82-818: Heiho ( 兵補 , Heiho , " Auxiliaries ") were units raised by the Imperial Japanese Army during its occupation of the Dutch East Indies in World War II . Alongside the Heiho , the Japanese organized Giyūgun (義勇軍, "Volunteer army"), such as the Java -based " Defenders of the Homeland " (PETA; Indonesian : Pembela Tanah Air , Japanese : 郷土防衛義勇軍 , romanized : Kyōdo Bōei Giyūgun ). Indonesian youths who joined
164-509: A U.S. aviator shot down and injured near Saigon in French Indochina was left untreated for three days before being interrogated by Kempeitai , then killed with procaine . In July 1945, 15 U.S. airmen were captured and interrogated by the Kempeitai near Hiroshima; 12 died in the U.S. atomic bombing of the city on August 6, of which two were possibly clubbed to death at Hiroshima Castle by
246-532: A black chevron on their uniforms and a white armband on the left arm with the characters ken ( 憲 , 'law') and hei ( 兵 , 'soldier') , together read as kempei or kenpei, which transliterates to "military police". Until 1942, a full dress uniform comprising a red kepi , gold and red waist sash , dark blue tunic and trousers with black facings was authorized for Kempeitai officers on ceremonial occasions. Rank insignia comprised gold Austrian knots and epaulettes . Kempeitai officers were armed with
328-664: A branch of the IJA through its Administration Bureau, which was led by a provost marshal general who was answerable to the Minister of War . In Japan during peacetime, the Kempeitai was answerable to the Ministry of War for regular military duties, the Home Ministry for civil police duties, and Ministry of Justice for law administration duties. In war zones, the Kempeitai came under the control of that area's military commander. The Kempeitai
410-672: A figurehead for the British Government, which was responsible to Parliament). In the British Isles, the reserve forces were controlled by lords lieutenant of counties until 1871, when the British Government took direct control. In the British colonies, which refers to those administered from 1782 to 1801 by the Home Office , from 1801 to 1854 by the War and Colonial Office , from 1854 to 1966 by
492-583: A highest rank of sergeant major. Kempeitai officers were usually graduates of the Imperial Japanese Army Academy or Army War College . In peacetime, officers typically had one year of training, while non-commissioned officers were trained for six months. In 1937, Western sources estimated there were 315 Kempeitai officers and 6,000 personnel of other ranks; in 1942, the U.S. Army estimated there were 601 Kempeitai officers in its Handbook on Japanese Military Forces . Japanese records show
574-524: A member of Heiho were to be between 18–25 years old, have a minimum height of 1.10 m (3 ft 7 + 1 ⁄ 2 in), an average weight of 45 kg (99 lb), be physically and mentally healthy, be well-behaved, and have completed at least primary education . The selected youths were promised to become members of the Imperial Army or Imperial Japanese Navy . In practice, however, Heiho were mostly put to work performing menial labor for
656-515: A number of militia and volunteer units continued to exist after 1908, generally being re-organised eventually on Territorial lines (though not administered as parts of the Territorial Army, and remaining local service). Most of these units continued to be viewed as auxiliary to the British Army, rather than parts of it (as this was no longer true of such units in the British Isles, this has led to
738-493: A part-time basis. Unlike a military reserve force , an auxiliary force does not necessarily have the same degree of training or ranking structure as regular soldiers, and it may or may not be integrated into a fighting force. Some auxiliaries, however, are militias composed of former active duty military personnel and actually have better training and combat experience than their regular counterparts. The designation "auxiliary" has also been given to foreign or allied troops in
820-1166: A peak of 34,834 Kempeitai officers and personnel during the war: 10,679 in Japan, 6,115 in central China, 4,946 in the Kwantung Army , 4,253 in north China, 1,927 in Korea, 1,094 in south China, 937 in Thailand, 829 in the Philippines, 758 in Malaya, 745 in Formosa, 540 in Burma, 538 in Java, 479 in occupied French Indochina, 387 in Sumatra, 362 in Singapore, 156 in Borneo, and 89 in the South Seas. Included within these numbers were Taiwanese, Malays, Chinese, Cambodians, and Vietnamese. In Indo-China
902-671: A permanent part of its role after the war when it was re-named the Territorial Army , remaining nominally a separate force (or army) from the British Army until 2014 when it became the British Army Reserve . The Militia in the British Isles was replaced with the Special Reserve in 1908, which sent drafts of replacements to regular units in wartime. After the First World War, this force was allowed to lapse. In British colonies,
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#1733084599228984-587: A regional recruitment basis. At the start of the 18th century, the English (from 1707, British ) military (as distinct from naval ) consisted of several regular and reserve military forces . The regular forces included district garrison artillery establishments that maintained forts and batteries, as well as field artillery, ready for war, with the batteries brought up to strength in war time by drafts from other military or naval forces, and field artillery trains formed during wartime, all of which would be absorbed into
1066-562: A stepping stone for a military career to improve their social standing, receive Japanese salaries, and avoid the rōmusha forced labor system. The auxiliary force was formed by order of the army section of the Imperial General Headquarters on 2 September 1942 and began recruiting members on 22 April 1943. The Japanese Sendenbu (宣伝部, "Publicity Department") propagated that Heiho was an opportunity for young people to serve their homeland and people. The requirements to become
1148-692: A unique gendarmerie organization known as the Kempei keisatsu , which operated from 1,642 police stations and recruited large numbers of Korean nationals. The Kempeitai was instrumental in suppressing Korean opinion and political participation, and played a major role in recruiting comfort women and in conscripting guards for prisoner of war camps. It carried out the empire's policies of suppressing Korean national identity, language, customs, and culture; it also promoted Japanese organizations and spread pro-Japan propaganda through Korea's daily newspapers. In 1931–1932, Japan invaded and occupied Manchuria and established
1230-664: Is to say the various part-time units maintained to act in support of the Regular Army (UK) . The Auxiliary Division was a British paramilitary police unit raised during the Irish War of Independence 1919–21. Recruited from former officers of the British Army who had served during World War I, the Auxiliary Division was a motorized mobile force nominally forming part of the Royal Irish Constabulary . Cumann na mBan
1312-494: The Army Act , or the earlier Mutiny Acts , though by the end of the 19th century they had become subject to the act while embodied for training with regular forces or for active service. Although remaining nominally separate forces from the British Army, the units of these forces in the British Isles became numbered sub-units (squadrons, battalions, or companies) or regular British Army corps or regiments, and ultimately were funded by
1394-744: The Colonial Office , from 1966 to 1968 by the Commonwealth Office , from 1968 to 2020 by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office , and since 2020 by the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office , and not to protectorates , which fell under the purview of the Foreign Office , or to British India , which was administered by the East India Company until 1858, and thereafter by the India Office ,
1476-592: The Double Tenth incident , arrested and tortured 57 people in response to an Allied raid on Singapore Harbour; 15 of them died in custody. In 1943–1944, the Kempeitai arrested 1,918 persons on Java, of whom 743 died while in custody (439 of whom were executed). In March 1944, the Kempeitai brutally suppressed a riot in Tasikmalaya in western Java, killing several hundred Muslims; Muslim leader Zainal Mustafa and 23 of his disciples were later executed. In September 1944,
1558-669: The Geneva Convention of 1929 (not ratified by Japan). A total of 350,000 prisoners were taken and housed in 176 camps in Japan and about 500 in occupied territories. The Kempeitai impressed many POWs and civilians into slave labour gangs for war work, and subjected them to torture, including standing inside small cages set on top of red ant nests and lashing to trees with barbed wire. Prisoners were forced to sign non-escape oaths, and those who escaped and were recaptured were subjected to beatings and torture as examples in front of other prisoners. 27 percent of Allied POWs taken by Japan during
1640-528: The Heiho were never given high ranks or positions, contrasted by the young people who were members of PETA or other Giyūgun and often received appointments and promotions. This discrimination carried over into public life, where Heiho members had to salute any Japanese citizen , both civilians and military. The name was mostly used to point about Indonesian units of the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces, although over time it had become coined as
1722-498: The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA). The organization also shared civilian secret police that specialized clandestine and covert operation, counterinsurgency, counterintelligence, HUMINT, interrogate suspects who may be allied soldiers, spies or resistance movement, maintain security of prisoner of war camps, raiding to capture high-value targets, and providing security at important government and military locations at risk of being sabotaged roles within Japan and its occupied territories, and
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#17330845992281804-666: The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). A member of the Kempeitai corps was called a kempei ( 憲兵 ) . The Kempeitai was based on the France National Gendarmerie . The Kempeitai was established on 4 January 1881, during the Meiji era , by order of the Great Council of State as part of a broader modernization and Westernization of the Japanese military. Initially, the organization was an elite corps of 349 men, and
1886-414: The Kempeitai at Hangzhou ; they were paraded through the streets, ridiculed, beaten, and tortured before being doused with petrol and burned alive. In February 1945, six British airmen were captured in southern Burma and interrogated by the Kempeitai before being lined up on the edge of a trench, blindfolded, and beheaded by a Kempeitai officer; their bodies were used for bayonet practice. In May 1945,
1968-604: The Kempeitai executed the Rajah of Loeang and 95 natives from the Loeang and Sermata Islands for failing to turn over guerrillas who had allegedly assassinated several officers. On 7 July 1945, the Kempeitai killed 600 inhabitants of the village of Kalagon in the Moulmein region of southeast Burma in the Kalagon massacre as reprisal for local guerrilla attacks after interrogation, beatings, and
2050-640: The Kempeitai particularly recruited from members of the Cao Dai religious sect. In Japan, the Kempeitai often assisted local civilian law authorities (though it was not a gendarmerie ), and targeted students, farmers, socialists, communists, pacifists, foreign workers, and any showing irreverence for the emperor. In occupied territories and war zones, the Kempeitai was responsible for issuing travel permits , recruiting labor, arresting members of resistances, requisitioning food and supplies, spreading propaganda, and suppressing anti-Japanese sentiment. The organization
2132-467: The Kempeitai recruited large numbers of locals in those territories. Taiwanese and Koreans were extensively used as auxiliaries to guard POWs and police the newly occupied areas in Southeast Asia , and the Kempeitai also carried out recruitment activities among the populations of French Indochina , Malaya , and other territories. The Kempeitai also operated on the Japanese home islands, where it
2214-587: The Kempeitai , and two were possibly stoned to death by civilians. The Kempeitai organized regular and violent reprisals against populations in Japan's occupied territories. After the Doolittle Raid, it carried out reprisals against thousands of Chinese civilians accused of helping U.S. airmen. In 1942, it carried out the Sook Ching , a mass killing in Singapore after it fell to the Japanese, and in October 1943, in
2296-562: The Kempeitai ; three were sentenced to death and executed in October 1942, while five others had their sentences commuted to life imprisonment. They were subjected to mental torture in the form of mock executions . Every airman captured in occupied territory after the raid was starved, interrogated, and tortured by the Kempeitai ; by May 1945, the Kempeitai decided that formal trials were a waste of time, and executed airmen (often by beheading) soon after their courts-martial had been approved. In December 1944, three U.S. airmen were arrested by
2378-521: The Kempeitai, were conducted on Allied POWs in the southeast Pacific. In February 1944, an outbreak of tetanus among hundreds of laborers in Java, possibly tied to the biological warfare program, was traced to contaminated vaccines. The Kempeitai accused Achmad Muchtar of the Eykman Institute in Jakarta, who treated many of the victims, of deliberately contaminating the vaccines to sabotage labor for
2460-530: The Kwantung Army 's Kempeitai (1937–1938) and later commander of Tokyo Kempeitai (1938–1940) and Eastern District Army ; and notoriously General Hideki Tojo , commander of the Kwantung Army Kempeitai (1935–1937) and later Minister of War, Prime Minister, and Chief of the General Staff. As further foreign territories fell under Japanese military occupation during the 1930s and the early 1940s,
2542-726: The Pacific War , including in the Philippines , Thailand , Morotai (in present-day Indonesia ), Rabaul ( Papua New Guinea ), Balikpapan (Indonesia), and Burma . Due to lack of training, they were more often than not used as cannon fodder or "martyred" as suicide bombers when a Japanese defeat seemed imminent. After receiving several months of training, the Heiho troops were considered to have better military capabilities than PETA troops. On that basis, Heiho members were reassigned to air defence , field artillery , armor , mortar , and logistics units. The recruitment of Heiho into
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2624-648: The Roman army of the Republican and early Empire periods was essentially based on the heavy infantry who made up the legions , it favored the recruitment of auxiliaries that excelled in supplementary roles. These included specialists such as missile troops (e.g. Balearic slingers and Cretan archers ), cavalry (recruited among peoples such as the Numidians , and the Thracians ), or light infantry . Auxiliaries were not paid at
2706-744: The Royal Artillery on or after its 1716 formation, and the Royal Engineers (an officer-only corps responsible for planning naval and military works in garrisons and on expedition), both of which, with the civilian-staffed stores, transport, Commissariat, and other departments were all parts of the Board of Ordnance , and the English Army (after 1707, the British Army ), composed primarily of cavalry and infantry. The Horse and Foot Guards were considered parts of
2788-786: The Royal Gibraltar Regiment , are considered parts of the British Army, while the Royal Montserrat Defence Force and the Falkland Islands Defence Force (both being single unit entities, with the unit named as a Force), as well as the Cayman Islands Regiment and the Turks and Caicos Regiment are technically auxiliaries (this is an archaic distinction, and makes no difference to the ways they are administered or deployed). The Auxiliary Legion
2870-641: The War Office , making them technically parts of the British Army. The Yeomanry and the Volunteer Force merged under the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907 in 1908 to become the Territorial Force . Although still meant to be local service, this force sent drafts of volunteers to regular battalions, and then entire units, overseas during the First World War. The potential to serve overseas in wartime became
2952-452: The collaborationist auxiliary police battalions of locally recruited police, which were created to fight the resistance during World War II mostly in occupied Eastern European countries. Hilfspolizei refers also to German auxiliary police units. There was also a HIPO Corps in occupied Denmark . The term had also been applied to some units created in 1933 by the early Nazi government (mostly from members of SA and SS ) and disbanded
3034-498: The surrender of Japan and a number of auxiliaries went on to become members of the People's Security Agency (BKR; Indonesian : Badan Keamanan Rakyat ). Auxiliaries Auxiliaries are support personnel that assist the military or police but are organised differently from regular forces . Auxiliary may be military volunteers undertaking support functions or performing certain duties such as garrison troops, usually on
3116-784: The British Army in 1855. During the same period, the British Army Regular Reserve was created (in 1859 by Secretary of State for War Sidney Herbert , and re-organised under the Reserve Force Act 1867 ) and, to prevent confusion, the Reserve Forces were increasingly referred to instead as the Auxiliary Forces or the Local Forces . Officers of the Reserve or Auxiliary Forces took precedence below British Army officers of
3198-428: The British Army, though falling under the Royal Household there were differences in their command and administration. There were also other minor forces of little military significance, such as the Yeomen of the Guard . The reserve military forces included the Honourable Artillery Company and the Militia (or Constitutional Force ), which was normally an infantry-only force until the 1850s. To these would be added
3280-516: The British Empire: In East Germany the FH for Freiwilliger Helfer der Volkspolizei (English: "Voluntary Auxiliary of the People´s Police" ) was an auxiliary police service from 1952 to 1990. France made extensive use of tribal allies ( goumiers ) as auxiliaries in its North African possessions. During the Algerian War of 1954–62 large numbers of Muslim auxiliaries ( Harkis ) were employed in support of regular French forces. The Freiwillige Polizei-Reserve (FPR; Voluntary Police Reserve)
3362-405: The British administration in regions of the North West Frontier of India. Distinguished only by armbands they provided convoy escorts as a substitute for regular troops and units of the para-military Frontier Corps . Prior to the creation of the Territorial Force in 1908, the term "Auxiliary Forces" was used by the British Army to collectively cover Yeomanry , Militia and Volunteers . That
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3444-464: The Japanese Army; constructing fortifications, digging trenches, and guarding prisoners. As a result, Heiho quickly became a lightly-armed labor force as the only weapons handed out to the auxiliaries were taiken (隊剣, "corps sword"). Later, the Heiho members were given firearms when the Japanese were being pushed back by the Allies . They would also be sent to the front lines with Japanese forces and became involved in combat on several battlefields of
3526-401: The Japanese army was followed by their recruitment as Kenpeihō (憲兵法, "Auxiliary military police") for the Kenpeitai and Kaigun Heiho (海軍兵補, "Navy auxiliaries") for the Japanese navy. Heiho were not led by ethnic Indonesian commanders, but were under the command of Japanese officers. The training given was not related to organizational or military theory, but solely to physical fitness ,
3608-440: The Japanese mainland and throughout all occupied and captured overseas territories during the Pacific War . The external units operating outside Japan were: Kempeitai personnel wore either the standard M1938 field uniform or the cavalry uniform with high black leather boots. Civilian clothes were also authorized with rank badges or the Japanese Imperial chrysanthemum worn under the jacket lapel . Uniformed personnel also wore
3690-476: The Japanese, and imprisoned him for nine months before beheading him and running over his body with a steamroller . The Kempeitai also organized extensive criminal networks, which extorted vast amounts of money from businesses and civilians in areas where they operated; the forced prostitution system for the Imperial Army, whose victims were known as comfort women ; and the all-female Tokyo Rose radio propaganda broadcasts. The Kempeitai operated commands on
3772-662: The United States have largely stemmed from the era of the Second World War, finding a place in assisting the United States Military with resupply, surveillance, aid transportation, and military intelligence. Most historical units were dissolved around the end of the war in 1944–1945, with many integrating into the command of their formerly male counterpart units. The Freiwilliger Polizeidienst are auxiliary state police services in Germany under different denominations (for example Sicherheitswacht in Bavaria and Saxony and Freiwilliger Polizeidienst in Baden-Württemberg or Hesse ), operated by non-professional forces. In most states,
3854-493: The active knowledge of how immoral their actions were among perpetrators of the Holocaust. Throughout their service on the Eastern Front, when ordered to execute civilians en masse , members of the Battalion were frequently given the opportunity to reject participation in the events in lieu of standing guard at the perimeter or other less violent tasks. Battalion members were frequently rotated to avoid war fatigue and their veritable psychological destruction, and when participating in
3936-419: The amount of troops needed to serve on the frontline, women were allowed to serve as auxiliaries to the Wehrmacht, known as Wehrmachthelferin , to take over duties within Germany. The Nazis conscripted German women and girls into the auxiliaries of the Volkssturm . Correspondingly, girls as young as 14 years old were trained in the use of small arms, panzerfausts , machine guns , and hand grenades throughout
4018-513: The atrocities they often tried to shoot away from infants, mothers, and minors, preferring to try to shoot the elderly or the ill to ease their conscience. They would frequently turn to heavy drinking to try to quell the mental anguish caused by participation in these acts. While a minority was generally able to escape participation in the acts, most were willing volunteers, succumbing to social pressures pushed by an atmosphere of shared guilt and fervent hypermasculine nationalism. With an increase in
4100-497: The concept of seishin (精神, "spirit"), and the fostering of death-defying courage. By the end of the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, the number of Heiho troops was estimated to be 42,000 men (24,873 on Java, 2,504 on Timor , and c. 15,000 in other areas). The Heiho was dissolved by the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI; Indonesian : Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia , Japanese : 独立準備委員会 , romanized : Dokuritsu Junbi Iinkai ) after
4182-409: The end of World War II , the Kempeitai was an extensive corps with about 35,000 personnel. Founded in 1881 during the Meiji era , the size and duties of the Kempeitai grew rapidly as Japanese militarism expanded. During World War II, the organization ran Japan's prisoner of war and civilian internment camps, known for their mistreatment of detainees, and also acted as a political police force in
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#17330845992284264-421: The forces are composed of trained volunteers, acting as an assisting and reserve force to the regular police force. Due to the fact, that the voluntary police services are state-run institutions, the equipment, training and tasks differ. Through patrols, it is supposed to ensure public order and safety. Kenpeitai The Kempeitai ( Japanese : 憲兵隊 , Hepburn : Kenpeitai ) was the military police of
4346-428: The governors were generally appointed also as Captains-General or Commanders-in-Chief with similar powers to lords-lieutenant (in some colonies, notably Imperial fortresses such as Bermuda , the Governor was always a senior naval or military officer who also had control of units of the regular forces). The Reserve Forces were originally for local service, embodied for home defence in times of war or emergency. During
4428-452: The latter half of the 19th century and the early years of the 20th century, these various military forces would be increasingly integrated with the regular force, as the British Army became when the Board of Ordnance was abolished and its military corps (by then including the Royal Artillery, Royal Engineers, and the Royal Sappers and Miners ), as well as the commissariat, ordnance stores, transport, and barracks departments, were absorbed into
4510-446: The latter was responsible for supply, organization, and training; public security; and counterintelligence. The Navy, seeking to limit Army influence, also maintained its own military police corps, known as the Tokkeitai . Following the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), the Empire of Japan effectively controlled the Korean Peninsula , which was formally annexed into the empire as Chōsen in 1910. The Korean Kempeitai developed into
4592-438: The military and occupied territories. It carried out torture, summary executions , and violent reprisals and massacres against civilians, as well as procuring comfort women and human test subjects for Unit 731 . The Kempeitai was disbanded after the war, and many of its leaders were tried and convicted of war crimes. While institutionally part of the Army, the Kempeitai also discharged limited military police functions for
4674-429: The misconception in recent decades that these units are not part of the British military as the uninformed presume British military to connote British Army , although the Combined Cadet Force and the Army Cadet Force in the United Kingdom also remain separate forces). Today, the territorial units of the two old Imperial fortresses that remain British, Bermuda and Gibraltar , the Royal Bermuda Regiment and
4756-401: The mounted Yeomanry and the Volunteer Force , though the latter existed only in wartime until the 1850s. Similar reserve forces were raised throughout the British Empire. The reserve forces were auxiliary to the regular forces, and not parts of them. They were under the command of local representatives of the Crown (expressed as the Monarch , although by the 19th century the monarch had become
4838-420: The other. The Germans began suspecting Sorge, who was posing as a journalist sympathetic to Nazism, was a Soviet agent and in mid-1940 informed the Kempeitai that Sorge was under surveillance. The Kempeitai and Tokkō investigated and concluded that Sorge was a Soviet spy, and also came to suspect Ozaki, who was arrested on 15 October 1941. Information from his interrogation by the Tokkō implicated Sorge, who
4920-443: The puppet state of Manchukuo . It became a major zone of operations for the Kempeitai , with 18,000 personnel in the area by 1932. Many of Japan's wartime leaders built their reputations and careers as officers in the Manchurian Kempeitai , including Lieutenant General Toranosuke Hashimoto [ ja ] , commander of the Manchukuo Kempeitai (1932–1934) and later Vice Minister of War; General Shizuichi Tanaka , commander of
5002-623: The rape of women and children did not elicit information. The Chinese Kempeitai was responsible for providing human test subjects, codenamed maruta ('logs'), for the Army's biological warfare research program under Unit 731 near Harbin, Manchuria . Thousands of uncooperative prisoners and civilians were transported in windowless prison cars to the unit's facility under the Kempeitai 's Human Materials Procurement Arm and were subjected to medical experimentation, including vivisection , artificially-induced illness, frostbite , and simulated combat wounds. More experiments, also facilitated by
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#17330845992285084-432: The same rank (officers of the Yeomanry force and of the Volunteer Force similarly took precedence below officers of the Militia Force). When auxiliary units worked with Regular Forces, overall command was held by the highest-ranking officer of the Regular Forces, providing he held the same rank (or higher) as the highest-ranking officer of the Auxiliary unit. The personnel of the Auxiliary Forces were not originally subject to
5166-608: The same rate as legionaries, but could earn Roman citizenship after a fixed term of service. By the 2nd century AD the auxiliaries had been organised into permanent units, broadly grouped as Ala (cavalry), Cohors (infantry) and Cohors equitata (infantry with a cavalry element). Both cavalry alae and infantry cohors numbered between 480 and 600 men each. The mixed cohors equitata usually consisted of six centuries of foot soldiers and six squadrons of horsemen. Specialist units of slingers, scouts, archers and camel mounted detachments continued in existence as separate units with
5248-414: The same year due to international protests. Certain German auxiliary units, such as the Reserve Police Battalion 101 , committed horrendous massacres of Jewish , Romani , and other targeted ethnic groups while serving with the Wehrmacht and Einstazgruppen in Eastern Europe. The example of the Reserve Police Battalion 101 came to exemplify both civilian participation in the Holocaust , as well as
5330-414: The service of a nation at war. The term originated with the Latin eponymous Auxilia relating to non-citizen infantry and cavalry serving as regular units of the Roman Empire . In the context of colonial troops , locally recruited irregulars were often described as auxiliaries. Auxiliaries in the Roman army were recruited from provincial tribal groups who did not have Roman citizenship . As
5412-473: The term to refer to any unit the collaborated with Japan regardless of ethnicity. In addition, there was also a difference in salary, accommodation, and food with the heitai (兵隊, "soldiers") of the Giyūgun , which were adjusted according to the social status of the individual Heiho soldier. The monthly salary of a Heiho was only 30 rupiah for bachelors and 35 rupiah for married members. Still, many youths hoped that recruitment into Heiho would serve as
5494-432: The war died in captivity. Camp guards, often Korean and Formosan, were also abused by Kempeitai superiors. After the Doolittle Raid in April 1942, captured Allied airmen were accused of intentionally attacking civilians so were treated as war criminals rather than POWs, and were thus made subject to the death penalty. The U.S. airmen captured in China after the raid were subjected to harsh treatment and interrogation by
5576-413: The war. Hiwis were auxiliary forces recruited from the indigenous populations in the areas of Eastern Europe first annexed by the Soviet Union and then occupied by Nazi Germany . Adolf Hitler reluctantly agreed to allow recruitment of Soviet citizens in the Rear Areas during Operation Barbarossa . In a short period of time, many of them were moved to combat units. Auxiliary military units in
5658-483: The women's services of World War II were titled as or seen as auxiliaries to the male services. These services were: The Royal Auxiliary Air Force was originally an auxiliary of the Royal Air Force, when it was first conceived and formed in 1924. Today the RAuxAF acts as a military reserve ; this is reflected in its more common name 'RAF Reserve'. Other former British military or governmental auxiliary organizations included: Auxiliary organizations of Dominions of
5740-520: Was a British military force sent to Spain to support the Liberals and Queen Isabella II of Spain against the Carlists in the First Carlist War . During the Second Boer War Boer auxiliaries were employed by the British Army under the designation of "National Scouts". Recruited in significant numbers towards the end of the war from Afrikaner prisoners and defectors, they were known as hensoppers ("hands-uppers" i.e. collaborators) by their fellow Boers. Khussadars were tribal auxiliaries employed by
5822-413: Was an auxiliary police service of the German state of Berlin . It was founded on 25 May 1961 as reaction to the emerging Combat Groups of the Working Class and should originally help out the Berlin Police in riots and to defend West Berlin in case of an attack (urban warfare and object protection). For this purpose, the police reservists were trained in the use of small arms . This auxiliary force
5904-724: Was appointed as Vice Minister of War in 1938 and the National Diet passed an anti-espionage act in 1939 which expanded its power, the Kempeitai became even more visible and active in Japan. From 1933 to 1941, the Soviet Union operated a spy ring in Tokyo led by Richard Sorge and Hotsumi Ozaki , which gathered intelligence on Japanese intentions in the Far East. By 1940 both the Kempeitai and Tokkō suspected an espionage ring operating in Japan, though neither organization shared information with
5986-483: Was arrested on 18 October. Both men were tried, and executed by hanging on 7 November 1944. The Kempeitai was disbanded after Japan's surrender in 1945, upon which its officers were ordered to disperse and vanish. Nonetheless, many of its former commanders were convicted of war crimes. The post-war Self-Defense Forces military police corps, the Keimutai , has no jurisdiction over civilians. The Kempeitai formed
6068-611: Was commonplace. While its suspects were nominally subject to civilian judicial proceedings, they were often denied habeas corpus (the right to have one's case tried before a court). The Kempeitai had close ties with the Tokumu Kikan military intelligence agency, which reported directly to the Imperial General Headquarters ; the organizations jointly carried out clandestine and covert operation, counterinsurgency, counterintelligence, espionage, fifth-column , HUMINT, internal security, propaganda, and public security activities. After Tojo
6150-489: Was divided into sections ( buntai ) commanded by a captain or lieutenant and 65 other ranks, in turn divided into detachments ( bunkentai ) commanded by a second lieutenant or warrant officer and 20 other ranks. Each detachment had sections for police ( keimu han ), administration ( naikin han ), and special duties ( tokumu han ). Yasen Kempeitai operated in forward areas as field units. Volunteer ethnic Kempeitai auxiliaries, established under laws in 1919 and 1937, were allowed
6232-479: Was made up of field officers ( sakan ), non-commissioned officers ( kashikan ) and superior privates ( jotohei ). When needed, first- and second- class privates were attached from other services. A Kempeitai headquarters was established under each army of the IJA , and commanded by a major general or colonel. Each headquarters controlled two to three field offices, each commanded by a lieutenant colonel, 22 field officers ( sakan ), and 352 other ranks. Each field office
6314-444: Was notorious for its brutality and role in suppressing dissent. The broad duties of the Kempeitai included maintaining military discipline, enforcing conscription laws, protecting vital military zones, and investigating crimes among soldiers. In occupied areas, it also issued travel permits , recruited labor, arrested resistance, requisitioned food and supplies, spread propaganda , and suppressed anti-Japanese sentiment. At its peak at
6396-569: Was notorious for its brutality in suppressing dissent, and was responsible for widespread abuses, including forced labor, torture, and executions. Torture methods were taught at Kempeitai schools, and included flogging , waterboarding , burning and scalding, administration of electric shocks, knee joint separation, suspension from ropes, kneeling on sharp edges, fingernail and toenail removal, and digit fracturing. The Kempeitai also ran Japan's network of prisoner of war (POW) and civilian internment camps, which treated detainees in violation of
6478-427: Was responsible for maintaining public order as a secret police, alongside the civilian Special Higher Police (in the 1920s there were mentions of a joint Tokkō–Kempeitai organization). The two organizations served as public censors and overseers of private morals and thought. All prisoners were presumed guilty on arrest; examinations of suspects took place in secret, and the use of torture to extract confessions of guilt
6560-554: Was shut down in 2002 Between 1924 and 1941 the Italian Royal Corps of Colonial Troops employed auxiliary units of Dubats to police the frontier and desert regions of Italian Somalia . During the Russo-Japanese War , Japan made use of Manchurian honghuzi as auxiliaries against Russian forces. German paramilitary police forces, called Hilfspolizei or Schutzmannschaft , were raised during World War II and were
6642-417: Was tasked with the narrow role of enforcing the new army conscription legislation. Under laws passed in 1898 and 1928, the organization functioned in a General Affairs Section and a Service Section; the former took up the Kempeitai 's policy, personnel, discipline, and records functions, as well as political policing within the IJA and IJN parallel to the civilian Special Higher Police ( Tokkō ), while
6724-878: Was the preceding organisation of the Women's Arm of the Irish Volunteers that acted as an auxiliary in the Easter Rising and the Irish War of Independence. In 1941, the British government created an organization of Auxiliary Units in southern England , capable of waging a guerilla war against occupying forces should Britain be invaded by the Nazis . Since the invasion never came, they were ultimately never used in combat. The Auxiliary Units were meant to carry out assaults on German units, along with damaging train lines and aircraft if necessary. While working as full-time, active duty personnel,
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