150-558: Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf ( abbr. HHU ; German: Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf ), named after German poet Heinrich Heine , is a public university in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, which was founded in 1965. It is the successor organization to Düsseldorf 's Medical Academy of 1907. Following several expansions throughout the decades, the university has comprised five faculties since 1993. Currently, more than 36,000 full-time students are studying at HHU and
300-456: A prion . The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is likely to be benign . The diagnosis is aided by the presenting symptoms in any individual with an infectious disease, yet it usually needs additional diagnostic techniques to confirm the suspicion. Some signs are specifically characteristic and indicative of
450-422: A runny nose . In certain cases, infectious diseases may be asymptomatic for much or even all of their course in a given host. In the latter case, the disease may only be defined as a "disease" (which by definition means an illness) in hosts who secondarily become ill after contact with an asymptomatic carrier . An infection is not synonymous with an infectious disease, as some infections do not cause illness in
600-494: A French attorney's law school (École de formation de barreau – EFB). Another speciality is an extra-curricular qualification in Anglo-American law. Further education is provided by Düsseldorf Law School (DLS), which offers postgraduate masters in the protection of commercial rights, information rights and medical rights against a tuition fee. Research focuses on commercial law , European law and international law . Hubs are
750-685: A German accent. He also acquired a lifelong love for Rhenish folklore. In 1814 Heine went to a business school in Düsseldorf where he learned to read English, the commercial language of the time. The most successful member of the Heine family was his uncle Salomon Heine , a millionaire banker in Hamburg . In 1816 Heine moved to Hamburg to become an apprentice at Heckscher & Co, his uncle's bank, but displayed little aptitude for business. He learned to hate Hamburg, with its commercial ethos, but it would become one of
900-749: A German public university, HHU receives funding from the Land of North Rhine-Westphalia and therefore does not charge tuition fees . However, a small service charge of currently about 230 Euros per semester (winter semester 2012/13) has become necessary to cover the expenses of the AStA, of student services such as housing and canteen organisation ( Studentenwerk ) and the semester ticket for free rides on all local trains and busses. Various scholarships are available to cover specific student expenses and/or needs. For example, there are bursary programmes to cover living costs, facilitate stays abroad, or to finish one's final thesis. Within
1050-500: A break and set off on a trip through the Harz mountains. On his return he started writing an account of it, Die Harzreise . On 28 June 1825 Heine was baptized as an Evangelical Lutheran Christian in Heiligenstadt . The Prussian government had been gradually restoring discrimination against Jews. In 1822 it introduced a law excluding Jews from academic posts and Heine had ambitions for
1200-459: A censored press. The opponents of the conservatives, the liberals, wanted to replace absolutism with representative, constitutional government, equality before the law and a free press. At the University of Bonn , liberal students were at war with the conservative authorities. Heine was a radical liberal and one of the first things he did after his arrival was to take part in a parade which violated
1350-425: A colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Non-pathogenic organisms can become pathogenic given specific conditions, and even the most virulent organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as Corynebacteria sp. and Viridans streptococci , prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with
1500-497: A cultural richness unavailable in the smaller cities of Germany. He made many famous acquaintances (the closest were Gérard de Nerval and Hector Berlioz ) but he always remained something of an outsider. He had little interest in French literature and wrote everything in German, subsequently translating it into French with the help of a collaborator. In Paris, Heine earned money working as
1650-469: A disease and are called pathognomonic signs; but these are rare. Not all infections are symptomatic. In children the presence of cyanosis , rapid breathing, poor peripheral perfusion, or a petechial rash increases the risk of a serious infection by greater than 5 fold. Other important indicators include parental concern, clinical instinct, and temperature greater than 40 °C. Many diagnostic approaches depend on microbiological culture to isolate
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#17328917323091800-399: A disease. This amplification of nucleic acid in infected tissue offers an opportunity to detect the infectious agent by using PCR. Third, the essential tools for directing PCR, primers , are derived from the genomes of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known if they are not already. Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically
1950-540: A distance. His publisher was able to find some ways of getting around the censors and he was still free to publish in France. Heine's relationship with his fellow dissident Ludwig Börne was troubled. Since Börne did not attack religion or traditional morality like Heine, the German authorities hounded him less, although they still banned his books as soon as they appeared. Börne was the idol of German immigrant workers in Paris. He
2100-485: A flesh wound in the hip. Before fighting, he decided to safeguard Mathilde's future in the event of his death by marrying her. Heine continued to write reports for Cotta's Allgemeine Zeitung , and, when Cotta died, for his son and successor. One event which really galvanised him was the 1840 Damascus Affair in which Jews in Damascus had been subject to blood libel and accused of murdering an old Catholic monk. This led to
2250-423: A hospital stay. Lastly, a community-acquired infection is one in which the infection is acquired from a whole community. One manner of proving that a given disease is infectious, is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch ), which require that first, the infectious agent be identifiable only in patients who have the disease, and not in healthy controls, and second, that patients who contract
2400-524: A host with depressed resistance ( immunodeficiency ) or if they have unusual access to the inside of the body (for example, via trauma ). Opportunistic infection may be caused by microbes ordinarily in contact with the host, such as pathogenic bacteria or fungi in the gastrointestinal or the upper respiratory tract , and they may also result from (otherwise innocuous) microbes acquired from other hosts (as in Clostridioides difficile colitis ) or from
2550-502: A host. As bacterial and viral infections can both cause the same kinds of symptoms, it can be difficult to distinguish which is the cause of a specific infection. Distinguishing the two is important, since viral infections cannot be cured by antibiotics whereas bacterial infections can. There is a general chain of events that applies to infections, sometimes called the chain of infection or transmission chain . The chain of events involves several steps – which include
2700-673: A leading salon. Another friend was the satirist Karl Immermann , who had praised Heine's first verse collection, Gedichte , when it appeared in December 1821. During his time in Berlin Heine also joined the Verein für Cultur und Wissenschaft der Juden , a society which attempted to achieve a balance between the Jewish faith and modernity. Since Heine was not very religious in outlook he soon lost interest, but he also began to investigate Jewish history . He
2850-434: A link between virulence and transmissibility. Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly. In practice most minor infectious diseases such as warts , cutaneous abscesses , respiratory system infections and diarrheal diseases are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about
3000-494: A more explosive force than the French Revolution. Heine had had few serious love affairs, but in late 1834 he made the acquaintance of a 19-year-old Paris shopgirl, Crescence Eugénie Mirat, whom he nicknamed "Mathilde". Heine reluctantly began a relationship with her. She was illiterate, knew no German, and had no interest in cultural or intellectual matters. Nevertheless, she moved in with Heine in 1836 and lived with him for
3150-425: A new social order in which meritocracy would replace hereditary distinctions in rank and wealth. There would also be female emancipation and an important role for artists and scientists. Heine frequented some Saint-Simonian meetings after his arrival in Paris but within a few years his enthusiasm for the ideology – and other forms of utopianism – had waned. Heine soon became a celebrity in France. Paris offered him
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#17328917323093300-414: A new style of German travel-writing, mixing Romantic descriptions of nature with satire. Heine's Buch der Lieder [ de ] followed in 1827. This was a collection of already published poems. No one expected it to become one of the most popular books of German verse ever published, and sales were slow to start with, picking up when composers began setting Heine's poems as Lieder . For example,
3450-617: A novel, Wally die Zweiflerin ("Wally the Sceptic"), which contained criticism of the institution of marriage and some mildly erotic passages. In November of that year, the German Diet consequently banned publication of works by the Young Germans in Germany and – on Metternich's insistence – Heine's name was added to their number. Heine, however, continued to comment on German politics and society from
3600-518: A number of basic dyes due to the electrostatic attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye. A cell is normally transparent under a microscope, and using a stain increases the contrast of a cell with its background. Staining a cell with a dye such as Giemsa stain or crystal violet allows a microscopist to describe its size, shape, internal and external components and its associations with other cells. The response of bacteria to different staining procedures
3750-404: A particular pathogen at all (no matter how little) but also is often used in a sense implying a clinically apparent infection (in other words, a case of infectious disease). This fact occasionally creates some ambiguity or prompts some usage discussion; to get around this it is common for health professionals to speak of colonization (rather than infection ) when they mean that some of
3900-493: A pathogen from the appropriate clinical specimen. In a microbial culture, a growth medium is provided for a specific agent. A sample taken from potentially diseased tissue or fluid is then tested for the presence of an infectious agent able to grow within that medium. Many pathogenic bacteria are easily grown on nutrient agar , a form of solid medium that supplies carbohydrates and proteins necessary for growth, along with copious amounts of water. A single bacterium will grow into
4050-429: A pathogen. A fluorescence microscope is then used to detect fluorescently labeled antibodies bound to internalized antigens within clinical samples or cultured cells. This technique is especially useful in the diagnosis of viral diseases, where the light microscope is incapable of identifying a virus directly. Other microscopic procedures may also aid in identifying infectious agents. Almost all cells readily stain with
4200-432: A patient's blood or other body fluids for antigens or antibodies that indicate presence of a specific pathogen that the doctor suspects. Other techniques (such as X-rays , CAT scans , PET scans or NMR ) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent. The images are useful in detection of, for example, a bone abscess or a spongiform encephalopathy produced by
4350-470: A persistent infection by infecting different cells of the body. Some viruses once acquired never leave the body. A typical example is the herpes virus, which tends to hide in nerves and become reactivated when specific circumstances arise. Persistent infections cause millions of deaths globally each year. Chronic infections by parasites account for a high morbidity and mortality in many underdeveloped countries. For infecting organisms to survive and repeat
4500-587: A physician in Saint Petersburg . Heine was a third cousin once removed of philosopher and economist Karl Marx , also born to a German Jewish family in the Rhineland , with whom he became a frequent correspondent in later life. Düsseldorf at the time was a town with a population of around 16,000. The French Revolution and subsequent Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars involving Germany complicated Düsseldorf's political history during Heine's childhood. It had been
4650-403: A result of an infectious disease with immunosuppressive activity (such as with measles , malaria or HIV disease ). Primary pathogens may also cause more severe disease in a host with depressed resistance than would normally occur in an immunosufficient host. While a primary infection can practically be viewed as the root cause of an individual's current health problem, a secondary infection
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4800-471: A result of their presence or activity within the normal, healthy host, and their intrinsic virulence (the severity of the disease they cause) is, in part, a necessary consequence of their need to reproduce and spread. Many of the most common primary pathogens of humans only infect humans, however, many serious diseases are caused by organisms acquired from the environment or that infect non-human hosts. Opportunistic pathogens can cause an infectious disease in
4950-762: A secret word, A garland of cypress for token. I wake; it is gone; the dream is blurred, And forgotten the word that was spoken. (Poetic translation by Hal Draper ) Starting from the mid-1820s, Heine distanced himself from Romanticism by adding irony, sarcasm, and satire into his poetry, and making fun of the sentimental-romantic awe of nature and of figures of speech in contemporary poetry and literature. An example are these lines: Das Fräulein stand am Meere Und seufzte lang und bang. Es rührte sie so sehre der Sonnenuntergang. Mein Fräulein! Sein sie munter, Das ist ein altes Stück; Hier vorne geht sie unter Und kehrt von hinten zurück. A mistress stood by
5100-411: A severe illness affecting the brain, remain undiagnosed, despite extensive testing using the standard of care ( microbiological culture ) and state-of-the-art clinical laboratory methods. Metagenomic sequencing-based diagnostic tests are currently being developed for clinical use and show promise as a sensitive, specific, and rapid way to diagnose infection using a single all-encompassing test. This test
5250-444: A small series of lectures for the general public on topic(s) that are currently in the focus of public attention. Speakers have included, for example, Marcel Reich-Ranicki , Helmut Schmidt and Joschka Fischer . New traditions have come to supplement the guest lecture: since 2010 the "University Speech" and since 2011 the "Heinrich Heine Professorship for Business and Economics", both performed by external speakers of high calibre. As
5400-417: A specific identification of an infectious agent only when such identification can aid in the treatment or prevention of the disease, or to advance knowledge of the course of an illness prior to the development of effective therapeutic or preventative measures. For example, in the early 1980s, prior to the appearance of AZT for the treatment of AIDS , the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring
5550-477: A sympathetic critic for his early verses. Heine began to acquire a reputation as a poet at Bonn. He also wrote two tragedies, Almansor and William Ratcliff , but they had little success in the theatre. After a year at Bonn, Heine left to continue his law studies at the University of Göttingen . Heine hated the town. It was part of Hanover , then also rulers of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland,
5700-499: A total staff of approximately 3,600 people (academic and non-academic). Düsseldorf University began with the Düsseldorf Academy for Practical Medicine in 1907. The city's first real university, however, was only founded in 1965 by adding a combined Faculty of Natural Sciences – Arts and Humanities to the existing medical one. Only four years later, the university split the combined faculty into two separate bodies, which led to
5850-529: A unique one-year English-taught course especially designed for exceptional graduates from universities in Israel, Palestine and Jordan. Recently, the program became increasingly popular with graduates from other regions globally. The German-French master programme Media Culture Analysis / Analyse de Pratiques Culturelles, enables students to obtain a double diploma of both the HHU and the University of Nantes . At doctoral level
6000-402: A university career. As Heine said in self-justification, his conversion was "the ticket of admission into European culture". In any event, Heine's conversion, which was reluctant, never brought him any benefits in his career. A quarter of a century later, he declared: "I make no secret of my Judaism, to which I have not returned, because I never left it." Heine now had to search for a job. He
6150-432: A visible mound on the surface of the plate called a colony , which may be separated from other colonies or melded together into a "lawn". The size, color, shape and form of a colony is characteristic of the bacterial species, its specific genetic makeup (its strain ), and the environment that supports its growth. Other ingredients are often added to the plate to aid in identification. Plates may contain substances that permit
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6300-668: A wave of anti-Semitic persecution. The French government, aiming at imperialism in the Middle East and not wanting to offend the Catholic party, had failed to condemn the outrage. In contrast, the Austrian consul in Damascus had assiduously exposed the blood libel as a fraud. For Heine, this was a reversal of values: reactionary Austria standing up for the Jews while France temporised. Heine responded by dusting off and publishing his unfinished novel about
6450-545: A wide range of pathogens , most prominently bacteria and viruses . Hosts can fight infections using their immune systems . Mammalian hosts react to infections with an innate response, often involving inflammation , followed by an adaptive response. Specific medications used to treat infections include antibiotics , antivirals , antifungals , antiprotozoals , and antihelminthics . Infectious diseases resulted in 9.2 million deaths in 2013 (about 17% of all deaths). The branch of medicine that focuses on infections
6600-563: A year the short film competition for young talents from the region takes place on campus. There are various (student) associations, clubs, networks and societies. Examples are the local UNICEF group, a debating club, the European Student Network and the campus radio. Since 1989 the Heinrich Heine Guest Lecture has repeatedly drawn high-profile speakers to the university's campus. These guest professors usually perform
6750-509: Is a sequela or complication of that root cause. For example, an infection due to a burn or penetrating trauma (the root cause) is a secondary infection. Primary pathogens often cause primary infection and often cause secondary infection. Usually, opportunistic infections are viewed as secondary infections (because immunodeficiency or injury was the predisposing factor). Other types of infection consist of mixed, iatrogenic , nosocomial , and community-acquired infection. A mixed infection
6900-500: Is active but does not produce noticeable symptoms may be called inapparent, silent, subclinical , or occult . An infection that is inactive or dormant is called a latent infection . An example of a latent bacterial infection is latent tuberculosis . Some viral infections can also be latent, examples of latent viral infections are any of those from the Herpesviridae family. The word infection can denote any presence of
7050-423: Is an infection that is caused by two or more pathogens. An example of this is appendicitis , which is caused by Bacteroides fragilis and Escherichia coli . The second is an iatrogenic infection. This type of infection is one that is transmitted from a health care worker to a patient. A nosocomial infection is also one that occurs in a health care setting. Nosocomial infections are those that are acquired during
7200-422: Is an initial site of infection from which organisms travel via the bloodstream to another area of the body. Among the many varieties of microorganisms , relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals. Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few pathogens and the defenses of the hosts they infect. The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen depend upon
7350-520: Is best known outside Germany for his early lyric poetry , which was set to music in the form of Lieder (art songs) by composers such as Robert Schumann and Franz Schubert . Heine's later verse and prose are distinguished by their satirical wit and irony. He is considered a member of the Young Germany movement. His radical political views led to many of his works being banned by German authorities —which, however, only added to his fame. He spent
7500-510: Is currently available. The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable. The diagnosis of a few diseases will not benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the clostridial diseases ( tetanus and botulism ). These diseases are fundamentally biological poisonings by relatively small numbers of infectious bacteria that produce extremely potent neurotoxins . A significant proliferation of
7650-503: Is injured. All multicellular organisms are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with the host. An example of the former is the anaerobic bacteria species, which colonizes the mammalian colon , and an example of the latter are the various species of staphylococcus that exist on human skin . Neither of these colonizations are considered infections. The difference between an infection and
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#17328917323097800-467: Is not an enzyme and has no metabolic function. Serological methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid tests used to identify microorganisms. These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen. The antigen, usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent, is bound by the antibody. This binding then sets off a chain of events that can be visibly obvious in various ways, dependent upon
7950-578: Is provided by research training groups in neurosciences (RTG 1033, iBrain), in hepatology (research training in CRC 974) and in tumor research (Düsseldorf School of Oncology DSO). Research hubs with a significant volume of third-party founded collaborative projects are hepatology (CRC 974 and Research Unit 217), cardiovascular research , neurosciences, surgery (Research Unit 1585), infectiology and immunology (Research Unit 729), and diabetes and metabolism research. The Biomedical Research Centre (BMFZ),
8100-425: Is referred to as infectious diseases . Infections are caused by infectious agents ( pathogens ) including: The signs and symptoms of an infection depend on the type of disease. Some signs of infection affect the whole body generally, such as fatigue , loss of appetite, weight loss, fevers , night sweats, chills, aches and pains. Others are specific to individual body parts, such as skin rashes , coughing , or
8250-404: Is referred to as colonization. Most humans are not easily infected. Those with compromised or weakened immune systems have an increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have a suppressed immune system are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections . Entrance to the host at host–pathogen interface , generally occurs through the mucosa in orifices like
8400-501: Is similar to current PCR tests; however, an untargeted whole genome amplification is used rather than primers for a specific infectious agent. This amplification step is followed by next-generation sequencing or third-generation sequencing , alignment comparisons , and taxonomic classification using large databases of thousands of pathogen and commensal reference genomes . Simultaneously, antimicrobial resistance genes within pathogen and plasmid genomes are sequenced and aligned to
8550-439: Is that microbial colonization is very common even in environments that humans think of as being nearly sterile . Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization, it is difficult to know which chronic wounds can be classified as infected and how much risk of progression exists. Despite the huge number of wounds seen in clinical practice, there are limited quality data for evaluated symptoms and signs. A review of chronic wounds in
8700-577: Is used in the taxonomic classification of microbes as well. Two methods, the Gram stain and the acid-fast stain, are the standard approaches used to classify bacteria and to diagnosis of disease. The Gram stain identifies the bacterial groups Bacillota and Actinomycetota , both of which contain many significant human pathogens. The acid-fast staining procedure identifies the Actinomycetota genera Mycobacterium and Nocardia . Biochemical tests used in
8850-491: The Appeal Court , District Court and Fiscal Court ). Beyond that, a specialty is a German-French course of law studies organized together with the University of Cergy-Pontoise near Paris which annually gives 15 German and 15 French law students the possibility to study both legal systems since 2005. Graduates of this three year law course are awarded the German legal "Zwischenprüfung" (German LL.B. equivalent) as well as
9000-532: The Carlsbad Decrees , a series of measures introduced by Metternich to suppress liberal political activity. Heine was more interested in studying history and literature than law. The university had engaged the famous literary critic and thinker August Wilhelm Schlegel as a lecturer and Heine heard him talk about the Nibelungenlied and Romanticism . Though he would later mock Schlegel, Heine found in him
9150-588: The Journal of the American Medical Association 's "Rational Clinical Examination Series" quantified the importance of increased pain as an indicator of infection. The review showed that the most useful finding is an increase in the level of pain [likelihood ratio (LR) range, 11–20] makes infection much more likely, but the absence of pain (negative likelihood ratio range, 0.64–0.88) does not rule out infection (summary LR 0.64–0.88). Disease can arise if
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#17328917323099300-468: The oral cavity , nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or the microbe can enter through open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids. Wound colonization refers to non-replicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue
9450-447: The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons. First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified. Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease; essentially it must amplify its own nucleic acids to cause
9600-414: The students' representation (AStA) of Düsseldorf's four higher education institutions in a joint initiative. On offer are about 100 kinds of sports, workshops and sports holidays. Once a year the four AStAs organise a common sports day. Musical initiatives include the AStA's Local Heroes event, a platform for local bands, as well as jam sessions. There is also a semi-professional university orchestra. Once
9750-403: The "strep test", they can be inexpensive. Complex serological techniques have been developed into what are known as immunoassays . Immunoassays can use the basic antibody – antigen binding as the basis to produce an electro-magnetic or particle radiation signal, which can be detected by some form of instrumentation. Signal of unknowns can be compared to that of standards allowing quantitation of
9900-584: The Bioeconomy Science Center (a cluster of 54 departments of the universities of Aachen , Bonn and Düsseldorf, as well as the Forschungszentrum Jülich) are important organisations forming the local research environment. One of HHU's smaller faculties, the Faculty of Business Administration and Economics, attracted about 1,100 students in the winter semester 2011/12. The faculty is housed in
10050-760: The Centre for Information and Technology Law (ZfI), the Centre for Medical Law (IMR), the Insurance Law Institute, and the Institute of German and International Party Law and Party Research (PRuF). Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf is a public corporation of the Land of North Rhine-Westphalia. Its degree of autonomy from state ministries and other legal bodies is defined in the Higher Education Autonomy Act (HFG) of 31 October 2006. The rectorate (also called
10200-646: The Excellence Initiative of the German Federal and State Governments. HHU is currently involved in 23 international projects funded within the EU's Seventh Framework Programme . 11 further international projects have just ended. Twelve HHU researchers at the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences currently have the prestigious ERC Grants. HHU promotes research- and knowledge-based start-ups . Its concept to strengthen an entrepreneurial culture at and around HHU
10350-563: The Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences. International doctoral research programmes are available in the "Faculties" section. Key regions of HHU's internationalisation activities are Europe, United States, Japan and the Near East . At the moment there are 13 collaborations at university level, 80 collaborations in research or teaching at faculty or institute level, and over 140 Erasmus partnerships. The Student Service Centre (SSC) offers counselling and services. Sports are coordinated by
10500-439: The French "licence mention droit" (French LL.B. equivalent). Since 2008, the universities offer a subsequent two-year course whose participants specialize in business, labor as well as employment law and graduate with the French "Master 2 mention droit de l'entreprise" (French J.D. equivalent). Subsequently, they are also eligible for the German state examination in law (German J.D. equivalent) and for an admission exam with
10650-599: The French correspondent for one of Cotta's newspapers, the Allgemeine Zeitung . The first event he covered was the Salon of 1831. His articles were eventually collected in a volume entitled Französische Zustände ("Conditions in France"). Heine saw himself as a mediator between Germany and France. If the two countries understood one another there would be progress. To further this aim he published De l'Allemagne ("On Germany") in French (begun 1833). In its later German version,
10800-627: The French for introducing the Napoleonic Code and trial by jury. He glossed over the negative aspects of French rule in Berg: heavy taxation, conscription, and economic depression brought about by the Continental Blockade , which may have contributed to his father's bankruptcy. Heine greatly admired Napoleon as the promoter of revolutionary ideals of liberty and equality and loathed the political atmosphere in Germany after Napoleon's defeat, marked by
10950-637: The Health Care Academy Düsseldorf). A major research hub in economics is competition economics , funded through the DFG ANR Project and centred in the Düsseldorf Institute for Competition Economics (DICE). Business studies focus on finance, accounting, management and marketing. The Faculty of Law offers practically oriented courses for the state examination in law through cooperation with various local institutions (e.g. courts such as
11100-651: The Leibniz-Institute for Environmental Medicine (IUF), the C. and O. Vogt Institute for Brain Research and the German Diabetes Centre (DDZ) are important organisations that form the local research environment. About 8,000 students (winter semester 2011/12) in currently 26 B.A. and M.A. programmes make the Faculty of Arts and Humanities HHU's largest unit. It offers the prestigious M.A. in European Studies,
11250-531: The Medical Faculty is HHU's third largest unit. Study offers range from Medicine and Dentistry ( state examination ) through Toxicology (MSc) to Public Health and Endocrinology (both MSc, further education ). Graduate studies have been institutionalised in the form of the faculty-wide Medical Research School Düsseldorf, which offers networking, services and counselling for both graduate students and their supervisors . Further structured doctorate support
11400-482: The National Scholarship Programme at German universities, for example, HHU currently ranks among the top 5 providers of scholarships. According to the 2024 QS World University Rankings , the university ranks in the 801-850 tier globally, placing it 43rd nationally. In the 2024 THE World University Rankings , it is ranked in the 251-300 range internationally, positioning it between 25th and 31st within
11550-619: The Sanskritist Franz Bopp and the Homer critic F. A. Wolf , who inspired Heine's lifelong love of Aristophanes . Most important was the philosopher Hegel , whose influence on Heine is hard to gauge. He probably gave Heine and other young students the idea that history had a meaning which could be seen as progressive. Heine also made valuable acquaintances in Berlin, notably the liberal Karl August Varnhagen and his Jewish wife Rahel , who held
11700-518: The Student Service Center (SSC), have been added to existing parts of the campus. Already completed are the new Oeconomicum building (Faculty of Business Administration and Economics) and the new O.A.S.E. library (medical literature) – the latter one of Germany's most up-to-date structures for individual study and group work The ULB Düsseldorf is one of three state libraries in North Rhine-Westphalia and one of Germany's innovation leaders in
11850-435: The ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the host to resist the pathogen. However, a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself in an attempt to control the infection. Clinicians, therefore, classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses – either as primary pathogens or as opportunistic pathogens . Primary pathogens cause disease as
12000-445: The academy of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities, PhilGrad, offers a broad range of counselling and career-relevant courses. Further support for structured doctorates provide programmes in the history of art (RTG 1678), in linguistics (research training in CRC 991), in ageing -related studies and in democracy research (Link.De) as well as within two German-Italian programmes (Interculturality and Communication, "Doctor Europaeus"). Among
12150-458: The basis of a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease. For example, humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase , and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic., of specific types of viral infections. The ability of the viral protein hemagglutinin to bind red blood cells together into a detectable matrix may also be characterized as a biochemical test for viral infection, although strictly speaking hemagglutinin
12300-567: The book is divided into two: Zur Geschichte der Religion und Philosophie in Deutschland ("On the History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany") and Die romantische Schule ("The Romantic School"). Heine was deliberately attacking Madame de Staël 's book De l'Allemagne (1813) which he viewed as reactionary, Romantic and obscurantist. He felt de Staël had portrayed a Germany of "poets and thinkers", dreamy, religious, introverted and cut off from
12450-430: The book was published in 1840 it was universally disliked by the radicals and served to alienate Heine from his public. Even his enemies admitted that Börne was a man of integrity, so Heine's ad hominem attacks on him were viewed as being in poor taste. Heine had made personal attacks on Börne's closest friend Jeanette Wohl , so Jeannette's husband challenged Heine to a duel. It was the last Heine ever fought – he received
12600-566: The campus university has been opening up towards the city and its citizens. Heinrich Heine University's Faculty of Business Administration and Economics opened in 1990, and the Faculty of Law opened in 1993. HHU's roughly triangular campus is located in the southeast of Düsseldorf, in the Bilk district. To the north, it borders the campus of the university hospital with which it forms a unit. Both campuses together expand over approximately 1,300,000 square metres (circa 130 hectares). New sections, such as
12750-687: The capital of the Duchy of Jülich-Berg , but was under French occupation at the time of his birth. It then passed to the Elector of Bavaria before being ceded to Napoleon in 1806, who turned it into the capital of the Grand Duchy of Berg , one of three French states he established in Germany. It was first ruled by Joachim Murat , then by Napoleon himself. Upon Napoleon's downfall in 1815 it became part of Prussia . Thus Heine's formative years were spent under French influence. The adult Heine would always be devoted to
12900-463: The case of viral identification, a region of dead cells results from viral growth, and is called a "plaque". Eukaryotic parasites may also be grown in culture as a means of identifying a particular agent. In the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals. Bacteria such as Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make
13050-472: The causative agent, Trypanosoma cruzi in a patient, which therefore makes it difficult to definitively make a diagnosis. In this case, xenodiagnosis involves the use of the vector of the Chagas agent T. cruzi , an uninfected triatomine bug, which takes a blood meal from a person suspected of having been infected. The bug is later inspected for growth of T. cruzi within its gut. Another principal tool in
13200-436: The cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in a community, and other epidemiological considerations. Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified. Diagnosis of infectious disease is nearly always initiated by medical history and physical examination. More detailed identification techniques involve
13350-431: The composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options. In part, these studies on the appearance of HIV in specific communities permitted the advancement of hypotheses as to the route of transmission of the virus. By understanding how the disease was transmitted, resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk in campaigns aimed at reducing
13500-416: The conservative policies of Austrian chancellor Klemens von Metternich , who attempted to reverse the effects of the French Revolution. Heine's parents were not particularly devout. They sent him as a young child to a Jewish school where he learned a smattering of Hebrew , but thereafter he attended Catholic schools. Here he learned French, which became his second language – although he always spoke it with
13650-431: The constitution of a Faculty of Arts and Humanities as well as a Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences. In 1979 a modern University and State Library was opened to the public, and a sports centre was added in 1980/81. Following a quarrel of more than 23 years, the "nameless" university of Düsseldorf was finally christened after the poet Heinrich Heine , one of Düsseldorf's most famous sons, in 1989. From this period on,
13800-426: The cross-road will be buried He who killed himself; There grows a blue flower, Suicide’s flower. I stood at the cross-road and sighed The night was cold and mute. By the light of the moon moved slowly Suicide’s flower. Heine became increasingly critical of despotism and reactionary chauvinism in Germany, of nobility and clerics but also what he viewed as “narrow mindedness” of ordinary people and of
13950-484: The culture of infectious agents isolated from a patient. Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by directly identifying an organism by its genotype. Many infectious organisms are identified without culture and microscopy. This is especially true for viruses, which cannot grow in culture. For some suspected pathogens, doctors may conduct tests that examine
14100-400: The destruction of the virus. Instrumentation can be used to read extremely small signals created by secondary reactions linked to the antibody – antigen binding. Instrumentation can control sampling, reagent use, reaction times, signal detection, calculation of results, and data management to yield a cost-effective automated process for diagnosis of infectious disease. Technologies based upon
14250-428: The diagnosis of infectious disease is microscopy . Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be carried out with simple instruments, such as the compound light microscope , or with instruments as complex as an electron microscope . Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under
14400-544: The environment , and internal auditing . Current tasks for the university administration are the implementation of a campus management system as well as the renovation and improvement of campus infrastructure. In 2012 HHU and its partner institutions – the University of Cologne , the Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research and Forschungszentrum Jülich – received the grant for the Cluster of Excellence CEPLAS in
14550-445: The environment as a result of traumatic introduction (as in surgical wound infections or compound fractures ). An opportunistic disease requires impairment of host defenses, which may occur as a result of genetic defects (such as chronic granulomatous disease ), exposure to antimicrobial drugs or immunosuppressive chemicals (as might occur following poisoning or cancer chemotherapy ), exposure to ionizing radiation , or as
14700-426: The expression of symptoms is often atypical, making a clinical diagnosis based on presentation more difficult. Thirdly, diagnostic methods that rely on the detection of antibodies are more likely to fail. A rapid, sensitive, specific, and untargeted test for all known human pathogens that detects the presence of the organism's DNA rather than antibodies is therefore highly desirable. There is usually an indication for
14850-406: The field of digital information delivery and processing. Further fields of activity are digital communication and digital media . The Botanical Garden of Düsseldorf is a scientific institution of HHU, which cultivates about 6,000 different kinds of plants from all around the globe. It is open to visitors throughout the whole year. With more than 3,000 students in the winter semester 2011/12,
15000-719: The following programmes: RTG 1203 Dynamics in Hot Plasms (DFG), Graduate Cluster CLIB, NRW Research Academy Biostruct, RTG "Molecules of Infection" (Manchot Foundation), the international graduate school iGRAD-Plant in collaboration with the Forschungszentrum Jülich and Michigan State University, US; and the internally funded initiatives vivid, e-norm, and iGRASPseed. Research hubs with a significant volume of third-party founded collaborative projects are biology (Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences CEPLAS) and physics (CRC-TR 6, CRC-TR 18). The Biomedical Research Center (BMFZ) and
15150-816: The four-year "bachelor plus", in which students spend one year at Michigan State University in East Lansing or at the University of Western Australia in Perth , and the international MSc in Biology enable students to gain international experience. The faculty has institutionalised support for doctoral studies in the form of iGRAD, the Interdisciplinary Graduate and Research Academy Düsseldorf to establish network structures and offer counselling and training services for doctoral students, supervisors and research training groups. Further backing for structured doctorates provide
15300-575: The futuristic Oeconomicum building and offers Business Administration (BSc and MSc), Economics (BSc and MSc) and Business Chemistry (BSc and MSc, in cooperation with the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences). Further education is provided by the Düsseldorf Business School (DBS), which offers MBA -Programmes against a tuition fee . Examples are General Management MBAs (in German as well as in English) and Health Management (in cooperation with
15450-403: The growth of some bacteria and not others, or that change color in response to certain bacteria and not others. Bacteriological plates such as these are commonly used in the clinical identification of infectious bacterium. Microbial culture may also be used in the identification of viruses : the medium, in this case, being cells grown in culture that the virus can infect, and then alter or kill. In
15600-484: The host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host. Microorganisms can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes. For example, Clostridium tetani releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and staphylococcus releases toxins that produce shock and sepsis . Not all infectious agents cause disease in all hosts. For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with polio develop disease. On
15750-598: The host, preventing infection and speeding wound healing . The variables involved in the outcome of a host becoming inoculated by a pathogen and the ultimate outcome include: As an example, several staphylococcal species remain harmless on the skin, but, when present in a normally sterile space, such as in the capsule of a joint or the peritoneum , multiply without resistance and cause harm. An interesting fact that gas chromatography–mass spectrometry , 16S ribosomal RNA analysis, omics , and other advanced technologies have made more apparent to humans in recent decades
15900-532: The identification of infectious agents include the detection of metabolic or enzymatic products characteristic of a particular infectious agent. Since bacteria ferment carbohydrates in patterns characteristic of their genus and species , the detection of fermentation products is commonly used in bacterial identification. Acids , alcohols and gases are usually detected in these tests when bacteria are grown in selective liquid or solid media. The isolation of enzymes from infected tissue can also provide
16050-413: The infection cycle in other hosts, they (or their progeny) must leave an existing reservoir and cause infection elsewhere. Infection transmission can take place via many potential routes: The relationship between virulence versus transmissibility is complex; with studies have shown that there were no clear relationship between the two. There is still a small number of evidence that partially suggests
16200-399: The infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria. Given the wide range of bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoal, and helminthic pathogens that cause debilitating and life-threatening illnesses, the ability to quickly identify the cause of infection is important yet often challenging. For example, more than half of cases of encephalitis ,
16350-402: The infectious agent, reservoir, entering a susceptible host, exit and transmission to new hosts. Each of the links must be present in a chronological order for an infection to develop. Understanding these steps helps health care workers target the infection and prevent it from occurring in the first place. Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This
16500-497: The interests of the students within the university community. The central administration has five departments: student affairs, academic management, personnel and organisation, finance, and facility management . It is the backbone of the university in terms of formal structures and governance processes. Head of approximately 340 administrative staff is the chancellor. Furthermore, the chancellor's three staff offices are responsible for legal advisory , work safety and protection of
16650-504: The interests of the various status groups within a faculty. It elects a dean as the head of faculty management (Dean's Office). Deans represent a faculty and its interests to the president's office. The student parliament is the highest plenary organ of all matriculated students at HHU. The central representative of student life and the voice of students' demands in university politics is the AStA (Allgemeiner Studierendenausschuss). One student association for each academic subject represents
16800-466: The last 25 years of his life as an expatriate in Paris. Heine was born on 13 December 1797, in Düsseldorf , in what was then the Duchy of Berg , into a Jewish family. He was called "Harry" in childhood but became known as "Heinrich" after his conversion to Lutheran Christianity in 1825. Despite his conversion, Heine was never a devout Lutheran Christian. Heine's father, Samson Heine (1764–1828),
16950-448: The library sector due to its high service standards and the volume of its collections (currently 4 stars in the public library ratings ). In its university library function, it collects, archives and cares for scientific resources. In its state library function, it does alike for regional literature. As a central unit and (multi) media centre of HHU, the ZIM provides competencies and services in
17100-425: The light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification. Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with biochemical staining techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with antibody based techniques. For example, the use of antibodies made artificially fluorescent (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific antigens present on
17250-424: The nation. Further, the 2023 ARWU World University Rankings places the university within the 301-400 global bracket, translating to a national ranking between 20th and 24th. Heinrich Heine Christian Johann Heinrich Heine ( / ˈ h aɪ n ə / ; German: [ˈhaɪnʁɪç ˈhaɪnə] ; born Harry Heine ; 13 December 1797 – 17 February 1856) was a German poet, writer and literary critic . He
17400-629: The news that his cousin Amalie had become engaged. When Heine challenged another student, Wiebel, to a duel, the first of ten known incidents throughout his life, the authorities stepped in and he was suspended from the university for six months. His uncle then decided to send him to the University of Berlin . Heine arrived in Berlin in March 1821. It was the biggest, most cosmopolitan city he had ever visited, with its population of about 200,000. The university gave Heine access to notable cultural figures as lecturers:
17550-667: The newspaper congenial, and instead tried to obtain a professorship at Munich University, with no success. After a few months he took a trip to northern Italy, visiting Lucca , Florence and Venice, but was forced to return when he received news that his father had died. This Italian journey resulted in a series of new works: Die Reise von München nach Genua ( Journey from Munich to Genoa ), Die Bäder von Lucca ( The Baths of Lucca ) and Die Stadt Lucca ( The Town of Lucca ). Die Bäder von Lucca embroiled Heine in controversy. The aristocratic poet August von Platen had been annoyed by some epigrams by Immermann which Heine had included in
17700-531: The number of new infections. The specific serological diagnostic identification, and later genotypic or molecular identification, of HIV also enabled the development of hypotheses as to the temporal and geographical origins of the virus, as well as a myriad of other hypothesis. The development of molecular diagnostic tools have enabled physicians and researchers to monitor the efficacy of treatment with anti-retroviral drugs . Molecular diagnostics are now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people long before
17850-455: The onset of illness and have been used to demonstrate the existence of people who are genetically resistant to HIV infection. Thus, while there still is no cure for AIDS, there is great therapeutic and predictive benefit to identifying the virus and monitoring the virus levels within the blood of infected individuals, both for the patient and for the community at large. Symptomatic infections are apparent and clinical , whereas an infection that
18000-514: The other hand, some infectious agents are highly virulent. The prion causing mad cow disease and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease invariably kills all animals and people that are infected. Persistent infections occur because the body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection. Persistent infections are characterized by the continual presence of the infectious organism, often as latent infection with occasional recurrent relapses of active infection. There are some viruses that can maintain
18150-539: The pathogens are present but that no clinically apparent infection (no disease) is present. Different terms are used to describe how and where infections present over time. In an acute infection, symptoms develop rapidly; its course can either be rapid or protracted. In chronic infection, symptoms usually develop gradually over weeks or months and are slow to resolve. In subacute infections, symptoms take longer to develop than in acute infections but arise more quickly than those of chronic infections. A focal infection
18300-497: The persecution of Jews in the Middle Ages, Der Rabbi von Bacherach . Infectious disease An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens , their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease , also known as a transmissible disease or communicable disease , is an illness resulting from an infection. Infections can be caused by
18450-902: The poem "Allnächtlich im Traume" was set to music by Robert Schumann and Felix Mendelssohn . It contains the ironic disillusionment typical of Heine: Allnächtlich im Traume seh ich dich, Und sehe dich freundlich grüßen, Und laut aufweinend stürz ich mich Zu deinen süßen Füßen. Du siehst mich an wehmütiglich, Und schüttelst das blonde Köpfchen; Aus deinen Augen schleichen sich Die Perlentränentröpfchen. Du sagst mir heimlich ein leises Wort, Und gibst mir den Strauß von Zypressen. Ich wache auf, und der Strauß ist fort, Und das Wort hab ich vergessen. Nightly I see you in dreams – you speak, With kindliness sincerest, I throw myself, weeping aloud and weak At your sweet feet, my dearest. You look at me with wistful woe, And shake your golden curls; And stealing from your eyes there flow The teardrops like to pearls. You breathe in my ear
18600-474: The poles of his life alongside Paris. When he was 18 Heine almost certainly had an unrequited love for his cousin Amalie, Salomon's daughter. Whether he then transferred his affections, equally unsuccessfully to her sister Therese is unknown. This period in Heine's life is not clear but it seems that his father's business deteriorated, making Samson Heine effectively the ward of his brother Salomon. Salomon realised that his nephew had no talent for trade, and it
18750-461: The power Heine blamed for bringing Napoleon down. Here the poet experienced an aristocratic snobbery absent elsewhere. He hated law as the Historical School of law he had to study was used to bolster the reactionary form of government he opposed. Other events conspired to make Heine loathe this period of his life: he was expelled from a student fraternity due to anti-Semitism , and he heard
18900-501: The president's office and supervises their administration of university business (§21,3 HFG). The first University Council was inaugurated in October 2007. Current chairperson of the council is Anne-José Paulsen, a judge and president of the Appeal Court of Düsseldorf (Oberlandesgericht Düsseldorf). The Senate is the central democratic organ for discussions between the university's various status groups. Their representatives are elected by
19050-406: The president's office, see HFG §15) manages the university. Its members are the president , four vice-presidents and the chancellor . From October 2008 to 2014, the president has been the physiologist Professor Michael Piper. Since November 2014 Professor Anja Steinbeck is the president of the HHU. The University Council consists of three internal and five external members. It gives advice to
19200-556: The publication of this work. In London he cashed a cheque from his uncle for £ 200 (equal to £21,870 today), much to Salomon's chagrin. Heine was unimpressed by the English: he found them commercial and prosaic, and still blamed them for the defeat of Napoleon. On his return to Germany, Cotta , the liberal publisher of Goethe and Schiller , offered Heine a job co-editing a magazine, Politische Annalen , in Munich . Heine did not find work on
19350-586: The remainder of his life. His move was prompted by the July Revolution of 1830 that had made Louis-Philippe the "Citizen King" of the French. Heine shared liberal enthusiasm for the revolution, which he felt had the potential to overturn the conservative political order in Europe. Heine was also attracted by the prospect of freedom from German censorship and was interested in the new French utopian political doctrine of Saint-Simonianism . Saint-Simonianism preached
19500-777: The research hubs in the faculty are linguistics (CRC 991), politics (Research Unit 1381), ancient history (funded by the NRW Academy for the Arts and Sciences), the history of art, and editing studies (complete works editions of Max Weber and Martin Buber in progress). Beyond that, the Faculty of Arts and Humanities contributes to HHU's Institute of German and International Party Law and Party Research (PRuF). HHU's second largest faculty offers its approximately 6,500 students (winter semester 2011/12) ten basic programmes (B.A. and state examination) and nine graduate programmes (MSc). Special programmes such as
19650-423: The rest of his life. Their stormy relationship has been compared to a marriage. Campe was a liberal who published as many dissident authors as he could. He had developed various techniques for evading the authorities. The laws of the time stated that any book under 320 pages had to be submitted to censorship. The authorities thought long books would cause little trouble as they were unpopular. One way around censorship
19800-437: The rest of his life. They were married in 1841. Heine and his fellow radical exile in Paris, Ludwig Börne , had become the role models for a younger generation of writers who were given the name " Young Germany ". They included Karl Gutzkow , Heinrich Laube , Theodor Mundt and Ludolf Wienbarg . They were liberal, but not actively political. Nevertheless, they still fell foul of the authorities. In 1835, Gutzkow published
19950-533: The revolutionary currents of the modern world. Heine thought that such an image suited the oppressive German authorities. He also had an Enlightenment view of the past, seeing it as mired in superstition and atrocities. "Religion and Philosophy in Germany" describes the replacement of traditional "spiritualist" religion by a pantheism that pays attention to human material needs. According to Heine, pantheism had been repressed by Christianity and had survived in German folklore. He predicted that German thought would prove
20100-480: The rising German form of nationalism , especially in contrast to the French and the revolution . Nevertheless, he made a point of stressing his love for his Fatherland : Plant the black, red, gold banner at the summit of the German idea, make it the standard of free mankind, and I will shed my dear heart's blood for it. Rest assured, I love the Fatherland just as much as you do. The first volume of travel writings
20250-696: The sea sighing long and anxiously. She was so deeply stirred By the setting sun My Fräulein!, be gay, This is an old play; ahead of you it sets And from behind it returns. The blue flower of Novalis , "symbol for the Romantic movement ", also received withering treatment from Heine during this period, as illustrated by the following quatrains from Lyrisches Intermezzo : Am Kreuzweg wird begraben Wer selber brachte sich um; dort wächst eine blaue Blume, Die Armesünderblum'. Am Kreuzweg stand ich und seufzte; Die Nacht war kalt und stumm. Im Mondschein bewegte sich langsam Die Armesünderblum'. At
20400-511: The second volume of Reisebilder . He counter-attacked by writing a play, Der romantische Ödipus , which included anti-Semitic jibes about Heine. Heine was stung and responded by mocking Platen's homosexuality in Die Bäder von Lucca . This back-and-forth ad hominem literary polemic has become known as the Platen affair [ de ] . Heine left Germany for France in 1831, settling in Paris for
20550-457: The target antigen. To aid in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, immunoassays can detect or measure antigens from either infectious agents or proteins generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent. For example, immunoassay A may detect the presence of a surface protein from a virus particle. Immunoassay B on the other hand may detect or measure antibodies produced by an organism's immune system that are made to neutralize and allow
20700-559: The taxonomically classified pathogen genomes to generate an antimicrobial resistance profile – analogous to antibiotic sensitivity testing – to facilitate antimicrobial stewardship and allow for the optimization of treatment using the most effective drugs for a patient's infection. Metagenomic sequencing could prove especially useful for diagnosis when the patient is immunocompromised . An ever-wider array of infectious agents can cause serious harm to individuals with immunosuppression, so clinical screening must often be broader. Additionally,
20850-503: The test. For example, " Strep throat " is often diagnosed within minutes, and is based on the appearance of antigens made by the causative agent, S. pyogenes , that is retrieved from a patient's throat with a cotton swab. Serological tests, if available, are usually the preferred route of identification, however the tests are costly to develop and the reagents used in the test often require refrigeration . Some serological methods are extremely costly, although when commonly used, such as with
21000-451: The university public. Further senate members are the chancellor and the president. University law gives the senate the right to confirm elected rectorate members in their office. Furthermore, it can give "recommendations and statements" concerning the university's development. To a certain extent, statements have a binding character for the President's Office. Each faculty council represents
21150-411: The use of live animals unnecessary. Viruses are also usually identified using alternatives to growth in culture or animals. Some viruses may be grown in embryonated eggs. Another useful identification method is Xenodiagnosis, or the use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent. Chagas disease is the most significant example, because it is difficult to directly demonstrate the presence of
21300-404: Was a republican, while Heine was not. Heine regarded Börne, with his admiration for Robespierre , as a puritanical neo-Jacobin and remained aloof from him in Paris, which upset Börne, who began to criticise him, mostly semi-privately. In February 1837, Börne died. When Heine heard that Gutzkow was writing a biography of Börne, he began work on his own, severely critical "memorial" of the man. When
21450-460: Was a textile merchant. His mother Peira (known as "Betty"), née van Geldern (1771–1859), was the daughter of a physician. Heinrich was the eldest of four children. He had a sister, Charlotte (later Charlotte Embden [ de ] ), and two brothers, Gustav , later Baron Heine-Geldern and publisher of the Viennese newspaper Fremden-Blatt [ de ] , and Maximilian , who became
21600-461: Was closed. Campe was reluctant to publish uncensored books as he had bad experiences with print runs being confiscated. Heine resisted all censorship; this issue became a bone of contention between the two. However, the relationship between author and publisher started well: Campe published the first volume of Reisebilder ("Travel Pictures") in May 1826. This volume included Die Harzreise , which marked
21750-576: Was decided that Heine should enter law. So, in 1819, Heine went to the University of Bonn , then in Prussia. Political life in Germany was divided between conservatives and liberals. The conservatives, who were in power, wanted to restore things to the way they were before the French Revolution . They were against German unification because they felt a united Germany might fall victim to revolutionary ideas. Most German states were absolutist monarchies with
21900-669: Was only really suited to writing but it was extremely difficult to be a professional writer in Germany. The market for literary works was small and it was only possible to make a living by writing virtually non-stop. Heine was incapable of doing this so he never had enough money to cover his expenses. Before finding work, Heine visited the North Sea resort of Norderney which inspired the free verse poems of his cycle Die Nordsee . In Hamburg one evening in January 1826 Heine met Julius Campe [ de ] , who would be his chief publisher for
22050-540: Was particularly drawn to the Spanish Jews of the Middle Ages . In 1824 Heine began a historical novel, Der Rabbi von Bacherach , which he never finished. In May 1823 Heine left Berlin for good and joined his family at their new home in Lüneburg . Here he began to write the poems of the cycle Die Heimkehr ("The Homecoming"). He returned to Göttingen where he was again bored by the law. In September 1824 he decided to take
22200-702: Was successful in the EXIST competition of the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology (Germany) . At present five degree programmes at HHU are taught in English: The Faculty of Arts and Humanities offers English Studies (B.A.), Comparative Studies in English and American Literature (M.A.) and European Studies (M.A.); furthermore, an International MSc in biology and an English-language MSc in Physics address students at
22350-1297: Was such a success that Campe pressed Heine for another. Reisebilder II appeared in April 1827. It contains the second cycle of North Sea poems, a prose essay on the North Sea as well as a new work, Ideen: Das Buch Le Grand , which contains the following satire on German censorship: The German Censors —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— idiots —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— —— Heine went to England to avoid what he predicted would be controversy over
22500-490: Was to publish dissident works in large print to increase the number of pages beyond 320. The censorship in Hamburg was relatively lax but Campe had to worry about Prussia, the largest German state and largest market for books. It was estimated that one-third of the German readership was Prussian. Initially, any book which had passed the censor in a German state was able to be sold in any of the other states, but in 1834 this loophole
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