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134-635: Much research on how to correct misinformation has focused on fact-checking . However, this can be challenging because the information deficit model does not necessarily apply well to beliefs in misinformation. Various researchers have also investigated what makes people susceptible to misinformation. People may be more prone to believe misinformation because they are emotionally connected to what they are listening to or are reading. Social media has made information readily available to society at anytime, and it connects vast groups of people along with their information at one time. Advances in technology have impacted

268-409: A " backfire effect " whereby correcting false information may make partisan individuals cling more strongly to their views. One study found evidence of such a " backfire effect ", but several other studies did not. A 2015 experimental study found that fact-checking can encourage politicians to not spread misinformation . The study found that it might help improve political discourse by increasing

402-574: A New York newspaper published from 1833 until 1950. It was considered a serious paper, like the city's two more successful broadsheets , The New York Times and the New York Herald Tribune . The Sun was the first successful penny daily newspaper in the United States , and was for a time, the most successful newspaper in America. The paper had a central focus on crime news, in which it

536-447: A barrier to their right to expression. Within the context of personal interactions, some strategies for debunking have the potential to be effective. Simply delivering facts is frequently ineffective because misinformation belief is often not the result of a deficit of accurate information, although individuals may be more likely to change their beliefs in response to information shared by someone with whom they have close social ties, like

670-550: A contributing factor to misinformation belief. One study found that an individual's recollection of political events could be altered when presented with misinformation about the event, even when primed to identify warning signs of misinformation. Misinformation may also be appealing by seeming novel or incorporating existing steoreotypes . Research has yielded a number of strategies that can be employed to identify misinformation, many of which share common features. According to Anne Mintz, editor of Web of Deception: Misinformation on

804-481: A control without tags , but only modestly". A Dartmouth study led by Brendan Nyhan found that Facebook tags had a greater impact than the Yale study found. A "disputed" tag on a false headline reduced the number of respondents who considered the headline accurate from 29% to 19%, whereas a "rated false" tag pushed the number down to 16%. A 2019 study found that the "disputed" tag reduced Facebook users' intentions to share

938-811: A desire to appear objective". The term "fact-check" is also appropriated and overused by "partisan sites", which may lead people to "disregard fact-checking as a meaningless, motivated exercise if all content is claimed to be fact-checked". Fact-checking journalists have been harassed online and offline, ranging from hate mail and death threats to police intimidation and lawfare . Operators of some fact-checking websites in China admit to self-censorship . Fact-checking websites in China often avoid commenting on political, economic, and other current affairs. Several Chinese fact-checking websites have been criticized for lack of transparency with regard to their methodology and sources, and for following Chinese propaganda . Among

1072-451: A fact-check about a false anti-abortion claim after receiving pressure from Republican senators. In 2022 and 2023, many social media platforms such as Meta, YouTube and Twitter have significantly reduced resources in Trust and safety , including fact-checking. Twitter under Elon Musk has severely limited access by academic researchers to Twitter's API by replacing previously free access with

1206-418: A fake news story next to the fake news story link whenever it is shared on Facebook. Based on the findings of a 2017 study in the journal Psychological Science, the most effective ways to reduce misinformation through corrections is by: Large studies by Ethan Porter and Thomas J. Wood found that misinformation propagated by Donald Trump was more difficult to dispel with the same techniques, and generated

1340-528: A fake news story. The Yale study found evidence of a backfire effect among Trump supporters younger than 26 years whereby the presence of both untagged and tagged fake articles made the untagged fake articles appear more accurate. In response to research which questioned the effectiveness of the Facebook "disputed" tags, Facebook decided to drop the tags in December 2017 and would instead put articles which fact-checked

1474-524: A friend or family member. More effective strategies focus on instilling doubt and encouraging people to examine the roots of their beliefs. In these situations, tone can also play a role: expressing empathy and understanding can keep communication channels open. It is important to remember that beliefs are driven not just by facts but by emotion, worldview, intuition, social pressure , and many other factors. Fact-checking and debunking can be done in one-on-one interactions, but when this occurs on social media it

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1608-470: A greater impact on reducing support for a politician than fact-checking of individual statements made by the politician. Individual readers perform some types of fact-checking, such as comparing claims in one news story against claims in another. Rabbi Moshe Benovitz, has observed that: "modern students use their wireless worlds to augment skepticism and to reject dogma." He says this has positive implications for values development: Fact-checking can become

1742-457: A groundbreaking series of articles by Malcolm Johnson , "Crime on the Waterfront". The series served as the basis for the 1954 movie On the Waterfront . The Sun ' s first female reporter was Emily Verdery Bettey , hired in 1868. Eleanor Hoyt Brainerd was hired as a reporter and fashion editor in the 1880s. Brainerd was one of the first women to become a professional editor, and perhaps

1876-552: A lack of field studies, the presence of testing effects that impede intervention longevity and scalability, modest effects for small fractions of relevant audiences, reliance on item evaluation tasks as primary efficacy measures, low replicability in the Global South and a lack of audience-tailored interventions, and the underappreciation of potential unintended consequences of intervention implementation. Websites have been created to help people to discern fact from fiction. For example,

2010-507: A large catalog of historical news sources with their veracity scores to encourage other researchers to explore and develop new methods and technologies for detecting fake news. In 2022, researchers have also demonstrated the feasibility of falsity scores for popular and official figures by developing such for over 800 contemporary elites on Twitter as well as associated exposure scores. There are also demonstrations of platform-built-in (by-design) as well browser -integrated (currently in

2144-464: A learned skill, and technology can be harnessed in a way that makes it second nature... By finding opportunities to integrate technology into learning, students will automatically sense the beautiful blending of… their cyber… [and non-virtual worlds]. Instead of two spheres coexisting uneasily and warily orbiting one another, there is a valuable experience of synthesis.... According to Queen's University Belfast researcher Jennifer Rose, because fake news

2278-595: A loss of third party tools often used for content moderation, and the difficulty for academic researchers to access Reddit data. Many fact-checkers rely heavily on social media platform partnerships for funding, technology and distributing their fact-checks. Commentators have also shared concerns about the use of false equivalence as an argument in political fact-checking, citing examples from The Washington Post, The New York Times and The Associated Press where "mainstream fact-checkers appear to have attempted to manufacture false claims from progressive politicians...[out of]

2412-479: A morning newspaper edited by Benjamin Day (1810–1889), with the slogan "It Shines for All". It cost only one penny (equivalent to 32¢ in 2023 ), was easy to carry, and had illustrations and crime reporting popular with working-class readers. It inspired a new genre across the nation, known as the penny press , which made the news more accessible to low-income readers at a time when most papers cost five cents. The Sun

2546-542: A new paper called the New York World-Telegram and Sun . That paper continued for 16 years; in 1966, it joined with the New York Herald Tribune to briefly become part of the World Journal Tribune , preserving the names of three of the most historic city newspapers, which folded amid disputes with the unions representing its staff the following year. The Sun first gained notice for its central role in

2680-420: A non-partisan neutral source such as PolitiFact . A 2022 study found that individuals exposed to a fact-check of a false statement by a far-right politician were less likely to share the false statement. Some studies have found that exposure to fact-checks had durable effects on reducing misperceptions, whereas other studies have found no effects. Scholars have debated whether fact-checking could lead to

2814-712: A potential step to a solution, the authors suggest the need of a "scientific community" to establish falsifiable theories , "which in turn makes sense of the facts", noting the difficulty that this step would face in the digital media landscape of the Internet. Social media platforms – Facebook in particular – have been accused by journalists and academics of undermining fact-checkers by providing them with little assistance; including "propagandist-linked organizations" such as CheckYourFact as partners; promoting outlets that have shared false information such as Breitbart and The Daily Caller on Facebook's newsfeed ; and removing

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2948-407: A profit could be made selling to them. The offices of The Sun were initially located on Printing House Square , now called Park Row , Manhattan, and was next to New York City Hall and New York City Police Department . It had a pigeon house built on the roof of its New York office at Nassau Street , receiving news from New York Harbor . They also later used horses, steamships , trains, and

3082-521: A research study of Facebook found that misinformation was more likely to be clicked on than factual information. Moreover, the advent of the Internet has changed traditional ways that misinformation spreads. During the 2016 United States presidential election , content from websites deemed 'untrustworthy' reached up to 40% of Americans, despite misinformation making up only 6% of overall news media. Misinformation has been spread during many health crises. For example, misinformation about alternative treatments

3216-461: A review by John Grierson of Robert Flaherty 's film Moana , in which Grierson said the film had "documentary value". This is considered the origin of the term "documentary film". The newspaper's editorial cartoonist, Rube Goldberg , received the 1948 Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning for his cartoon, Peace Today . In 1949, The Sun won the Pulitzer Prize for Local Reporting for

3350-399: A salient threat." Fact checking may also encourage some politicians to engage in "strategic ambiguity" in their statements, which "may impede the fact-checking movement's goals." One experimental study found that fact-checking during debates affected viewers' assessment of the candidates' debate performance and "greater willingness to vote for a candidate when the fact-check indicates that

3484-477: A scene of the 1972 film The Godfather . The newspaper's offices were a converted department store at 280 Broadway, between Chambers and Reade streets in lower Manhattan, now known as " The Sun Building " and famous for the clocks that bear the newspaper's masthead and motto. They were recognized as a New York City landmark in 1986. The building now houses the New York City Department of Buildings . In

3618-731: A scheme relating to the US Postal Service , resulting in number of trials and increasing public support for civil service reform . An evening edition, known as The Evening Sun , was introduced in 1887. The newspaper magnate Frank Munsey bought both editions of the paper in 1916 and merged The Evening Sun with his New York Press . The morning edition of The Sun was merged for a time with Munsey's New York Herald as The Sun and New York Herald , but in 1920, Munsey separated them again, killed The Evening Sun , and switched The Sun to an evening publishing format. From 1914 to 1919, The Sun moved its offices to 150 Nassau Street , one of

3752-678: A short deadline can lead to factual errors and mistakes. An example of such is the Chicago Tribune ' s infamous 1948 headline " Dewey Defeats Truman ". Social media platforms allow for easy spread of misinformation. Post-election surveys in 2016 suggest that many individuals who intake false information on social media believe them to be factual. The specific reasons why misinformation spreads through social media so easily remain unknown. A 2018 study of Twitter determined that, compared to accurate information, false information spread significantly faster, further, deeper, and more broadly. Similarly,

3886-463: A subscription that starts at $ 42,000 per month, and by denying requests for access under the Digital Services Act . After the 2023 Reddit API changes , journalists, researchers and former Reddit moderators have expressed concerns about the spread of harmful misinformation, a relative lack of subject matter expertise from replacement mods, a vetting process of replacement mods seen as haphazard,

4020-746: A topic, the processes of researching and presenting information, or have critical evaluation skills are more likely to correctly identify misinformation. However, these are not always direct relationships. Higher overall literacy does not always lead to improved ability to detect misinformation. Context clues can also significantly impact people's ability to detect misinformation. Martin Libicki , author of Conquest In Cyberspace: National Security and Information Warfare , notes that readers should aim to be skeptical but not cynical. Readers should not be gullible , believing everything they read without question, but also should not be paranoid that everything they see or read

4154-430: Is a collective ignorance on how harmful image-based posts are compared to other types of misinformation. Social media platforms allow for easy spread of misinformation. The specific reasons why misinformation spreads through social media so easily remain unknown. Agent-based models and other computational models have been used by researchers to explain how false beliefs spread through networks. Epistemic network analysis

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4288-534: Is a monolith." David Spiegelhalter , the Winton Professor of the Public Understanding of Risk at Cambridge University , argued that "behind closed doors, scientists spend the whole time arguing and deeply disagreeing on some fairly fundamental things". Clarke further argued that "The binary idea that scientific assertions are either correct or incorrect has fed into the divisiveness that has characterised

4422-454: Is a story about the death of a New York newspaper called The Day , loosely based upon the Sun , which closed in 1950. The original Sun newspaper was edited by Benjamin Day, making the film's newspaper name a play on words (not to be confused with the real-life New London, Connecticut newspaper of the same name). The masthead of the original Sun is visible in a montage of newspaper clippings in

4556-553: Is created with the intention of misleading readers, online news consumers who attempt to fact-check the articles they read may incorrectly conclude that a fake news article is legitimate. Rose states, "A diligent online news consumer is likely at a pervasive risk of inferring truth from false premises " and suggests that fact-checking alone is not enough to reduce fake news consumption. Despite this, Rose asserts that fact-checking "ought to remain on educational agendas to help combat fake news". The term fake news became popularized with

4690-418: Is disseminated in order to hurt someone or their reputation. Examples include doxing , revenge porn , and editing videos to remove important context or content. Misinformation is information that was originally thought to be true but was later discovered not to be true, and often applies to emerging situations in which there is a lack of verifiable information or changing scientific understanding. For example,

4824-404: Is false. Factors that contribute to the effectiveness of a corrective message include an individual's mental model or worldview , repeated exposure to the misinformation, time between misinformation and correction, credibility of the sources, and relative coherency of the misinformation and corrective message. Corrective messages will be more effective when they are coherent and/or consistent with

4958-437: Is gaining momentum. However, fake news detection on social media presents challenges that renders previous data mining and detection techniques inadequate. As such, researchers are calling for more work to be done regarding fake news as characterized against psychology and social theories and adapting existing data mining algorithms to apply to social media networks. Further, multiple scientific articles have been published urging

5092-731: Is impossible to apply absolute terms such as "true" or "false" to inherently debatable claims. In September 2016, a Rasmussen Reports national telephone and online survey found that "just 29% of all Likely U.S. Voters trust media fact-checking of candidates' comments. Sixty-two percent (62%) believe instead that news organizations skew the facts to help candidates they support." A paper by Andrew Guess (of Princeton University), Brendan Nyhan (Dartmouth College) and Jason Reifler (University of Exeter) found that consumers of fake news tended to have less favorable views of fact-checking, in particular Trump supporters. The paper found that fake news consumers rarely encountered fact-checks: "only about half of

5226-444: Is ineffective against propaganda for at least three reasons: "First, since much of what skillful propagandists say will be true on a literal level, the fact-checker will be unable to refute them. Second, no matter how well-intentioned or convincing, the fact-check will also spread the initial claims further. Third, even if the fact-checker manages to catch a few inaccuracies, the larger picture and suggestion will remain in place, and it

5360-434: Is likely that other people may encounter and read the interaction, potentially learning new information from it or examining their own beliefs. This type of correction has been termed social correction. Researchers have identified three ways to increase the efficacy of these social corrections for observers. First, corrections should include a link to a credible source of relevant information, like an expert organization. Second,

5494-547: Is most often followed by a written report of inaccuracies, sometimes with a visual metric provided by the checking organization (e.g., Pinocchios from The Washington Post Fact Checker, or TRUTH-O-METER ratings from PolitiFact ). Several organizations are devoted to post hoc fact-checking: examples include FactCheck.org and PolitiFact in the US, and Full Fact in the UK . External post hoc fact-checking organizations first arose in

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5628-678: Is often used as an umbrella term to refer to many types of false information; more specifically it may refer to false information that is not shared to intentionally deceive or cause harm. Those who do not know that a piece of information is untrue, for instance, might disseminate it on social media in an effort to help. Disinformation is created or spread by a person or organization actively attempting to deceive their audience. In addition to causing harm directly, disinformation can also cause indirect harm by undermining trust and obstructing the capacity to effectively communicate information with one another. Disinformation might consist of information that

5762-471: Is one example of a computational method for evaluating connections in data shared in a social media network or similar network. Researchers fear that misinformation in social media is "becoming unstoppable." It has also been observed that misinformation and disinformation reappear on social media sites. Misinformation spread by bots has been difficult for social media platforms to address. Sites such as Facebook have algorithms that have been proven to further

5896-460: Is partially or completely fabricated, taken out of context on purpose, exaggerated, or omits crucial details. Disinformation can appear in any medium including text, audio, and imagery. The distinction between mis- and dis-information can be muddy because the intent of someone sharing false information can be difficult to discern. Malinformation is accurate information that is disseminated with malicious intent. This includes sensitive material that

6030-570: Is perhaps the most frequently quoted definition of the journalistic endeavor: " When a dog bites a man, that is not news, because it happens so often. But if a man bites a dog, that is news. " (The quotation is frequently attributed to Charles Dana , The Sun editor and part-owner between 1868 and his death in 1897.) From 1912, Don Marquis wrote a regular column, 'The Sundial', for the Evening Sun. In 1916, he used this to introduce his characters Archy and Mehitabel . In 1926, The Sun published

6164-462: Is sometimes criticized as being opinion journalism . A review of US politics fact-checkers shows a mixed result of whether fact-checking is an effective way to reduce misconceptions , and whether the method is reliable. Sensationalist newspapers in the 1850s and later led to a gradual need for a more factual media. Colin Dickey has described the subsequent evolution of fact-checking. Key elements were

6298-717: Is the process of verifying the factual accuracy of questioned reporting and statements. Fact-checking can be conducted before or after the text or content is published or otherwise disseminated. Internal fact-checking is such checking done in-house by the publisher to prevent inaccurate content from being published; when the text is analyzed by a third party, the process is called external fact-checking . Research suggests that fact-checking can indeed correct perceptions among citizens, as well as discourage politicians from spreading false or misleading claims. However, corrections may decay over time or be overwhelmed by cues from elites who promote less accurate claims. Political fact-checking

6432-429: Is this suggestion that moves minds and hearts, and eventually actions." They also note the very large amount of false information that regularly spreads around the world, overwhelming the hundreds of fact-checking groups; caution that a fact-checker systemically addressing propaganda potentially compromises their objectivity; and argue that even descriptive statements are subjective, leading to conflicting points of view. As

6566-523: Is when a correction increases the their belief in the misconception. One reason is that it can be interpreted as an argument from authority , leading to resistance and hardening beliefs, "because identity and cultural positions cannot be disproved." In other words "while news articles can be fact-checked, personal beliefs cannot." Critics argue that political fact-checking is increasingly used as opinion journalism . Criticism has included that fact-checking organizations in themselves are biased or that it

6700-480: The New York Herald , founded by James Gordon Bennett , they covered murder cases such as Helen Jewett 's murder, the murder of John C. Colt 's murder, Samuel Colt 's brother, and Mary Rogers 's case near Sybil's Cave . The Sun and The Herald took sides in these cases, championing working class people over the traditional landed and mercantile elites which, during this era, held disproportionate power over

6834-692: The 2016 United States presidential election , fake news has been a popular topic of discussion by President Trump and news outlets. The reality of fake news had become omnipresent, and a lot of research has gone into understanding, identifying, and combating fake news. Also, a number of researchers began with the usage of fake news to influence the 2016 presidential campaign. One research found evidence of pro-Trump fake news being selectively targeted on conservatives and pro-Trump supporters in 2016. The researchers found that social media sites, Facebook in particular, to be powerful platforms to spread certain fake news to targeted groups to appeal to their sentiments during

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6968-508: The Great Moon Hoax of 1835, a fabricated story of life and civilization on the Moon which the paper falsely attributed to British astronomer John Herschel and never retracted. The hoax featured man-bat creatures named the " Vespertilio -homo" that inhabited the moon and built temples. A Yale University delegation was sent to look after the article, and the whole story created much sensation at

7102-487: The Information Age , social networking sites have become a notable agent for the spread of misinformation, fake news , and propaganda. Social media sites have changed their algorithms to prevent the spread of fake news but the problem still exists. Image posts are the biggest spread of misinformation on social media, a fact which is grossly unrepresented in research. This leads to a "yawning gap of knowledge" as there

7236-666: The Journal of Politics found that "individuals consistently update political beliefs in the appropriate direction, even on facts that have clear implications for political party reputations, though they do so cautiously and with some bias... Interestingly, those who identify with one of the political parties are no more biased or cautious than pure independents in their learning, conditional on initial beliefs." A study by Yale University cognitive scientists Gordon Pennycook and David G. Rand found that Facebook tags of fake articles "did significantly reduce their perceived accuracy relative to

7370-513: The Reporters' Lab at Duke University's focus on providing resources to journalists. The adaptation of social media as a legitimate and commonly used platform has created extensive concerns for fake news in this domain. The spread of fake news via social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and Instagram presents the opportunity for extremely negative effects on society therefore new fields of research regarding fake news detection on social media

7504-671: The Spanish Armada sailed to fight the English. The Spanish postmaster and Spanish agents in Rome promoted reports of Spanish victory in hopes of convincing Pope Sixtus V to release his promised one million ducats upon landing of troops. In France, the Spanish and English ambassadors promoted contradictory narratives in the press, and a Spanish victory was incorrectly celebrated in Paris, Prague, and Venice. It

7638-435: The political spectrum , with right-wing readers more concerned with attempts to hide reality. It can be difficult to undo the effects of misinformation once individuals believe it to be true. Individuals may desire to reach a certain conclusion, causing them to accept information that supports that conclusion, and are more likely to retain and share information if it emotionally resonates with them. The SIFT Method, also called

7772-491: The telegraph , the Pony Express and Royal Mail Ships . Moses Yale Beach 's sons, Alfred Ely Beach and Moses S. Beach , took over the paper following his retirement. He celebrated the event at his house on Chambers Street , along with the other editors of Gotham , with guests including Congressmen Horace Greeley and James Brooks , and Abraham Lincoln's Chairman Henry Jarvis Raymond . In 1868, Moses S. Beach sold

7906-500: The 1994 movie The Paper , a fictional tabloid newspaper based in New York City bore the same name and motto of The Sun , with a slightly different masthead. In 2002, a new broadsheet was launched, styled The New York Sun , and bearing the old newspaper's masthead and motto. It was intended as a "conservative alternative" and local news-focused alternative to the more liberal The New York Times and other New York newspapers. It

8040-468: The 2016 United States presidential election, causing concern among some that online media platforms were especially susceptible to disseminating disinformation and misinformation. Fake news articles tend to come from either satirical news websites or from websites with an incentive to propagate false information, either as clickbait or to serve a purpose. The language, specifically, is typically more inflammatory in fake news than real articles, in part because

8174-585: The 2016 presidential race. Additionally, researchers from Stanford , NYU , and NBER found evidence to show how engagement with fake news on Facebook and Twitter was high throughout 2016. Recently, a lot of work has gone into helping detect and identify fake news through machine learning and artificial intelligence. In 2018, researchers at MIT's CSAIL created and tested a machine learning algorithm to identify false information by looking for common patterns, words, and symbols that typically appear in fake news. More so, they released an open-source data set with

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8308-510: The Americans who visited a fake news website during the study period also saw any fact-check from one of the dedicated fact-checking website (14.0%)." Deceptive websites that pose as fact-checkers have also been used to promote disinformation ; this tactic has been used by both Russia and Turkey. During the COVID-19 pandemic , Facebook announced it would "remove false or debunked claims about

8442-514: The Four Moves, is one commonly taught method of distinguishing between reliable and unreliable information. This method instructs readers to first Stop and begin to ask themselves about what they are reading or viewing - do they know the source and if it is reliable? Second, readers should Investigate the source. What is the source's relevant expertise and do they have an agenda? Third, a reader should Find better coverage and look for reliable coverage on

8576-675: The Information Environment was launched in 2023 as a consortium of over 250 scientists working to develop effective countermeasures to misinformation and other problems created by perverse incentives in organizations disseminating information via the Internet. There also is research and development of platform-built-in as well browser -integrated (currently in the form of addons ) misinformation mitigation. This includes quality/neutrality/reliability ratings for news sources. Misplaced Pages's perennial sources page categorizes many large news sources by reliability. Researchers have also demonstrated

8710-569: The Internet , one of the simplest ways to determine whether information is factual is to use common sense . Mintz advises that the reader check whether the information makes sense and whether the source or sharers of the information might be biased or have an agenda. However, because emotions and preconceptions heavily impact belief, this is not always a reliable strategy. Readers tend to distinguish between unintentional misinformation and uncertain evidence from politically or financially motivated misinformation. The perception of misinformation depends on

8844-546: The US in the early 2000s, and the concept grew in relevance and spread to various other countries during the 2010s. External post hoc fact-checking by independent organizations began in the United States in the early 2000s. In the 2010s, particularly following the 2016 election of Donald Trump as US President , fact-checking gained a rise in popularity and spread to multiple countries mostly in Europe and Latin America. However,

8978-555: The US remains the largest market for fact-checking. One 2016 study finds that fact-checkers PolitiFact, FactCheck.org, and The Washington Post's Fact Checker overwhelmingly agree on their evaluations of claims. A 2018 paper found little overlap in the statements checked by different fact-checking organizations. This paper compared 1,178 published fact-checks from PolitiFact with 325 fact-checks from The Washington Post ' s Fact Checker, and found only 77 statements (about 5%) that both organizations checked. For those 77 statements,

9112-930: The audience's worldview. They will be less effective when misinformation is believed to come from a credible source, is repeated prior to correction (even if the repetition occurs in the process of debunking), and/or when there is a time lag between the misinformation exposure and corrective message. Additionally, corrective messages delivered by the original source of the misinformation tend to be more effective. However, misinformation research has often been criticized for its emphasis on efficacy (i.e., demonstrating effects of interventions in controlled experiments) over effectiveness (i.e., confirming real-world impacts of these interventions). Critics argue that while laboratory settings may show promising results, these do not always translate into practical, everyday situations where misinformation spreads. Research has identified several major challenges in this field: an overabundance of lab research and

9246-486: The behavior, in general, of both the speaker (making them more careful in their pronouncements) and of the listener or reader (making them more discerning with regard to the factual accuracy of content); observations include the propensities of audiences to be completely unpersuaded by corrections to errors regarding the most divisive subjects, or the tendency to be more greatly persuaded by corrections of negative reporting (e.g., "attack ads"), and to see minds changed only when

9380-399: The benefits of printing only checked copy is that it averts serious, sometimes costly, problems. These problems can include lawsuits for mistakes that damage people or businesses, but even small mistakes can cause a loss of reputation for the publication. The loss of reputation is often the more significant motivating factor for journalists. The Sun (New York City) The Sun was

9514-425: The candidate is being honest." A study of Trump supporters during the 2016 presidential campaign found that while fact-checks of false claims made by Trump reduced his supporters' belief in the false claims in question, the corrections did not alter their attitudes towards Trump. A 2019 study found that "summary fact-checking", where the fact-checker summarizes how many false statements a politician has made, has

9648-430: The claim at hand to understand if there is a consensus around the issue. Finally, a reader should Trace claims, quotes, or media to their original context: has important information been omitted, or is the original source questionable? Visual misinformation presents particular challenges, but there are some effective strategies for identification. Misleading graphs and charts can be identified through careful examination of

9782-403: The correct information should be repeated, for example at the beginning and end of the comment or response. Third, an alternative explanation should be offered. An effective social correction in response to a statement that chili peppers can cure COVID-19 might look something like: “Hot peppers in your food, though very tasty, cannot prevent or cure COVID-19. The best way to protect yourself against

9916-916: The correction perceive its accuracy. While social correction has the potential to reach a wider audience with correct information, it can also potentially amplify an original post containing misinformation. Unfortunately, misinformation typically spreads more readily than fact-checking. Further, even if misinformation is corrected, that does not mean it is forgotten or does not influence people's thoughts. Another approach, called prebunking, aims to "inoculate" against misinformation by showing people examples of misinformation and how it works before they encounter it. While prebunking can involve fact-based correction, it focuses more on identifying common logical fallacies (e.g., emotional appeals to manipulate individuals' perceptions and judgments, false dichotomies , or ad hominem fallacies) and tactics used to spread misinformation as well as common misinformation sources. Research about

10050-515: The data presentation; for example, truncated axes or poor color choices can cause confusion. Reverse image searching can reveal whether images have been taken out of their original context. There are currently some somewhat reliable ways to identify AI -generated imagery, but it is likely that this will become more difficult to identify as the technology advances. A person's formal education level and media literacy do correlate with their ability to recognize misinformation. People who are familiar with

10184-412: The effective and efficient use of the information available on social media. An emerging trend in the online information environment is "a shift away from public discourse to private, more ephemeral, messaging ", which is a challenge to counter misinformation. Pew Research reports shared that approximately one in four American adults admitted to sharing misinformation on their social media platforms. In

10318-554: The efficacy of prebunking has shown promising results. A report by the Royal Society in the UK lists additional potential or proposed countermeasures: Broadly described, the report recommends building resilience to scientific misinformation and a healthy online information environment and not having offending content removed. It cautions that censorship could e.g. drive misinformation and associated communities "to harder-to-address corners of

10452-457: The establishment of Associated Press in the 1850s (short factual material needed), Ralph Pulitzer of the New York World (his Bureau of Accuracy and Fair Play, 1912), Henry Luce and Time magazine (original working title: Facts), and the famous fact-checking department of The New Yorker . More recently, the mainstream media has come under severe economic threat from online startups. In addition,

10586-416: The fact-checking had an impact. A 2019 study in the Journal of Experimental Political Science found "strong evidence that citizens are willing to accept corrections to fake news, regardless of their ideology and the content of the fake stories." A 2018 study found that Republicans were more likely to correct their false information on voter fraud if the correction came from Breitbart News rather than

10720-544: The fact-checking organizations gave the same ratings for 49 statements and similar ratings for 22, about 92% agreement. Different fact-checking organizations have shown different tendencies in their choice of which statements they publish fact-checks about. For example, some are more likely to fact-check a statement about climate change being real, and others are more likely to fact-check a statement about climate change being fake. Studies of post hoc fact-checking have made clear that such efforts often result in changes in

10854-424: The feasibility of falsity scores for popular and official figures by developing such for over 800 contemporary elites on Twitter as well as associated exposure scores. Strategies that may be more effective for lasting correction of false beliefs include focusing on intermediaries (such as convincing activists or politicians who are credible to the people who hold false beliefs, or promoting intermediaries who have

10988-440: The field further to find automatic ways in which fake news can be filtered out of social media timelines. Lateral reading, or getting a brief overview of a topic from lots of sources instead of digging deeply into one, is a popular method professional fact-checkers use to quickly get a better sense of the truth of a particular claim. Digital tools and services commonly used by fact-checkers include, but are not limited to: Since

11122-662: The first full-time fashion editor in American newspaper history. In 1881, the heroic legend of sheriff Bartholomew Masterson, known as " Bat Masterson ", started from the coverage of a Sun reporter whom he had duped. He was a companion of Buffalo Bill , and fought at the Battle of Dodge City War , and was later the subject of a book titled Gunfighter in Gotham and the American TV series Bat Masterson . The film Deadline – U.S.A. (1952)

11256-418: The first newspaper account of a suicide. This story was significant because it was the first about the death of an ordinary person. It changed journalism forever, making the newspaper an integral part of the community and the lives of the readers. Day was the first to hire reporters to go out and collect stories. Prior to this, newspapers dealt almost exclusively in articles about politics or reviews of books or

11390-531: The first skyscrapers made of steel, and one of the tallest in the city at the time. The tower was close to the New York Times Building , Woolworth Tower , and New York City Hall . In 1919, The Sun moved its offices to the A.T. Stewart Company Building, site of America's first department store, at 280 Broadway between Reade and Chambers Streets. 280 Broadway was renamed " The Sun Building " in 1928. A clock featuring The Sun 's name and slogan

11524-437: The following recommendations: A 2019 meta-analysis of research into the effects of fact-checking on misinformation found that fact-checking has substantial positive impacts on political beliefs, but that this impact weakened when fact-checkers used "truth scales", refuted only parts of a claim and when they fact-checked campaign-related statements. Individuals' preexisting beliefs, ideology, and knowledge affected to what extent

11658-602: The forefront of media issues. The holiday is held on April 2 because "April 1 is a day for fools. April 2 is a day for facts." Activities for International Fact-Checking Day consist of various media organizations contributing to fact-checking resources, articles, and lessons for students and the general public to learn more about how to identify fake news and stop the spread of misinformation. 2020's International Fact-Checking Day focused specifically on how to accurately identify information about COVID-19 . Research has shown that fact-checking has limits, and can even backfire, which

11792-529: The form of addons ) misinformation mitigation . Efforts such as providing and viewing structured accuracy assessments on posts "are not currently supported by the platforms". Trust in the default or, in decentralized designs, user-selected providers of assessments (and their reliability) as well as the large quantities of posts and articles are two of the problems such approaches may face. Moreover, they cannot mitigate misinformation in chats, print-media and TV . The concept for International Fact-Checking Day

11926-666: The hypotheses that believers in misinformation use more cognitive heuristics and less-effortfull processing of information have produced mixed results. At the group level, in-group bias and a tendency to associate with like-minded or similar people can produce echo chambers and information silos that can create and reinforce misinformation beliefs. At the societal level, public figures like politicians and celebrities can disproportionately influence public opinions, as can mass media outlets. In addition, societal trends like political polarization, economic inequalities, declining trust in science, and changing perceptions of authority contribute to

12060-444: The impact of misinformation. Historically, people have relied on journalists and other information professionals to relay facts. As the number and variety of information sources has increased, it has become more challenging for the general public to assess their credibility. This growth of consumer choice when it comes to news media allows the consumer to choose a news source that may align with their biases, which consequently increases

12194-478: The increased occurrence of extreme weather events in response to climate change denial ). Interventions need to account for the possibility that misinformation can persist in the population even after corrections are published. Possible reasons include difficulty in reaching the right people and corrections not having long-term effects. For example, if corrective information is only published in science-focused publications and fact-checking websites, it may not reach

12328-569: The individual in error was someone reasonably like-minded to begin with. Studies have shown that fact-checking can affect citizens' belief in the accuracy of claims made in political advertisement. A 2020 study by Paris School of Economics and Sciences Po economists found that falsehoods by Marine Le Pen during the 2017 French presidential election campaign (i) successfully persuaded voters, (ii) lost their persuasiveness when fact-checked, and (iii) did not reduce voters' political support for Le Pen when her claims were fact-checked. A 2017 study in

12462-534: The insults and smears spread among political rivals in Imperial and Renaissance Italy in the form of pasquinades . These are anonymous and witty verses named for the Pasquino piazza and talking statues in Rome . In pre-revolutionary France , "canards", or printed broadsides, sometimes included an engraving to convince readers to take them seriously. During the summer of 1587, continental Europe anxiously awaited news as

12596-549: The internet". Online misinformation about climate change can be counteracted through different measures at different stages. Prior to misinformation exposure, education and "inoculation" are proposed. Technological solutions, such as early detection of bots and ranking and selection algorithms are suggested as ongoing mechanisms. Post misinformation, corrective and collaborator messaging can be used to counter climate change misinformation. Incorporating fines and similar consequences has also been suggested. The International Panel on

12730-416: The journal Science , saying a new investigation is needed because 'theories of accidental release from a lab and zoonotic spillover both remain viable." The policy led to an article by The New York Post that suggested a lab leak would be plausible to be initially labeled as "false information" on the platform. This reignited debates into the notion of scientific consensus . In an article published by

12864-744: The left who criticized the assumptions of American imperialism", rebuttals that may not be factual themselves, issues of general media bias , and "the near ubiquitous refusal to identify patterns, trends, and ... intent in politicians' ... false statements". They further argue that political fact-checking focuses exclusively on describing facts over making moral judgments (ex., the is–ought problem ), assert that it relies on public reason to attempt to discredit public figures, and question its effectiveness on conspiracy theories or fascism . Likewise, writing in The Hedgehog Review in 2023, Jonathan D. Teubner and Paul W. Gleason assert that fact-checking

12998-459: The likelihood that they are misinformed. 47% of Americans reported social media as their main news source in 2017 as opposed to traditional news sources. Polling shows that Americans trust mass media at record-low rates, and that US young adults place similar levels of trust in information from social media and from national news organizations. The pace of the 24 hour news cycle does not always allow for adequate fact-checking , potentially leading to

13132-436: The media or by bloggers, they have been overgeneralized from studies on specific subgroups to incorrectly conclude that backfire effects apply to the entire population and to all attempts at correction. In recent years, the proliferation of misinformation online has drawn widespread attention. More than half of the world's population had access to the Internet in the beginning of 2018. Digital and social media can contribute to

13266-406: The medical journal The BMJ , journalist Laurie Clarke said "The contentious nature of these decisions is partly down to how social media platforms define the slippery concepts of misinformation versus disinformation . This decision relies on the idea of a scientific consensus. But some scientists say that this smothers heterogeneous opinions, problematically reinforcing a misconception that science

13400-564: The nation's politics and economy. Benjamin Day 's brother-in-law, Moses Yale Beach , joined the venture in 1834, became co-owner in 1835, and a few years later, became sole proprietor, bringing a number of innovations to the industry. It became the largest among the Gotham papers for 20 years, sometimes eclipsed by the New-York Tribune or the New York Herald . The newspaper printed

13534-449: The new coronavirus is to keep at least 1 meter away from others and to wash your hands frequently and thoroughly. Adding peppers to your soup won’t prevent or cure COVID-19. Learn more from the WHO." Interestingly, while the tone of the correction may impact how the target of the correction receives the message and can increase engagement with a message, it is less likely to affect how others seeing

13668-470: The news. There is also many social context features that can play a role, as well as the model of spreading the news. Websites such as " Snopes " try to detect this information manually, while certain universities are trying to build mathematical models to assist in this work. Some individuals and organizations publish their fact-checking efforts on the internet. These may have a special subject-matter focus, such as Snopes.com 's focus on urban legends or

13802-700: The newspaper to Charles A. Dana , the Assistant Secretary of War of Abraham Lincoln , and stayed a stockholder. In 1872 The Sun exposed the Crédit Mobilier Scandal , implicating a number of corrupt Congressmen and Vice President Schuyler Colfax in a corrupt scheme involving the construction of the Union Pacific Railroad , and in 1881 exposed the Star Route Scandal , implicating a number of high-profile politicians and businessmen in

13936-556: The novel coronavirus which created a global pandemic", based on its fact-checking partners, collectively known as the International Fact-Checking Network . In 2021, Facebook reversed its ban on posts speculating the COVID-19 disease originated from Chinese labs, following developments in the investigations into the origin of COVID-19 , including claims by the Biden administration, and a letter by eighteen scientists in

14070-454: The option for users to flag information that they think is false. Google provides supplemental information pointing to fact-checking websites in search results for controversial topics. On Facebook, algorithms may warn users if what they are about to share is likely false. In some cases social media platforms' efforts to curb the spread of misinformation has resulted in controversy, drawing criticism from people who see these efforts as constructing

14204-401: The pandemic." Several commentators have noted limitations of political post-hoc fact-checking. While interviewing Andrew Hart in 2019 about political fact-checking in the United States, Nima Shirazi and Adam Johnson discuss what they perceive as an unspoken conservative bias framed as neutrality in certain fact-checks, citing argument from authority , "hyper-literal ... scolding [of] people on

14338-513: The paper. In the 1940s, the newspaper was considered among the most conservative in New York City and was strongly opposed to the New Deal and labor unions. The Sun won a Pulitzer Prize in 1949 for an exposé of labor racketeering; it also published the early work of sportswriter W.C. Heinz . It continued until January 4, 1950, when it merged with the New York World-Telegram to form

14472-409: The people who believe in misinformation since they are less likely to read those sources. In addition, successful corrections may not be persistent, particularly if people are re-exposed to misinformation at a later date. It has been suggested that directly countering misinformation can be counterproductive, which is referred to as a "backfire effect", but in practice this is very rare. A 2020 review of

14606-440: The purpose is to confuse and generate clicks. Furthermore, modeling techniques such as n-gram encodings and bag of words have served as other linguistic techniques to estimate the legitimacy of a news source. On top of that, researchers have determined that visual-based cues also play a factor in categorizing an article, specifically some features can be designed to assess if a picture was legitimate and provides us more clarity on

14740-475: The rapid spread of misinformation and conspiracy theories via social media is slowly creeping into mainstream media. One solution is for more media staff to be assigned a fact-checking role, as for example The Washington Post . Independent fact-checking organisations have also become prominent, such as PolitiFact . Ante hoc fact-checking aims to identify errors so that the text can be corrected before dissemination, or perhaps rejected. Post hoc fact-checking

14874-468: The reputational costs or risks of spreading misinformation for political elites. The researchers sent, "a series of letters about the risks to their reputation and electoral security if they were caught making questionable statements. The legislators who were sent these letters were substantially less likely to receive a negative fact-checking rating or to have their accuracy questioned publicly, suggesting that fact-checking can reduce inaccuracy when it poses

15008-416: The researchers who initially proposed the occurrence of backfire effects, wrote in 2021 that the persistence of misinformation is most likely due to other factors. For most people, corrections and fact-checking are very unlikely to have a negative impact, and there is no specific group of people in which backfire effects have been consistently observed. In many cases, when backfire effects have been discussed by

15142-427: The same identities or worldviews as the intended audience), minimizing the association of misinformation with political or group identities (such as providing corrections from nonpartisan experts, or avoiding false balance based on partisanship in news coverage), and emphasizing corrections that are hard for people to avoid or deny (such as providing information that the economy is unusually strong or weak, or describing

15276-556: The same statement without an image. The translation of scientific research into popular reporting can also lead to confusion if it flattens nuance, sensationalizes the findings, or places too much emphasis on weaker levels of evidence . For instance, researchers have found that newspapers are more likely than scientific journals to cover observational studies and studies with weaker methodologies. Dramatic headlines may gain readers' attention, but they do not always accurately reflect scientific findings. Human cognitive tendencies can also be

15410-571: The same thing at the same time, they are very likely to get different results based on what that platform deems relevant to their interests, fact or false. Various social media platforms have recently been criticized for encouraging the spread of false information, such as hoaxes, false news, and mistruths. It is responsible with influencing people's attitudes and judgment during significant events by disseminating widely believed misinformation. Furthermore, online misinformation can occur in numerous ways, including rumors, urban legends, factoids, etc. However,

15544-572: The scientific guidance around infant sleep positions has evolved over time, and these changes could be a source of confusion for new parents. Misinformation can also often be observed as news events are unfolding and questionable or unverified information fills information gaps. Even if later retracted, false information can continue to influence actions and memory. Rumors are unverified information not attributed to any particular source and may be either true or false. Definitions of these terms may vary between cultural contexts. Early examples include

15678-456: The scientific literature on backfire effects found that there have been widespread failures to replicate their existence, even under conditions that would be theoretically favorable to observing them. Due to the lack of reproducibility , as of 2020 most researchers believe that backfire effects are either unlikely to occur on the broader population level, or they only occur in very specific circumstances, or they do not exist. Brendan Nyhan, one of

15812-505: The site FactCheck.org aims to fact check the media, especially viral political stories. The site also includes a forum where people can openly ask questions about the information. Similar sites allow individuals to copy and paste misinformation into a search engine and the site will investigate it. Some sites exist to address misinformation about specific topics, such as climate change misinformation. DeSmog , formerly The DeSmogBlog, publishes factually accurate information in order to counter

15946-405: The sources to investigate for themselves. Research has also shown that the presence of relevant images alongside incorrect statements increases both their believability and shareability, even if the images do not actually provide evidence for the statements. For example, a false statement about macadamia nuts accompanied by an image of a bowl of macadamia nuts tends to be rated as more believable than

16080-468: The spread of misinformation in which how content is spread among subgroups. Spontaneous spread of misinformation on social media usually occurs from users sharing posts from friends or mutually-followed pages. These posts are often shared from someone the sharer believes they can trust. Misinformation introduced through a social format influences individuals drastically more than misinformation delivered non-socially. Fact-checking Fact-checking

16214-422: The spread of misinformation – for instance, when users share information without first checking the legitimacy of the information they have found. People are more likely to encounter online information based on personalized algorithms. Google, Facebook and Yahoo News all generate newsfeeds based on the information they know about our devices, our location, and our online interests. Although two people can search for

16348-432: The spread of misinformation. Further, the distinction between opinion and reporting can be unclear to viewers or readers. Sources of misinformation can appear highly convincing and similar to trusted legitimate sources. For example, misinformation cited with hyperlinks has been found to increase readers' trust. Trust is even higher when these hyperlinks are to scientific journals, and higher still when readers do not click on

16482-559: The theater and relied, in the days before the organization of syndicates such as the Associated Press (AP) and United Press International (UPI), on items sent in by readers and unauthorized copies of stories from other newspapers. The Sun ' s focus on crime was the beginning of "the craft of reporting and storytelling". Crime news provided New Yorkers with information about how the city worked, dwelling on violations of justice, abuse of state power and corrupt schemes. The Sun

16616-489: The time. On April 13, 1844, The Sun published a story by Edgar Allan Poe now known as " The Balloon-Hoax ", retracted two days after publication. The story told of an imagined Atlantic crossing by hot-air balloon. Today the paper is best known for the 1897 editorial " Is There a Santa Claus? " (commonly referred to as "Yes, Virginia, There Is a Santa Claus"), written by Francis Pharcellus Church . John B. Bogart, city editor of The Sun between 1873 and 1890, made what

16750-438: The underlying factor is that it contains misleading or inaccurate information. Moreover, users of social media platforms may experience intensely negative feelings, perplexity, and worry as a result of the spread of false information. According to a recent study, one in ten Americans has gone through mental or emotional stress as a result of misleading information posted online. Spreading false information can also seriously impede

16884-524: The way people communicate information and the way misinformation is spread. Misinformation can influence people's beliefs about communities, politics, medicine, and more. The term also has the potential to be used to obfuscate legitimate speech and warp political discourses. The term came into wider recognition during the mid-1990s through the early 2020s, when its effects on public ideological influence began to be investigated. However, misinformation campaigns have existed for hundreds of years. Misinformation

17018-509: The well-funded disinformation campaigns spread by motivated deniers of climate change . Science Feedback focuses on evaluating science, health, climate, and energy claims in the media and providing an evidence-based analysis of their veracity. Flagging or eliminating false statements in media using algorithmic fact checkers is becoming an increasingly common tactic to fight misinformation. Google and many social media platforms have added automatic fact-checking programs to their sites and created

17152-488: Was a pioneer, and was the first journal to hire a police reporter . Its audience was primarily working class readers. The Sun is well-known for publishing the Great Moon Hoax of 1835, as well as Francis Pharcellus Church 's 1897 editorial containing the line " Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus ". It merged with the New York World-Telegram in 1950. The Sun began publication in New York on September 3, 1833, as

17286-430: Was also the first newspaper to hire newspaper hawkers to sell it on the street, developing the trade of newsboys shouting headlines. The Sun was the first newspaper to report crimes and personal events such as suicides, deaths, and divorces. The paper had a focus on police reports and human-interest stories for the masses, which consisted of short descriptions of arrests, thefts, and violence. With their competitor

17420-419: Was also the first newspaper to show that a newspaper could be substantially supported by advertisements rather than subscription fees, and could be sold on the street instead of delivered to each subscriber. Prior to The Sun , printers produced newspapers, often at a loss, making their living selling printing services. Day and The Sun recognized that the masses were fast becoming literate, and demonstrated that

17554-502: Was built at the corner with Broadway and Chambers Street. Munsey died in 1925 with a fortune of about 20 million dollars, and was ranked as one of the most powerful media moguls of his time, along with William Randolph Hearst . He left the bulk of his estate, including The Sun , to the Metropolitan Museum of Art . The next year The Sun was sold to William Dewart, a longtime associate of Munsey's. Dewart's son Thomas later ran

17688-555: Was introduced at a conference for journalists and fact-checkers at the London School of Economics in June 2014. The holiday was officially created in 2016 and first celebrated on April 2, 2017. The idea for International Fact-Checking day rose out of the many misinformation campaigns found on the internet, particularly social media sites. It rose in importance after the 2016 elections, which brought fake news, as well as accusations of it, to

17822-555: Was not until late August that reliable reports of the Spanish defeat arrived in major cities and were widely believed; the remains of the fleet returned home in the autumn. The first recorded large-scale disinformation campaign was the Great Moon Hoax , published in 1835 in the New York The Sun , in which a series of articles claimed to describe life on the Moon, "complete with illustrations of humanoid bat-creatures and bearded blue unicorns". The challenges of mass-producing news on

17956-675: Was spread during the Ebola outbreak in 2014–2016. During the COVID-19 pandemic , the proliferation of mis- and dis-information was exacerbated by a general lack of health literacy. Factors that contribute to beliefs in misinformation are an ongoing subject of study. According to Scheufele and Krause, misinformation belief has roots at the individual, group and societal levels. At the individual level, individuals have varying levels of skill in recognizing mis- or dis-information and may be predisposed to certain misinformation beliefs due to other personal beliefs, motivations, or emotions. However, evidence for

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