49-679: (Redirected from Hijras ) [REDACTED] Look up Hegira , Hijra , or hijra in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Hijra , Hijrah , Hegira , Hejira , Hijrat or Hijri are terms with multiple meanings that may refer to: Islam [ edit ] Hijrah (also Hejira or Hegira ), the migration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE Migration to Abyssinia or First Hegira, of Muhammad's followers in 615 CE Lunar Hijri calendar (widely known as "the Islamic calendar", although there
98-413: A South Asian term for protest emigration Hijrat (film) , Pakistani, 2016 See also [ edit ] Hijara , a board game Hiigara, in the computer game Homeworld Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Hijra . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to
147-496: A fictional exodus from Earth in the Hyperion Cantos novels Music [ edit ] Hejira (album) , by Joni Mitchell, 1976 Hejira (band) , a British Joni Mitchell cover band Hijrah , a 2016 album by George Hirsch Other uses [ edit ] HIJRA (Humanitarian Initiative Just Relief Aid), an African organization Hijra (South Asia) , a term for eunuchs, transgender and intersex people Hijrat,
196-560: A fundamentally different language. There is no real consensus on the exact boundary where Late Latin ends and Medieval Latin begins. Some scholarly surveys begin with the rise of early Ecclesiastical Latin in the middle of the 4th century, others around 500, and still others with the replacement of written Late Latin by written Romance languages starting around the year 900. The terms Medieval Latin and Ecclesiastical Latin are sometimes used synonymously, though some scholars draw distinctions. Ecclesiastical Latin refers specifically to
245-560: A guide, Abdallah ibn Arqat, who was a pagan. Beginning in January 623, Muhammad led several raids against Meccan caravans travelling along the eastern coast of the Red Sea . Members of different tribes were thus unified by the urgency of the moment. This unity was primarily based on the bonds of kinship. The second Rashidun Caliph , Umar ibn Al-Khattab , designated the Muslim year during which
294-517: A knowledge of Classical or Old Latin by the use of rare or archaic forms and sequences. Though they had not existed together historically, it is common that an author would use grammatical ideas of the two periods Republican and archaic, placing them equally in the same sentence. Also, many undistinguished scholars had limited education in "proper" Latin, or had been influenced in their writings by Vulgar Latin. Many striking differences between classical and Medieval Latin are found in orthography . Perhaps
343-497: A living language and was instead a scholarly language of the minority of educated men (and a tiny number of women) in medieval Europe, used in official documents more than for everyday communication. This resulted in two major features of Medieval Latin compared with Classical Latin, though when it is compared to the other vernacular languages, Medieval Latin developed very few changes. There are many prose constructions written by authors of this period that can be considered "showing off"
392-789: A prophet would come, and with his help, the Jews would obliterate them. Upon hearing Muhammad's religious message, the six individuals said to each other, "This is the very prophet of whom the Jews warned us; don't let them get to him before us!" After embracing Islam, they returned to Medina and shared their encounter, hoping that by having their people—the Khazraj and the Aws , who had been at odds for so long—accept Islam and adopt Muhammad as their leader, unity could be achieved between them. In February 621, five earlier converts met with Muhammad again. They were accompanied by seven new converts, including two people from
441-539: A rebirth of Latin literature and learning after the depressed period following the final disintegration of the authority of the Western Roman Empire. Although it was simultaneously developing into the Romance languages, Latin itself remained very conservative, as it was no longer a native language and there were many ancient and medieval grammar books to give one standard form. On the other hand, strictly speaking there
490-540: Is Venantius Fortunatus ( c. 530 – c. 600 ). This was also a period of transmission: the Roman patrician Boethius ( c. 480 –524) translated part of Aristotle 's logical corpus, thus preserving it for the Latin West , and wrote the influential literary and philosophical treatise De consolatione Philosophiae ; Cassiodorus ( c. 485 – c. 585 ) founded an important library at
539-508: Is a romanization of the Arabic word هجرة 'to depart to', 'to migrate to' or 'to move away from'. The first stem of the verbal root H-J-R , hajara , means 'to cut off someone from friendly association; to avoid association with'; the third stem, hājara , means 'a mutual termination of friendly relations by leaving or departing'. The word has been mistranslated, without proper context, as 'a severing of ties of kinship or association'. Since 1753,
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#1733093731655588-554: Is more than one Islamic calendar), the lunar calendar used by the majority of Muslims Hijri year ( Anno Hegirae , AH), the number of a year in the Hijri calendar Solar Hijri calendar , a solar Islamic calendar used primarily in Iran and Afghanistan Literature [ edit ] Hijra , by the Malayalam poet Moyinkutty Vaidyar Hegira (novel) , by Greg Bear, 1979 Hegira,
637-601: The Quraysh tried to dissuade their family members from leaving, but in the end, there were no Muslims left in Mecca. Muhammad regarded this migration as an expulsion by the Quraysh. Islamic tradition relates that, in light of the unfolding events, one of the Quraysh chiefs, Abu Jahl , Muhammad's childhood friend-turned-enemy, proposed a joint assassination of Muhammad by representatives of each Quraysh clan. Having been informed of this by
686-632: The Quraysh , however, were indifferent to his activities, as they did not appear to be particularly interested in devotional meetings, and accordingly, Muhammad did not encounter any serious opposition from them; that was the case until he began to challenge their beliefs, which caused tensions to arise. In May 622, after having convened twice with members of the Medinan tribes of Aws and Khazraj at al-'Aqabah near Mina , Muhammad secretly left his home in Mecca to emigrate to their city, along with his friend, father-in-law and companion Abu Bakr . Hijrah
735-579: The syntax of some Medieval Latin writers, although Classical Latin continued to be held in high esteem and studied as models for literary compositions. The high point of the development of Medieval Latin as a literary language came with the Carolingian Renaissance , a rebirth of learning kindled under the patronage of Charlemagne , king of the Franks . Alcuin was Charlemagne's Latin secretary and an important writer in his own right; his influence led to
784-552: The 5th century saw the literary activities of the great Christian authors Jerome ( c. 347 –420) and Augustine of Hippo (354–430), whose texts had an enormous influence on theological thought of the Middle Ages, and of the latter's disciple Prosper of Aquitaine ( c. 390 – c. 455 ). Of the later 5th century and early 6th century, Sidonius Apollinaris ( c. 430 – after 489) and Ennodius (474–521), both from Gaul, are well known for their poems, as
833-571: The Banu Aws tribe. This gathering took place at the al-'Aqaba mountain pass, located just north of Mecca near the trade route. At the meeting, they took a pledge to Muhammad, known as the "pledge of women." It was so called because it contained no obligation to fight for Islam. One of the main tenets of this pledge was to renounce idols and affirm Allah as the only deity, with Muhammad as their leader. Muhammad then entrusted Mus'ab ibn Umayr to accompany them on their return to Medina to promote Islam. In
882-478: The English People . Many Medieval Latin works have been published in the series Patrologia Latina , Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum and Corpus Christianorum . Medieval Latin was separated from Classical Latin around 800 and at this time was no longer considered part of the everyday language. The speaking of Latin became a practice used mostly by the educated high class population. Even then it
931-510: The Germanic tribes, who invaded southern Europe, were also major sources of new words. Germanic leaders became the rulers of parts of the Roman Empire that they conquered, and words from their languages were freely imported into the vocabulary of law. Other more ordinary words were replaced by coinages from Vulgar Latin or Germanic sources because the classical words had fallen into disuse. Latin
980-589: The Hegira occurred the first year of the Islamic calendar in 638 or the 17th year of the Hegira. This was later Latinized to Anno hegirae , the abbreviation of which is still used to denote Hijri dates today. Burnaby states that: "Historians in general assert that Muhammad fled from Mecca at the commencement of the third month of the Arabian year, Rabi 'u-l-awwal. They do not agree as to the precise day. According to Ibn-Ishak, it
1029-574: The Latin vocabulary that developed for them became the source of a great many technical words in modern languages. English words like abstract , subject , communicate , matter , probable and their cognates in other European languages generally have the meanings given to them in Medieval Latin, often terms for abstract concepts not available in English. The influence of Vulgar Latin was also apparent in
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#17330937316551078-570: The angel Gabriel, Muhammad asked his cousin Ali to lie on his bed covered with his green hadrami cloak, assuring him that it would keep him safe. Muhammad then went with Abu Bakr to a cave in Mount Thawr , about an hour's walk south of Mecca, and hid there. Abu Bakr's children and servants, who were still in Mecca, regularly brought them food. After three days in hiding, they set out for Medina on camels that Abu Bakr had bought in advance, and accompanied by
1127-411: The characteristics described above, showing its period in vocabulary and spelling alone; the features listed are much more prominent in the language of lawyers (e.g. the 11th-century English Domesday Book ), physicians, technical writers and secular chroniclers. However the use of quod to introduce subordinate clauses was especially pervasive and is found at all levels. Medieval Latin had ceased to be
1176-507: The city: Banu Qaynuqa , Banu Nadir and Banu Qurayza . Over time, Arab tribes from southern Arabia migrated to the city and settled alongside the Jewish community. The Arab tribes comprised Banu Aws and Banu Khazraj , both known collectively as Banu Qayla. Prior to 620, these two Arab tribes had been fighting for nearly a hundred years. Each of them had tried to court the support of the Jewish tribes, which occasionally led to infighting among
1225-577: The classical Latin practice of generally placing the verb at the end, medieval writers would often follow the conventions of their own native language instead. Whereas Latin had no definite or indefinite articles, medieval writers sometimes used forms of unus as an indefinite article, and forms of ille (reflecting usage in the Romance languages) as a definite article or even quidam (meaning "a certain one/thing" in Classical Latin) as something like an article. Unlike classical Latin, where esse ("to be")
1274-627: The classical forms, testifies to the declining significance of classical education in Gaul. At the same time, good knowledge of Latin and even of Greek was being preserved in monastic culture in Ireland and was brought to England and the European mainland by missionaries in the course of the 6th and 7th centuries, such as Columbanus (543–615), who founded the monastery of Bobbio in Northern Italy. Ireland
1323-672: The form that has been used by the Roman Catholic Church (even before the Middle Ages in Antiquity), whereas Medieval Latin refers to all of the (written) forms of Latin used in the Middle Ages. The Romance languages spoken in the Middle Ages were often referred to as Latin , since the Romance languages were all descended from Vulgar Latin itself. Medieval Latin would be replaced by educated humanist Renaissance Latin , otherwise known as Neo-Latin . Medieval Latin had an enlarged vocabulary, which freely borrowed from other sources. It
1372-608: The implementation of this pact. When the group inquired about the reward for their loyalty, Muhammad simply replied, "Paradise." They then took the oath, also known as the pledge of war. Not long after receiving the pledges, Muhammad instructed his Meccan followers to relocate to Medina . The whole departure spanned about three months. To ensure that he did not arrive in Medina alone while his followers remained in Mecca, Muhammad chose not to go ahead and instead stayed behind to watch over them and persuade those who were reluctant. Some of
1421-511: The intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hijra&oldid=1246467040 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Hegira The Hijrah ( Arabic : الهجرة hijra , originally 'a severing of ties of kinship or association' ), also Hegira (from Medieval Latin ),
1470-489: The latter. In 620, having lost all hope of winning converts among his fellow townspeople, Muhammad limited his efforts to non-Meccans who attended fairs or made pilgrimages. During these efforts, Muhammad met six members of the Banu Khazraj tribe who were visiting Mecca , on a pilgrimage to the holy sites around the city. These six individuals had a history of raiding Jews in their locality, who in turn had warned them that
1519-477: The main medium of scholarly exchange, as the liturgical language of the Church , and as the working language of science, literature, law, and administration. Medieval Latin represented a continuation of Classical Latin and Late Latin , with enhancements for new concepts as well as for the increasing integration of Christianity. Despite some meaningful differences from Classical Latin, its writers did not regard it as
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1568-425: The men of Medina in an apparent attempt to create a sense of exclusivity and importance among them. Historical records, however, show that they were among the last groups Muhammad had tried to approach and that he had no other offers available. Muhammad himself then spoke and invited their allegiance, asking them to protect him as they would their women and children. One of them, al-Bara, readily agreed, emphasizing
1617-461: The military prowess of his people. The other however, Abu al-Haytham, expressed concern that if they took the pledge and severed their ties with the Jews, Muhammad would return to his people after they gave him victories. Muhammad assured them that he was now one with them and would share their fate in war and peace. Twelve delegates, three from the Aws and nine from the Khazraj, were then selected to oversee
1666-577: The monastery of Vivarium near Squillace where many texts from Antiquity were to be preserved. Isidore of Seville ( c. 560 –636) collected all scientific knowledge still available in his time into what might be called the first encyclopedia , the Etymologiae . Gregory of Tours ( c. 538 –594) wrote a lengthy history of the Frankish kings. Gregory came from a Gallo-Roman aristocratic family, and his Latin, which shows many aberrations from
1715-410: The most striking difference is that medieval manuscripts used a wide range of abbreviations by means of superscripts, special characters etc.: for instance the letters "n" and "s" were often omitted and replaced by a diacritical mark above the preceding or following letter. Apart from this, some of the most frequently occurring differences are as follows. Clearly many of these would have been influenced by
1764-414: The notice of contemporaries. Petrarch , writing in the 14th century, complained about this linguistic "decline", which helped fuel his general dissatisfaction with his own era. The corpus of Medieval Latin literature encompasses a wide range of texts, including such diverse works as sermons , hymns , hagiographical texts, travel literature , histories , epics , and lyric poetry . The first half of
1813-599: The pilgrimage season of 622, Muhammad had another meeting in Aqaba with the Medinan converts; this time, there were 75 of them, including 2 women. Muhammad's uncle al-Abbas , who accompanied him, made a speech at the beginning, declaring that Muhammad was "the most respected person among his kinsmen." This is quite in contrast with the fact that Muhammad had received strong opposition from his other uncle, Abu Lahab , as well as Abu Jahl and other Quraysh leaders. Al-Abbas also falsely stated that Muhammad had rejected offers from all but
1862-578: The pleadings given in court. Even then, those of the church still used Latin more than the rest of the population. At this time, Latin served little purpose to the regular population but was still used regularly in ecclesiastical culture. Latin also served as a lingua franca among the educated elites of Christendom — long distance written communication, while rarer than in Antiquity, took place mostly in Latin. Most literate people wrote Latin and most rich people had access to scribes who knew Latin for use when
1911-468: The spelling, and indeed pronunciation, of the vernacular language, and thus varied between different European countries. These orthographical differences were often due to changes in pronunciation or, as in the previous example, morphology, which authors reflected in their writing. By the 16th century, Erasmus complained that speakers from different countries were unable to understand each other's form of Latin. The gradual changes in Latin did not escape
1960-548: The use of medieval Latin among the learned elites of Christendom may have played a role in the spread of those features. In every age from the late 8th century onwards, there were learned writers (especially within the Church) who were familiar enough with classical syntax to be aware that these forms and usages were "wrong" and resisted their use. Thus the Latin of a theologian like St Thomas Aquinas or of an erudite clerical historian such as William of Tyre tends to avoid most of
2009-626: The word has also been used to refer to an exodus in English . Located more than 260 miles (420 km) north of Mecca , Medina is a verdant oasis. According to Muslim sources, the city was founded by Jews who had survived the revolt against the Romans. While agriculture was far from the domain of the Arab tribes, the Jews were excellent farmers who cultivated the land in the oases. In addition to several smaller Jewish clans, there were three major Jewish tribes in
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2058-419: Was also spread to areas such as Ireland and Germany , where Romance languages were not spoken, and which had never known Roman rule. Works written in those lands where Latin was a learned language, having no relation to the local vernacular, also influenced the vocabulary and syntax of Medieval Latin. Since subjects like science and philosophy, including Rhetoric and Ethics , were communicated in Latin,
2107-489: Was also the birthplace of a strange poetic style known as Hisperic Latin . Other important Insular authors include the historian Gildas ( c. 500 – c. 570 ) and the poet Aldhelm ( c. 640 –709). Benedict Biscop ( c. 628 –690) founded the monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow and furnished it with books which he had taken home from a journey to Rome and which were later used by Bede ( c. 672 –735) to write his Ecclesiastical History of
2156-460: Was heavily influenced by the language of the Vulgate , which contained many peculiarities alien to Classical Latin that resulted from a more or less direct translation from Greek and Hebrew ; the peculiarities mirrored the original not only in its vocabulary but also in its grammar and syntax. Greek provided much of the technical vocabulary of Christianity . The various Germanic languages spoken by
2205-593: Was no single form of "Medieval Latin". Every Latin author in the medieval period spoke Latin as a second language, with varying degrees of fluency and syntax. Grammar and vocabulary, however, were often influenced by an author's native language. This was especially true beginning around the 12th century, after which the language became increasingly adulterated: late Medieval Latin documents written by French speakers tend to show similarities to medieval French grammar and vocabulary; those written by Germans tend to show similarities to German, etc. For instance, rather than following
2254-472: Was not frequently used in casual conversation. An example of these men includes the churchmen who could read Latin, but could not effectively speak it. Latin's use in universities was structured in lectures and debates, however, it was highly recommended that students use it in conversation. This practice was kept up only due to rules. One of Latin's purposes, writing, was still in practice; the main uses being charters for property transactions and to keep track of
2303-639: Was on the first or second day of the month;" Several Islamic historians and scholars, including Al Biruni , Ibn Sa'd , and Ibn Hisham , have discussed these dates in depth. Medieval Latin Medieval Latin was the form of Literary Latin used in Roman Catholic Western Europe during the Middle Ages . In this region it served as the primary written language, though local languages were also written to varying degrees. Latin functioned as
2352-614: Was the journey the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers took from Mecca to Medina . The year in which the Hijrah took place is also identified as the epoch of the Lunar Hijri and Solar Hijri calendars; its date equates to 16 July 622 in the Julian calendar . Early in Muhammad's preaching of Islam , his followers only included his close friends and relatives. Most of his tribesmen,
2401-516: Was the only auxiliary verb, Medieval Latin writers might use habere ("to have") as an auxiliary, similar to constructions in Germanic and Romance languages. The accusative and infinitive construction in classical Latin was often replaced by a subordinate clause introduced by quod or quia . This is almost identical, for example, to the use of que in similar constructions in French. Many of these developments are similar to Standard Average European and
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