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43-1307: It is also used by Kashmiri Muslims and Mizrahi Jews —particularly Kurdish Jews . The name or title Khawaja was usually given in Arab lands to non-Muslim dignitaries, usually to Jews or Christians. The word comes from the Persian word khwāja . In Persian , the title roughly translates to 'Lord' or 'Master'. The Ottoman Turkish pronunciation of the Persian khwāja gave rise to hodja and its equivalents such as hoca in modern Turkish , hoxha in Albanian , խոջա ( xoǰa ) in Armenian , xoca ( khoja ) in Azerbaijani , hodža / хоџа in Serbo-Croatian , ходжа ( khodzha ) in Bulgarian , χότζας ( chótzas ) in Greek , and hoge in Romanian . Other spellings include khaaja ( Bengali ) and koja ( Javanese ). The term has been rendered into English in various forms since

86-660: A body they were cruel and oppressive .'' Scholar Ayesha Jalal states that the Maharajahs nurtured ties with Kashmiri Pandits and their Dogra kinsfolk in Jammu to trample on the rights of their subjects. Christopher Snedden also states that the Kashmiri Muslims were often exploited by the Kashmiri Pandit officials. Wingate and Lawrence spent many months in the rural hinterland of Kashmir and in an unprecedented manner brought to

129-428: A great influence. This enraged Shah Mir, as he felt ignored in spite of his great labors for the kingdom. He had Bhiksana assassinated , and asked Kota Rani to marry him and share power, threatening to wage war on her if she was to refuse. She declined, and the two of them began organizing their armies. Shah Mir set out with his army from Srinagar towards Andarkot. Kota Rani sent out a force to check his advance, but it

172-671: A minority. They refer to themselves as "Koshur" in the Kashmiri language . Presently, the Kashmiri Muslim population is predominantly found in Kashmir Valley. Smaller Kashmiri Muslim communities also live in other regions of Jammu and Kashmir. Kashmiri Muslims are of the same stock as the Kashmiri Hindu community. Both Kashmiri Hindus and Muslims trace their descent patrilineally. Certain property and titles may be inherited through

215-597: The Kashmir Valley also migrated to the Punjab region during Dogra and Sikh rule. The Kashmiri language is the mother tongue of majority of Kashmiri Muslims. Islam started making inroads in the 12th and 13th centuries. The earliest copy of Quran in Kashmir dates back to 1237 AD and was calligraphed by Fateh Ullah Kashmiri who is believed to be a then Kashmiri Islamic scholar. The first Muslim missionary in Kashmir

258-665: The Kashmiri Muslim diaspora in Punjab was Muhammad Iqbal (who took pride in his Brahman ancestry and whose poetry displayed a keen sense of belonging to the Kashmir Valley ). Another famous proud Kashmiri writer from Punjab was Saadat Hasan Manto . According to the 1921 Census the total Kashmiri population in Punjab was 169,761. However, the Census report stated that only 3% of Kashmiris settled in Punjab retained their Kashmiri language. The number of people speaking Kashmiri in 1901

301-465: The 1600s, including hodgee , hogi , cojah and khoja . The name is also used in Egypt and Sudan to indicate a person with a foreign nationality or foreign heritage. Kashmiri Muslims Kashmiri Muslims are ethnic Kashmiris who practice Islam and are native to the Kashmir Valley of Indian -administered Jammu and Kashmir . The majority of Kashmiri Muslims are Sunni, while Shias form

344-486: The 1921 Census was recorded as 796,804. The 1931 Census report also reiterated that the 'Kashmiri Muslim' population occupied the foremost position in the State (other communities in the princely State being Gujjars , Jats , Sudhans , Rajputs and Arains etc.). It recorded the Kashmiri Muslim population as 1,352,822. The 1931 Census report explains that the 'phenomenal' increase in the number of Kashmiri Muslims by 556,018

387-567: The 1931 Census. In the early twentieth century, famines and the policies of the Dogra rulers drove many Kashmiri Muslims to flee their native land to Punjab . Kashmiri Muslims constituted an important segment of several Punjabi cities such as Gujranwala , Sialkot , Gujrat , Lahore , Amritsar and Ludhiana . Kashmiris who migrated from Amritsar in 1947 have had a big influence on Lahore 's contemporary cuisine and culture. The Kashmiris of Amritsar were more steeped in their Kashmiri culture than

430-468: The Kashmir Valley for Punjab to escape the devastation of those years found upon their return that they had been ousted from lands that they had cultivated over generations. A large number of Muslim Kashmiris migrated from the Kashmir Valley to the Punjab due to conditions in the princely state such as famine, extreme poverty and harsh treatment by the Dogra Hindu regime (according to Prem Nath Bazaz

473-646: The Kashmiri Muslims faced this harsh treatment because of their religion). According to the 1911 Census there were 177,549 Kashmiri Muslims in the Punjab . With the inclusion of Kashmiri settlements in NWFP this figure rose to 206,180. The 1921 Census report stated that Kashmiri Muslims formed 31% of the Muslim population of the entire princely state of Jammu and Kashmir . The 1921 Census report also stated that Kashmiri Muslims are sub-divided into numerous sub-castes such as Bhatt, Dhar , Wani etc. The Kashmiri Muslim population in

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516-639: The Kashmiris of Lahore. An exclusive research conducted by the " Jang Group and Geo Television Network " showed that the Kashmiri community had been involved in spearheading the power politics of Lahore district since 1947. Notable members of the Kashmiri Muslim diaspora in Punjab include Pakistan's former Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif (paternal ancestry from Anantnag), Finance Minister Ishaq Dar , politician Khawaja Asif , and former Chief Justice Lahore High Court Khawaja Muhammad Sharif . Another notable member of

559-587: The Muslim cultivators, according to reports received by Walter Roper Lawrence. During the famine the office of Prime Minister was held by a Kashmiri Pandit, Wazir Punnu, who is said to have declared that there '' was no real distress and that he wished that no Musulman might be left alive from Srinagar to Rambhan (in Jammu). '' When lands fell fallow temporarily during the famine, Kashmiri Pandits took over substantial tracts of them claiming that they were uncultivated waste. Numerous Kashmiri Muslim cultivators who had left

602-567: The Punjab retained emotional and familial links to Kashmir and felt obliged to struggle for the freedom of their brethren in the Valley . Shah Mir Shamsu'd-Din Shah Mir ( Persian : سلطان شمس الدین شاه میر) or simply as Shah Mir or Shah Mirza ( r.  1339–1342 ) was the second Sultan of Kashmir and founder of the Shah Mir dynasty . Shah Mir is believed to have come to Kashmir during

645-518: The State's civil administration and were barred from officer positions in the military. Prem Nath Bazaz , one of the few Kashmiri Pandits who joined the movement for change, described the poor conditions of the Valley's Muslim population as such: The poverty of the Muslim masses is appalling. Dressed in rags and barefoot, a Muslim peasant presents the appearance of a starved beggar...Most are landless laborers, working as serfs for absentee landlords. There

688-510: The Valley to a number of hardships in the practice of their religion. The central mosque, Jama Masjid , was closed for 20 years and Muslims were prohibited from issuing the azan (call to prayer). If a Sikh murdered a Hindu the compensation amount allowed was four rupees. However, if a Sikh murdered a Muslim the compensation amount allowed was only two rupees. During the Sikh rule Kashmir had begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of

731-518: The abject poverty of the Muslim peasantry and the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs. According to some contemporary accounts, high taxes had depopulated large tracts of the countryside. Kashmiri histories emphasize the wretchedness of life for common Kashmiris during the Sikh rule. According to them, the peasantry became mired in poverty and migrations of Kashmiri peasants to the plains of Punjab reached high proportions. Several European travelers' accounts from

774-592: The aid of various generals, including Shah Mir, and caused an internal uprising, seizing the throne. He married Kota Rani , the daughter of Ramachandra. Rinchan embraced Islam at the hands of the ascetic, Bulbul Shah , and took the Muslim name of Sultan Sadruddin . He was later attacked by rebels, and was badly wounded, dying in 1323 A.D. Just before his death Sultan Sadruddin summoned his trusted minister, Shah Mir, who had since then risen to some prominence, and put his son, Haider, and wife, Kota Rani , in his care. After

817-466: The death of Sadruddin, Kota Rani married Udayanadeva, the brother of Suhadeva. However he was a weak ruler, so nearly all duties associated with governance fell on Kota Rani. During the reign of Udayanadeva, the Kashmir Valley was again invaded by Mongol - Turk forces, and Udayanadeva fled to Ladakh. Kota Rani, along with Shah Mir, called upon the many disorganized Damara (warlords of Kashmir), rallying them together. This now unified resistance defeated

860-450: The fact that Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghan rulers, they initially welcomed the Sikh rule. However the Sikhs turned out to be hard taskmasters and their rule was generally considered oppressive. Scholar Christopher Snedden states that the Sikhs exploited Kashmiris regardless of religion. The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim policies, subjecting the Muslim majority population of

903-472: The fore the tensions that underlay Kashmiri society between the interests of the Hindu Kashmiri Pandit community and the numerically preponderant Kashmiri Muslim cultivators. However, while both acknowledged the oppression of Kashmiri Muslims, the solutions offered by Lawrence and Wingate differed from each other. While both acknowledged the responsibility of the Kashmiri Pandit community in exacerbating

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946-530: The greatest missionary whose personality wielded the most extraordinary influence in the spread of Islam in Kashmir was Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani of Hamadan (Persia) popularly known as Shah-i-Hamadan. He belonged to the Kubrawi order of Sufis and came to Kashmir along with seven hundred disciples and helpers. His emphasis was on the Islamization of royal family and the court as a pre-requisite for Islamizing people. This

989-414: The invading armies, prompting their retreat from the valley. In the aftermath of the conflict, Shah Mir won prestige for his role in unifying the people. Kota Rani took notice of his increasing popularity, and in an effort to check him, appointed Bhatta Bhiksana, a powerful man within the kingdom, as her Prime Minister. She also decided to move her capital to Andarkot, away from Srinagar, where Shah Mir had

1032-802: The male line, but certain inheritances may accrue through the female line. After Kashmiri Hindus had converted to Islam they largely retained their family names ( kram ) which indicated their original profession, locality or community. In the Jammu region , sizeable population of Kashmiri Muslims lives in the Doda , Ramban and Kishtwar districts, sometimes collectively referred to as the Chenab valley . There are also ethnic Kashmiri Muslim populations inhabiting Neelum and Leepa Valleys of Pakistani-administrated Kashmir . Since 1947, many ethnic Kashmiri Muslims have also lived in Punjab, Pakistan . Many ethnic Kashmiri Muslims from

1075-471: The number of Kashmiris in the Punjab as 179,020 while the 1891 Census recorded the Kashmiri population as 225,307 but the number of Kashmiri speakers recorded in the 1891 Census was 28,415. Scholar Ayesha Jalal states that Kashmiris faced discrimination in the Punjab as well. Kashmiris settled for generations in the Punjab were unable to own land, including the family of Muhammad Iqbal . Scholar Chitralekha Zutshi states that Kashmiri Muslims settled in

1118-472: The origin of Shah Mir. However, most modern historians generally accept that Shah Mir was from Swat in Dardistan . Some accounts trace his descent from the rulers of Swāt . Andre Wink puts forward the opinion that Shah Mir was possibly of Afghan, Turk, or even Tibetan origin. Encyclopaedia of Islam (second edition) suggests a possible Turkish origins. However, A.Q. Rafiqi believes that Shah Mir

1161-554: The period testify to and provide evidence for such assertions. The Sikhs lost their independence with the Battle of Subraon. In 1846 Kashmir came under the rule of Gulab Singh , a Hindu Dogra Maharajah under the British suzerainty. The 100 year Dogra regime turned out to be a disaster for the Muslim peasantry of Kashmir Valley . Walter Lawrence described the conditions of the Kashmir Valley's peasantry as being 'desperate' and noted that

1204-481: The possibility for a counter-uprising, made more probable when accounting for the small slivers of support Kota Rani still had, Shah Mir could not take any risks. Kota Rani and her two sons were imprisoned, where they later died. With Kota Rani defeated and having already secured the allegiance of the powerful damara warlords, Shah Mir declared himself the ruler of Kashmir, taking on the title of Sultan Shams-ud-Din. Shams-ud-Din worked to establish Islam in Kashmir and

1247-439: The reign of Suhadeva (1301–1320), whose service he entered. In subsequent years, through his tact and ability Shah Mir rose to prominence and became one of the most important personalities of his time. During the reign of Suhadeva, a Tatar chief by the name of Zulju invaded Kashmir and ravaged it. Suhadeva fled the country and his general Ramachandra occupied the throne. In the confusion Rinchan ( r.  1320–1323 ), sought

1290-447: The rule of Suhadeva , where he rose to prominence. After the death of Suhadeva and his brother, Udayanadeva, Shah Mir proposed marriage to the reigning queen, Kota Rani . She refused and continued her rule for five months till 1339, appointing Bhutta Bhikshana as prime minister. After the death of Kota Rani , Shah Mir established his own kingship, founding the Shah Mir dynasty in 1339, which lasted till 1561. Modern scholarship differ on

1333-653: The situation of the Muslim cultivating classes, Wingate was far more uncompromising in demanding that the privileges of the Pandit community be eliminated. However, Lawrence proposed to provide relief to Kashmir's cultivating class without eliminating the privileges of the Kashmiri Pandits . Gawasha Nath Kaul described the poor conditions of the Kashmir Valley's Muslim population in his book Kashmir Then And Now and in it he wrote that 90 percent of Muslim households were mortgaged to Hindu moneylenders. Muslims were non-existent in

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1376-584: The valley's peasantry attributed their miseries to the Maharajah's deputies rather than the rulers themselves. The state officials apparently kept the rulers from knowing the conditions of the Muslim peasantry in the Kashmir Valley. Lawrence in particular criticized the state officials who belonged to the Kashmiri Pandit community. Lawrence provided evidence that while many of the Kashmiri Pandit officials may have been '' individually gentle and intelligent, as

1419-693: The vastly dominant religion of the Kashmiri masses by the fourteenth century. A greater part of the population converted during the reign of Sultan Sikandar Shah Miri . Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani's impact in Kashmir was not only confined to religion but had a great say on culture, industry and economy of Kashmir. Spread of shawl making, carpet manufacturing, cloth weaving, etc. gained great prominence by his efforts. In 1819 Kashmir came under Maharajah Ranjit Singh 's Sikh Empire and Sikh rule over Kashmir lasted for 27 years till 1846. These 27 years of Sikh rule saw 10 Governors in Kashmir. Of these 10 Governors five were Hindus, three were Sikhs and two were Muslims. Due to

1462-480: Was 8,523 but had decreased to 7,190 in 1911. By 1921 the number of people speaking Kashmiri in Punjab had fallen to 4,690. The 1921 Census report stated that this fact showed that the Kashmiris who had settled in Punjab had adopted the Punjabi language of their neighbors. In contrast, the 1881 Census of Punjab had shown that there were 49,534 speakers of the Kashmiri language in the Punjab. The 1881 Census had recorded

1505-495: Was Syed Sharaf-ud-Din Abdur Rahman Suhrawardi, popularly known as Bulbul Shah . He was an extensively traveled preacher and came to Kashmir during the reign of Raja Suhadeva (1301–20) the king of Lohara dynasty . After Suhadeva was killed by Rinchan & became the ruler, married suhadeva's daughter Kota Rani and appointed his son as chief and later he adopted Islam on advice of Shah Mir . In 1339 Kashmir throne

1548-594: Was a descendant of Turkish or Persian immigrants to Swat. Some scholars state that Shah Mir arrived from the Panjgabbar valley (Panchagahvara), which was populated by Khasa people, and so ascribe a Khāsa ethnicity to Shah Mir. It has also been suggested that he belonged to a family from Swat which accompanied the sage Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani and were associated to the Kubrawiya , a Sufi group in Kashmir. Older sources and historians such as Jonaraja state that Shah Mir

1591-399: Was a famine in Kashmir between 1877-9 and the death toll from this famine was overwhelming by any standards. Some authorities suggested that the population of Srinagar had been reduced by half while others estimated a diminution by three-fifths of the entire population of the Kashmir Valley. During the famine of 1877-9 not a single Pandit died of starvation during these annihilative years for

1634-630: Was aided by his descendants. In an effort to keep the local feudal chiefs in check, he raised to power two indigenous families, the Magres and the Chaks . He also introduced a new era to the people of Kashmir, called the Kashmiri Era. This replaced the Laukika Era that had existed prior to this. The Kashmiri Era began with Rinchan's accession and conversion to Islam in 1320 CE (720 AH ). This Era remained in use until

1677-452: Was an important modus operandi adopted by Syed Ali and his disciples. He was of the firm belief that the common masses followed the conduct and culture of their rulers. His disciples established shrines with lodging and langar at many places in Kashmir which served as centers for propagation of Islam. His preaching resulted in a large number of people, including priests of Hinduism and Buddhism and their followers converting to Islam, which became

1720-474: Was captured by Sultan Shahmir who founded Shah Mir dynasty in Kashmir. Subsequently, according to some traditions ten thousand Kashmiris converted to Islam and hence the seeds of Islam in Kashmir were sown. The spread of Islam among Kashmiris was further boosted by arrival of a host of other Sayyids , most prominent among them being Sayyid Jalal-ud-Din, Sayyid Taj-ud-Din and Sayyid Hussain Simanani. However,

1763-448: Was due to several castes such as Hajjam, Hanji, Sayed and Sheikh being merged into the community. The 1931 Census report stated that the Bhat , Dar , Ganai, Khan , Lone , Malik, Mir , Pare, Rather, Sheikh , Varrier and Wani were the most major tribes among Kashmiri Muslims. Below are the population figures for the various sub-castes among the Kashmiri Muslim population according to

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1806-407: Was promptly defeated. The fort at Andarkot was then laid siege to. While this was going on, many of Kota Rani's troops, seeing the futility of the situation, deserted and joined Shah Mir, to whom most important chiefs in the kingdom had already pledged allegiance. Kota Rani soon surrendered, and accepted Shah Mir's earlier proposal. However given the awkward situation in which Kota Rani accepted, and

1849-502: Was the descendant of Partha ( Arjuna ) of Mahabharata fame. Abu ’l-Fadl Allami, Nizam al-Din and Firishta also state that Shah Mir traced his descent to Arjuna, the basis of their account being Jonaraja’s Rajatarangini , which Mulla Abd al-Qadir Bada’uni translated into Persian at Akbar ’s orders. This seems to be official genealogy of the Sultanate. A. Q. Rafiqi states: Shah Mir arrived in Kashmir in 1313 along with his family, during

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