewhat by May 29. Business owners began to return, although troops remained until June 4. Police made 472 arrests related to the riots. Two African-American teenagers had died, and $ 200,000 in damage had been done. The disturbances had a longer-lasting effect. Most white business owners quickly pulled out or were forced out of Parkland and surrounding areas. Most white residents also left
465-538: A crowd turns violent, effectively becoming a "mob," it may execute physical attacks on people and property, such as by throwing homemade weapons like Molotov cocktails , firing small arms, and planting improvised explosive devices . A crowd may resort to throwing rocks , bricks, bottles, etc. If violence is pre-arranged, the crowd can hide their weapons or vandalism tools well before the crowd formation, catching law enforcement by surprise. Crowds may arm themselves with: A mob may erect barricades to impede, or prevent,
558-456: A crowd's mood, radicals can manipulate and weaponize a crowd, using skillful agitation to coax the crowd's capacity for violence and turn it into a vengeful mob , directing the crowd's aggression and resentment at the agitator's chosen target. Tactical agitators can leverage media, including social media , to connect with potential crowd members and incite them to break the law or provoke others, all without direct personal contact. Conversely,
651-535: A crowd. List of mayors of Washington, D.C. Below is a list of mayors of Washington, D.C. , and associated political entities. The federal district of the United States was first designated by the amended Residence Act of 1790. That Act designated that the President could appoint three commissioners to locate, define and survey an area not exceeding ten miles square as the capital district, following
744-484: A curfew on anyone under the age of 21, closed the streets to automobile traffic, and halted the sale of guns or ammunition. Approximately 10,500 police were sent in, and by April 6, more than 6,700 Illinois National Guard troops had arrived in Chicago with 5,000 regular Army soldiers from the 1st Armored and 5th Infantry Divisions being ordered into the city by President Johnson. The General in charge declared that no one
837-468: A false rumor was spread in the crowd that Smith's wife was actually killed by a white police officer. Rioters smashed store windows and looted merchandise. More than 70 fires had been set, several of them major. During the rioting eight young African Americans dragged a white student, Noel Wright, and his wife from their car in Mount Auburn. Wright was stabbed to death and his wife was beaten. The next night,
930-430: A group to emerge when no authoritative voice emerges, and the crowd becomes frustrated without direction. Panic, which is extremely and quickly contagious, also affects crowd behavior by influencing their ability to reason, lending to frantic, irrational behavior that can not only endanger the crowd, but also others. During civil disorder, panic can set in when a crowd member realizes – A goal of violent demonstrators
1023-988: A host of mayors and governors preparing for a reaction from black America. He cautioned against unnecessary force, but felt like local governments would ignore his advice, saying to aides, "I'm not getting through. They're all holing up like generals in a dugout getting ready to watch a war." On April 5, at 11:00 AM, Johnson met with an array of leaders in the Cabinet Room . These included Vice President Hubert Humphrey , U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren , Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall , and federal judge Leon Higginbotham ; government officials such as secretary Robert Weaver and D.C. Mayor Walter Washington ; legislators Mike Mansfield , Everett Dirksen , William McCulloch ; and civil rights leaders Whitney Young , Roy Wilkins , Clarence Mitchell, Dorothy Height , and Walter Fauntroy . Notably absent were representatives of more radical groups such as SNCC and CORE . At
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#17330934677101116-523: A memorial held at a local recreation center. An officer of the Congress of Racial Equality blamed white Americans for King's death and urged the crowd to retaliate. The crowd was orderly when it left the memorial and spilled out into the street. Nearby James Smith, a black man, attempted to protect a jewelry store from a robbery with his own shotgun. During the struggle with the robbers, also black, Smith accidentally shot and killed his wife. Rioting started after
1209-431: A single government, whose chief executive was a territorial Governor. As listed below, only two served before this office was abolished in 1874, and replaced with a temporary three-member Board of Commissioners appointed by the President. The board was made permanent in 1878 and this system continued until 1967, when it was replaced by a single mayor-commissioner and city council appointed by the President. Finally, in 1974,
1302-464: A skilled leader can calm or divert a crowd using strategic suggestions, commands, or appeals to reason, aiming to de-escalate a situation. Emotional contagion plays a significant role in crowd behaviour by fostering a sense of unity among its members. This unity can lead the crowd to adopt a mob mentality and engage in mob behaviour. Crowd members amplify each other's emotions, creating a heightened state of collective emotion. Ideas rapidly spread among
1395-762: A tense and variable relationship between Johnson and local officials. In conversations with Chicago mayor Richard J. Daley , Johnson describes the complications with ordering federal troops before local governments have exhausted all options. Later, Johnson would describe the domestic unrest as another front in the global war, criticizing Daley for not requesting troops sooner. From the transcript: President Johnson: [Unclear] ... Goddammit, I don't know how we handle these things. But I know one thing: that we've got to handle them with muscle and with toughness. And we put troops in every place they asked me to, and we came after it [in] reasonably good shape. Civil disturbance Any number of things may cause civil disorder, whether it
1488-467: A territorial government for the entire District of Columbia, which was headed by a governor appointed by the President of the United States to a four-year term. Due to alleged mismanagement and corruption, including allegations of contractors bribing members of the District legislature to receive contracts, the territorial government was discontinued in 1874. From 1874 to 1878 the District was administered by
1581-417: A threat to law enforcers because it is open to manipulation. This is because the behavior of a crowd is under the direction of the majority of its members. While its members are usually inclined to obey the law, emotional stimuli, and the feeling of fearlessness that arises from being in a crowd, can cause crowd members to indulge in impulses, act on aggressions, and unleash rage . When law enforcement limits
1674-521: A three-member, temporary Board of Commissioners with both legislative and executive authority, all appointed by the President. They were assisted by an engineer (Captain Richard L. Hoxie ). The law made no provision for a President to this board of temporary Commissioners, and none was ever elected, but Commissioner Dennison acted in that capacity at all board meetings he attended. In 1878, the Board of Commissioners
1767-507: A vote of 244 to 160. Johnson said that the new District government would be more effective and efficient. Walter E. Washington was appointed the first mayor-commissioner, and Thomas W. Fletcher was appointed the first assistant mayor-commissioner. The first Council appointments were Chairman John W. Hechinger, Vice Chairman Walter E. Fauntroy , Stanley J. Anderson, Margaret A. Haywood, John A. Nevius , William S. Thompson, J.C. Turner, Polly Shackleton , and Joseph P. Yeldell. Since 1975,
1860-408: A whole. The District consisted of five political subdivisions: three cities with their own municipal governments, and two rural counties. The pre-existing city of Georgetown and its mayors are listed below. The pre-existing city of Alexandria , Virginia, had its own list of mayors before, during and after its inclusion in the District. And the new City of Washington was chartered shortly after
1953-770: Is a single cause or a combination of causes; however, most are born from political grievances, economic disparities , social discord, but historically have been the result of long-standing oppression by a group of people towards another. Civil disorder arising from political grievances can include a range of events, from a simple protest to a mass civil disobedience. These events can be spontaneous, but can also be planned. These events can turn violent when agitators and law enforcers overreact. Civil disorder has in history arisen from economic disputes, political reasons (such as in opposition to oppressive or tyrannical government forces), religious opposition, racial oppression and social discord among various cases throughout history. Exploiting
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#17330934677102046-543: Is heightened in which law enforcement agents are monolithic, across race and ethnicity, as law enforcement will become more susceptible to framing the disorder as a confrontation between "them" and "us." Actions by law enforcement agents, motivated by emotion and prejudice, is often used as evidence against their ill will toward a crowd, or a mob, with their behavior only further inflaming confrontation rather than reducing it. Under such situations, law enforcement agents are rarely held accountable for all their actions against
2139-503: Is high among law enforcement agents, they may breach their feeling of restraint and commit acts, against people in the mob, that they normally would suppress. The emotional atmosphere can also make them highly susceptible to rumors and fear. Like mob members, law enforcement agents, acting as a group, can also lose their sense of individuality and develop a feeling of anonymity. Under emotional instability, individual prejudices, that any individual law enforcement agent may harbor against
2232-728: Is to spur law enforcers to take action that can be exploited as acts of brutality in order to generate sympathy for their cause, and/or to anger and demoralize the opposition. Crowds can use a range of tactics to evade law enforcement or to promote disorder, from verbal assault to distracting law enforcers to building barricades. The more well-planned tactics occur, the more purposeful the disorder. For example, crowds may form human blockades to shut down roads, they may trespass on government property, they may try to force mass arrests, they may handcuff themselves to things or to each other, or they may lock arms, making it more difficult to separate them, or they might create confusion or diversions through
2325-542: The Army and National Guard , particularly for D.C. Some responded to the riots with suggestions for improving the conditions that engendered them. Many White House aides took the opportunity to push their preferred programs for urban improvement. At the same time, some members of Congress criticized Johnson. Senator Richard Russell felt Johnson was not going far enough to suppress the violence. Senator Robert Byrd suggested that Washington, D.C. ought to be occupied indefinitely by
2418-453: The Detroit riot of 1967 , the military began preparing heavily for black insurrection. The Pentagon 's Army Operations Center thus quickly began its response to the assassination on the night of April 4, directing air force transport planes to prepare for an occupation of Washington, D.C. The Army also dispatched undercover agents to gather information. On April 5, Johnson ordered mobilization of
2511-533: The District of Columbia Home Rule Act allowed for District residents to elect their own mayor. Currently, the Mayor of the District of Columbia is popularly elected to a four-year term with no term limits. Even though District of Columbia is not a state, the district government also has certain state-level responsibilities, making some of the mayor's duties analogous to those of United States governors . The current mayor of
2604-521: The Washington National Cathedral . According to press secretary George Christian, Johnson was not surprised by the riots that followed: "What did you expect? I don't know why we're so surprised. When you put your foot on a man's neck and hold him down for three hundred years, and then you let him up, what's he going to do? He's going to knock your block off." After the Watts riots in 1965 and
2697-572: The "Superintendent", "Commissioner to Superintend Public Buildings" and the "Chief Engineer of the United States Army." The local public affairs were instead governed by a Levy Court made up of Justices of the Peace who, until passage of the Organic Act of 1801 were commissioned by the governors of Virginia (for Arlington County) and Maryland (for Prince George's and Montgomery County – the north part of
2790-407: The 1950s, North Trenton had witnessed a steady exodus of middle-class residents, and the riots spelled the end for North Trenton. By the 1970s, the region had become one of the most blighted and crime-ridden in the city, although gentrification in the area eventually followed. The two-day riot that occurred after King's assassination was small compared with riots in other cities, but its aftermath –
2883-525: The Constitutional mandate to do so. From 1791 to 1802 the District was managed by that three-member Board of Commissioners of the Federal City as listed below. With the passage of the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801 , the District was brought under the direct political control of Congress. The Board of Commissioners was dissolved. That Act made no provision for an executive for the District as
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2976-428: The District of Columbia for the three years preceding appointment. All must be District residents while serving their terms in office. Council members had the quasi-legislative powers of the former Board of Commissioners, approving the budget and setting real estate tax rates. The mayor-commissioner could, without any Congressional approval, consolidate District agencies and transfer money between agencies, powers that
3069-473: The District of Columbia is Muriel Bowser , a Democrat , who has served in the role since January 2, 2015. The lists on this page include all of the chief executives of the District of Columbia in their various forms. The 1790 Act for establishing the temporary and permanent seat of the Government of the United States, Act of March 3, 1791, 1 Stat. 214, set up a board of three commissioners to survey and define
3162-553: The District remained part of these counties until 1801), and in the Federal city their powers were transferred to the Mayor and local government. During this time William Thornton , Robert Bowie , Daniel Carroll , and Robert Brent were some of the men who served on the Levy Court of Prince George's County. The persons listed below are the mayors of the now-defunct City of Washington, which
3255-560: The District's 3,100-member police force, and 11,850 federal troops and 1,750 D.C. National Guardsmen under orders of President Lyndon B. Johnson arrived on the streets of D.C. to assist them. Marines mounted machine guns on the steps of the Capitol and Army soldiers from the 3rd Infantry guarded the White House. At one point, on April 5, rioting reached within two blocks of the White House before rioters retreated. The occupation of Washington
3348-449: The District, in 1802. Its mayors also appear below. The rural county west of the Potomac, formerly Virginia, was Alexandria County . Finally to the east and outside the cities, formerly Maryland, lay Washington County, D.C. (Both counties were governed by levy courts made of providentially appointed Justices of the Peace, whose members do not appear below. Prior to 1802, those Justices of
3441-551: The H Street NE corridor remained depressed for several years longer. Mayor-Commissioner Washington, who was the last presidentially appointed mayor of Washington, went on to become the city's first elected mayor. On April 5, one day after King was assassinated, violence sparked on the West side of Chicago. It eventually expanded to consume a 28-block stretch of West Madison Street, with additional damage occurring on Roosevelt Road. The North Lawndale and East Garfield Park neighborhoods on
3534-462: The Levy Court include Thomas Corcoran , John Cox, George W. Riggs , and Sayles J. Bown Democratic From 1751 to 1789, Georgetown was governed by Commissioners who were either appointed by an act of Maryland or were elected by the other commissioners to fill vacancies. in 1790 the government was changed to include a Mayor, a Recorder, Aldermen and a Common Council. During this time it was governed by nineteen different commissioners. Georgetown
3627-545: The Levy Court lost the power to tax those in Georgetown. An 1812 law fixed the number of judges to seven, two from east of Rock Creek but outside of Washington City, two from west of Rock Creek but outside of Georgetown and three from Georgetown, with none from Washington City until an 1848 law added four members from the city. Even when the City of Washington was not represented on the Levy Court, they were still required to contribute to
3720-461: The Peace chosen by the President. It was one of these Justice of the Peace appointments, made in the 24 hours between the passage of the Organic Act of 1801 and the end of John Adams' term that became the subject of Marbury v. Madison . In 1804, the Levy Court lost the power to tax the residents of Washington City, but in 1808 the city was required to contribute to the revenue of the county and in 1826
3813-416: The Peace were appointed by the governors of Maryland and Virginia, after which they were appointed by the President until they were abolished in 1871). In 1846, Alexandria County and the City of Alexandria returned to Virginia , leaving the District with two independent cities and one county. In 1871, with the District of Columbia Organic Act , those three subdivisions within the District were unified into
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3906-408: The United States affected directly by the assassination of King, but rather on April 9 after local events within the city. The riot was sparked when Kansas City Police Department deployed tear gas against student protesters when they staged their performances outside City Hall. The deployment of tear gas dispersed the protesters from the area, but other citizens of the city began to riot as a result of
3999-503: The West End, which had been almost entirely white north of Broadway, from subdivision until the 1960s. The riot would have effects that shaped the image which white people would hold of Louisville's West End, that it was predominantly black and crime-ridden. The assassinations triggered active unrest in communities that were already discontented. For example, the Memphis sanitation strike , which
4092-602: The West Side and the Woodlawn neighborhood on the South Side experienced the majority of the destruction and chaos. The rioters broke windows, looted stores, and set buildings (both abandoned and occupied) on fire. Firefighters quickly flooded the neighborhood, and Chicago's off-duty firefighters were told to report for duty. There were 36 major fires reported between 4:00 pm and 10:00 pm alone. The next day, Mayor Richard J. Daley imposed
4185-573: The XVIII Airborne units. That unit arrested more than 3,000 detainees, who were turned over to the Baltimore Police. A general curfew was set at 6 p.m. in the city limits and martial law was enforced. As rioting continued, African American plainclothes police officers and community leaders were sent to the worst areas to prevent further violence. By the end of the unrest, 6 people had died, 700 were injured, and 5,800 had been arrested; property damage
4278-454: The areas most impacted by the unrest were slow to recover in the following decades. The Cincinnati riots were in response to the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. on April 4, 1968. Tension in the Avondale neighborhood had already been high due to a lack of job opportunities for African-American men, and the assassination escalated that tension. On April 8, around 1,500 black people attended
4371-603: The army. Johnson chose to focus his political capital on a fair housing bill proposed by Senator Sam Ervin . He urged Congress to pass the bill, starting with an April 5 letter addressed to the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives , John William McCormack . These events led to the rapid passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 , Title VIII of which is known as the "Fair Housing Act". Audio records reveal
4464-416: The board. While not quite analogous to the role of a mayor, the president of the board was the district's Chief Executive. In 1967, President Lyndon Johnson presented to Congress a plan to reorganize the District's government. The three-commissioner system was replaced by a government headed by a single mayor-commissioner, an assistant mayor-commissioner, and a nine-member district council, all appointed by
4557-695: The city was put under curfew, and nearly 1,500 National Guardsmen were brought in to subdue the violence. Several days after the riot started, two people were dead, hundreds were arrested, and the city had suffered $ 3 million in property damage. The Trenton Riots of 1968 were a major civil disturbance that took place during the week following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in Memphis, Tennessee , on April 4. More than 200 Trenton businesses, mostly in Downtown, were ransacked and burned. More than 300 people, most of them young black men, were arrested on charges ranging from assault and arson to looting and violating
4650-564: The city's African-American population. By Sunday evening, 5,000 paratroopers , combat engineers , and artillerymen from the XVIII Airborne Corps in Fort Bragg, North Carolina , specially trained in tactics, including sniper school, were on the streets of Baltimore with fixed bayonets, and equipped with chemical (CS) disperser backpacks. Two days later, they were joined by a Light Infantry Brigade from Fort Benning, Georgia . With all
4743-450: The costs of the county, except for bridges and roads outside its boundaries. The court was again changed in 1863 when it was reduced to nine members, three from the city of Washington, one from Georgetown, and five from county lands outside the city. The Levy Court was disbanded in 1871 with the Mayor when congress consolidated all the remaining governments in DC. Some of the more prominent members of
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#17330934677104836-636: The crowd fell out of control and began breaking windows. By 11pm, widespread looting had begun. Mayor-Commissioner Walter Washington ordered the damage cleaned up immediately the next morning. However, anger was still evident on Friday morning when Carmichael addressed a rally at Howard, warning of violence. After the close of the rally, crowds walking down 7th Street NW and in the H Street NE corridor came into violent confrontations with police. By midday, numerous buildings were on fire, and firefighters were prevented from responding by crowds attacking with bottles and rocks. Crowds of as many as 20,000 overwhelmed
4929-620: The crowd than its concern for law and authority, leading to unlawful and disruptive acts. Once the crowd engages in such acts, it effectively becomes a mob – a highly emotional, unreasonable, potentially violent crowd. Crowd behavior is the emotional needs, fears, and prejudices of the crowd members. It is driven by social factors such as the strength, or weakness, of leadership, moral perspective, or community uniformity, and also by psychological factors of suggestion e.g. imitation, anonymity, impersonality, emotional release, emotional contagion, panic, etc. During civil disorder, any crowd can be
5022-546: The disturbance with damage costs running up to $ 10 million. The south side ghetto had escaped the major chaos mainly because the two large street gangs, the Blackstone Rangers and the East Side Disciples, cooperated to control their neighborhoods. Many gang members did not participate in the rioting, due in part to King's direct involvement with these groups in 1966. The Baltimore riot of 1968 began two days after
5115-440: The effectiveness of law enforcement. For example, they may use grappling hooks , chains, rope, or vehicles to breach gates or fences. They may use sticks or poles to limit law enforcement's use of billy clubs and bayonets . They may overturn civilian vehicles to impede troops advancing to engage them or vandalize law enforcement vehicles to try to spark over-reaction from law enforcement or to incite further lawlessness from
5208-473: The full realization of these actions, the crowd will channel this hostility elsewhere, making the crowd a hostile and unpredictable threat to law enforcers. Crowds want to be directed, and can become frustrated by confusion and uncertainty; therefore, leadership can have a profound influence on the intensity and conduct of a crowd's behavior. The first person to authoritatively direct a crowd will likely be followed. Opportunity for radicals to take charge of
5301-414: The group and to bystanders and mass media . When emotional contagion prevails, raw emotion is high while self-discipline is low. Personal prejudices and unsatisfied desires – usually restrained – are unabashedly released. This incentivizes crowd membership, as the crowd provides cover for individuals to do things they want to do, but would not dare try to do alone. This incentive can become greater for
5394-491: The heaviest impact of the 110 cities to see unrest following the King assassination. The ready availability of jobs in the growing federal government attracted many to Washington since the early 20th century, and middle class African-American neighborhoods prospered. Despite the end of legally mandated racial segregation , the historic neighborhoods of Shaw , the H Street Northeast corridor, and Columbia Heights , centered at
5487-587: The intersection of 14th and U Streets Northwest , remained the centers of African-American commercial life in the city. As word of King's murder by James Earl Ray in Memphis spread on the evening of Thursday, April 4, crowds began to gather at 14th and U. Stokely Carmichael led members of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) to stores in the neighborhood demanding that they close out of respect. Although polite at first,
5580-563: The local NAACP branch had moved its office there. The crowd was protesting the possible reinstatement of a white officer who had been suspended for beating an African-American man some weeks earlier. Several community leaders arrived and told the crowd that no decision had been reached, and alluded to disturbances in the future if the officer was reinstated. By 8:30, the crowd began to disperse. However, rumors (which turned out to be untrue) were spread that Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee speaker Stokely Carmichael 's plane to Louisville
5673-460: The mayor's emergency curfew. In addition to 16 injured policemen, 15 firefighters were treated at city hospitals for smoke inhalation, burns, sprains and cuts suffered while fighting raging blazes or for injuries inflicted by rioters. Denizens of Trenton's urban core often pulled false alarms and would then throw bricks at firefighters responding to the alarm boxes. This experience, along with similar experiences in other major cities, effectively ended
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#17330934677105766-421: The meeting, Mayor Washington asked President Johnson to deploy troops to the District of Columbia . Richard Hatcher , the newly elected black mayor of Gary, Indiana , spoke to the group about white racism and his fears of racially motivated violence in the future. Many of these leaders told Johnson that socially progressive legislation would be the best response to the crisis. The meeting concluded with prayers at
5859-475: The mob, in returning fire, any innocent casualties resulting from the chaos usually make law enforcement look undisciplined and oppressive. According to the U.S. Code , a person is engaged in civil disorder if he or she - (1) "...teaches or demonstrates to any other person the use, application, or making of any firearm or explosive or incendiary device , or technique capable of causing injury or death to persons, knowing or having reason to know or intending that
5952-421: The mob, or against individual participants of the mob, may influence the behavior of the law enforcement agent. Like the mob, these conditions make law enforcement actors more likely to imitate the behavior of each other, which can result in a chain of biased, excessive, or otherwise, dangerous, behavior in which law enforcement agents act upon mob agents as impersonal threats and not as human beings. Such action
6045-429: The mob. Mobs often employ fire, smoke, or hidden explosive devices e.g. strapped to animals, masked in cigarette lighters or toys, rigged to directed vehicles, etc. Not only can these devices be used to create confusion or diversion, but they can also be used to destroy property, mask looting of mob participants, or provide cover for mob participants firing weapons at law enforcement. If law enforcement engages with
6138-465: The movement of any article or commodity in commerce or the conduct or performance of any federally protected function. " Like mob participants, law enforcers are also susceptible to crowd behavior. Such tense confrontation can emotionally stimulate them, creating a highly emotional atmosphere all around. This emotional stimulation can become infectious throughout law enforcement agents, conflicting with their disciplined training. When emotional tension
6231-424: The murder. On Saturday, April 6, the governor of Maryland, Spiro T. Agnew , called out thousands of National Guard troops and 500 Maryland State Police to quell the disturbance. When it was determined that the state forces could not control the riot, Agnew requested Federal troops from President Lyndon B. Johnson . The riot was precipitated by King's assassination, but was also evidence of larger frustrations among
6324-686: The next few years businesses relocated, taking their employees, customers and tax payments with them. Riots occurred in Louisville, Kentucky , in May 1968. As in many other cities around the country, there were unrest and riots partially in response to the assassination. On May 27, 1968, a group of 400 people, mostly Black people, gathered at Twenty-Eight and Greenwood Streets, in the Parkland neighborhood. The intersection, and Parkland in general, had recently become an important location for Louisville's black community, as
6417-831: The night of April 5, with Brown, Mayor Kevin White , and City Councilor Tom Atkins speaking to the Garden crowd about peace and unity before the show. In Los Angeles , the Los Angeles Police Department and community activists averted a repeat of the 1965 riots that devastated portions of the city. Several memorials were held in tribute to King throughout the Los Angeles area on the days leading into his funeral service. The Washington, D.C., riots of April 4–8, 1968, resulted in Washington, along with Chicago and Baltimore , receiving
6510-555: The police action on the student protesters. The resulting effects of the riot resulted in the arrest of over 100 adults, and left six dead and at least 20 admitted to hospitals. Although not as large as other cities, violent disturbances did erupt in Detroit. Michigan governor George W. Romney ordered the National Guard into Detroit. One person was killed, and gangs tossed objects at cars and smashed storefront windows along 12th Street on
6603-480: The police and troops on the streets, the situation began to calm down. The Federal Bureau of Investigation reported that H. Rap Brown was in Baltimore driving a Ford Mustang with Broward County, Florida tags, and was assembling large groups of angry protesters and agitating them to escalate the rioting. In several instances, these disturbances were rapidly quelled through the use of bayonets and chemical dispersers by
6696-452: The preceding Board of Commissioners had not possessed since 1952. The mayor-commissioner could veto the actions of the council, but the council could override the veto with a three-fourths vote. Despite a push by many Republicans and conservative Democrats in the House of Representatives to reject Johnson's plan, the House of Representatives accepted the new form of government for the District by
6789-411: The president. The mayor-commissioner and his assistant served four-year terms, while the councilmembers served three-year terms. While the council was officially nonpartisan, no more than six of Councilmembers could be of the same political party. Councilmembers were expected to work part-time. All councilmembers and either the mayor-commissioner or his assistant was required to have been a resident of
6882-461: The same will be unlawfully employed for use in, or in furtherance of, a civil disorder which may in any way or degree obstruct, delay, or adversely affect commerce or the movement of any article or commodity in commerce or the conduct or performance of any federally protected function; or... (2) ...transports or manufactures for transportation in commerce any firearm, or explosive or incendiary device, knowing or having reason to know or intending that
6975-405: The same will be used unlawfully in furtherance of a civil disorder; or... (3) ...commits or attempts to commit any act to obstruct, impede, or interfere with any fireman or law enforcement officer lawfully engaged in the lawful performance of his official duties incident to and during the commission of a civil disorder which in any way or degree obstructs, delays, or adversely affects commerce or
7068-559: The statement. Disturbances erupted in Pittsburgh on April 5 and continued through April 11. The riot peaked on April 7 in which one person was killed and 3,600 National Guardsmen were deployed into the city. Over 100 businesses were either looted or burned in the Hill District, Homewood, and North Side neighborhoods with various structures being set afire by arsonists. The riot left many of the city's black commercial districts in shambles and
7161-440: The territory of the Federal City, and to purchase land for development and oversee the construction of all federal buildings. Some reports name Thomas Johnson as the chairman of the Board of Commissioners, but it appears there was no chair, even if Johnson acted in the manner of a chair. The commission had very little to do with the municipal regulation of the District and when their board was dissolved their powers were transferred to
7254-527: The time, the media described these events as “race riots” and White businesses tended to be targeted. However, White public and community buildings such as schools and churches were largely spared. Compared to the previous summer of rioting , the number of fatalities was lower, largely attributed to new procedures instituted by the federal government, and orders not to fire on looters. In New York City , mayor John Lindsay traveled directly into Harlem , telling black residents that he regretted King's death and
7347-489: The use of rock throwing , arson , or terrorist acts, giving leeway to law enforcers to be forceful or excessive while trying to remove them. Also, sometimes, terrorist elements are involved. Most participants of civil disorder engage on foot. However, organized efforts can often implore the use vehicles and wireless communication . Participants have been known to use scanners to monitor police frequencies or transmitters to sabotage law enforcement communications. If
7440-486: The use of open-cab fire engines. As an interim measure, the Trenton Fire Department fabricated temporary cab enclosures from steel deck plating until new equipment could be obtained. The losses incurred by downtown businesses were initially estimated by the city to be $ 7 million, but the total of insurance claims and settlements came to $ 2.5 million. Trenton's Battle Monument neighborhood was hardest hit. Since
7533-455: The violence, city residents of all races accelerated their departure for suburban areas, depressing property values. Crime in the burned out neighborhoods rose sharply, further discouraging investment. On some blocks, only rubble remained for decades. Columbia Heights and the U Street corridor did not begin to recover economically until the opening of the U Street and Columbia Heights Metro stations in 1991 and 1999, respectively, while
7626-620: The west side. Riots erupted in New York City the night King was murdered. Sporadic violence and looting occurred in Harlem , the largest African-American neighborhood in Manhattan . Tensions simmered down after Mayor John Lindsay traveled into the heart of the area and stated that he regretted King's wrongful death. However, numerous businesses were still looted and set afire in Harlem and Brooklyn following
7719-458: Was a town in Maryland until 1801, when it became a municipality within the District of Columbia. From 1802 until 1871, mayors of Georgetown were elected to one-year terms, with no term limits. Like the City of Washington and Washington County, Georgetown's local government ceased to exist in 1871, when Congress merged the three entities into the single District government. In 1871, Congress created
7812-438: Was allowed to have gatherings in the riot areas, and he authorized the use of tear gas. Daley gave police the authority "to shoot to kill any arsonist or anyone with a Molotov cocktail in his hand ... and ... to shoot to maim or cripple anyone looting any stores in our city." By the time order was restored on April 7, 11 people had died, 500 had been injured, and 2,150 had been arrested. Over 200 buildings were damaged in
7905-459: Was already underway, took on a new level of urgency. It was to these striking workers that King delivered his final speech, and in Memphis that he was killed. Negotiations on April 16 brought an end to the strike and a promise of better wages. In Oakland , increasing friction between Black Panthers and the police led to the death of Bobby Hutton . On April 4, President Lyndon B. Johnson denounced King's murder. He also began to communicate with
7998-596: Was being intentionally delayed by white people. After bottles were thrown by the crowd, the crowd became unruly and police were called. However the small and unprepared police response simply upset the crowd more, which continued to grow. The police, including a captain who was hit in the face by a bottle, retreated, leaving behind a patrol car, which was turned over and burned. By midnight, rioters had looted stores as far east as Fourth Street, overturned cars and started fires. Within an hour, Mayor Kenneth A. Schmied requested 700 Kentucky National Guard troops and established
8091-527: Was brought under control. Republican Russell W. Peterson defeated Governor Terry, and upon his inauguration in January 1969, Governor Peterson ended the National Guard's occupation in Wilmington. The Occupation of Wilmington caused scars on the city and its people that have lasted to this day. Some suburbanites grew fearful of traveling into Wilmington in broad daylight, even to attend church on Sunday morning. Over
8184-647: Was estimated at over $ 12 million. One of the major outcomes of the riot was the attention Governor Agnew received when he criticized local black leaders for not doing enough to help stop the disturbance. While this angered black people and white liberals, it caught the attention of Republican presidential candidate Richard Nixon , who was looking for someone on his ticket who could counter George Wallace's American Independent Party campaign. Agnew became Nixon's vice presidential running mate in 1968 . The rioting in Kansas City did not erupt on April 4, like other cities of
8277-402: Was made permanent and re-organized. From 1878 to 1967, the District was administered by this new three-member Board of Commissioners with both legislative and executive authority, all appointed by the President. The board comprised one Democrat , one Republican , and one civil engineer with no specified party. The three Commissioners would then elect one of their number to serve as president of
8370-480: Was not only a leader in the civil rights movement , but also an advocate for nonviolence . He pursued direct engagement with the political system (as opposed to the separatist ideas of black nationalism ). His death led to anger and disillusionment, and feelings that, thereafter, only violent resistance to white supremacy could be effective. The protesters were mostly black; not all were poor. Middle-class black people also demonstrated against systemic inequality. At
8463-462: Was officially granted a formal government in 1802. The Mayor of Washington had authority over city services, appointments, and local tax assessments; however, the duties of the mayor mostly consisted of requesting appropriations from Congress to finance the city. From 1802 to 1812, the mayor was appointed by the President of the United States . Between 1812 and 1820, the city's mayors were then selected by
8556-540: Was the largest of any American city since the Civil War. Mayor Washington imposed a curfew and banned the sale of alcohol and guns in the city. By the time the city was considered pacified on Sunday, April 8, some 1,200 buildings had been burned, including over 900 stores. Damages reached $ 27 million. The riots utterly devastated Washington's inner city economy. With the destruction or closing of businesses, thousands of jobs were lost, and insurance rates soared. Made uneasy by
8649-456: Was working against poverty. He is credited for averting major riots in New York with this direct response although minor disturbances still erupted in the city. In Indianapolis , Indiana , Senator Robert F. Kennedy's speech on the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. is credited with preventing a riot there. In Boston , rioting may have been averted by a James Brown concert taking place on
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