Misplaced Pages

#619380

125-485: One of the first theories of health behavior , the HBM was developed in 1950s by social psychologists Irwin M. Rosenstock, Godfrey M. Hochbaum, S. Stephen Kegeles, and Howard Leventhal at the U.S. Public Health Service . At that time, researchers and health practitioners were worried because few people were getting screened for tuberculosis (TB) , even if mobile X-ray cars went to neighborhoods. The HBM has been applied to predict

250-582: A behavior informatics perspective, a behavior consists of actor, operation, interactions, and their properties. This can be represented as a behavior vector . Although disagreement exists as to how to precisely define behavior in a biological context, one common interpretation based on a meta-analysis of scientific literature states that "behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of whole living organisms (individuals or groups) to internal or external stimuli". A broader definition of behavior, applicable to plants and other organisms,

375-477: A screening test , but produces a false negative in up to 50% of cases of cervical cancer. Other concerns is the cost of doing Pap tests, which make them unaffordable in many areas of the world. Confirmation of the diagnosis of cervical cancer or precancer requires a biopsy of the cervix. This is often done through colposcopy , a magnified visual inspection of the cervix aided by using a dilute acetic acid (e.g. vinegar ) solution to highlight abnormal cells on

500-439: A weak immune system , birth control pills , starting sex at a young age, and having many sexual partners. Genetic factors also contribute to cervical cancer risk. Cervical cancer typically develops from precancerous changes called cervical intraepithelial neoplasia over 10 to 20 years. About 90% of cervical cancer cases are squamous cell carcinomas , 10% are adenocarcinoma , and a small number are other types. Diagnosis

625-409: A Pepsi-drinker is less likely to purchase Coca-Cola, even if it is cheaper and more convenient. This is due to the preference of the consumer, and no matter how hard the opposing company tries they will not be able to force the customer to change their mind. Product placement in the modern era has little influence on consumer behavior, due to the availability of goods online. If a customer can purchase

750-493: A behavior actually occurs, antecedents focus on the stimuli that influence the behavior that is about to happen. After the behavior occurs, consequences fall into place. Consequences consist of rewards or punishments. Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms within the same species, and encompasses any behavior in which one member affects the other. This is due to an interaction among those members. Social behavior can be seen as similar to an exchange of goods, with

875-467: A consumer is hungry, then this physical feeling of hunger will influence them so that they go and purchase a sandwich to satisfy the hunger. Lars Perner presents a model that outlines the decision-making process involved in consumer behaviour. The process initiates with the identification of a problem, wherein the consumer acknowledges an unsatisfied need or desire. Subsequently, the consumer proceeds to seek information, whereas for low-involvement products,

1000-400: A dangerous neighborhood may be unable to go for a jog outdoors due to safety concerns. Furthermore, the HBM does not consider the impact of emotions on health-related behavior. Evidence suggests that fear may be a key factor in predicting health-related behavior. Alternative factors may predict health behavior, such as outcome expectancy (i.e., whether the person feels they will be healthier as

1125-403: A focus on behavior under natural conditions, and viewing behavior as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Behaviorism is a term that also describes the scientific and objective study of animal behavior, usually referring to measured responses to stimuli or trained behavioral responses in a laboratory context, without a particular emphasis on evolutionary adaptivity. Consumer behavior involves

1250-466: A form of benign tumor of epithelial cells, are also caused by various strains of HPV. However, these serotypes are usually not related to cervical cancer. Having multiple strains at the same time is common, including those that can cause cervical cancer along with those that cause warts. Cigarette smoking , both active and passive, increases the risk of cervical cancer. Among HPV-infected women, current and former smokers have roughly two to three times

1375-535: A given disease and prior contact with the disease, among other factors. The HBM suggests that modifying variables affect health-related behaviors indirectly by affecting perceived seriousness, susceptibility, benefits, and barriers. The HBM posits that a cue, or trigger, is necessary for prompting engagement in health-promoting behaviors. Cues to action can be internal or external. Physiological cues (e.g., pain, symptoms) are an example of internal cues to action. External cues include events or information from close others,

SECTION 10

#1732883493620

1500-421: A given health problem as serious are more likely to engage in behaviors to prevent the health problem from occurring (or reduce its severity). Perceived seriousness encompasses beliefs about the disease itself (e.g., whether it is life-threatening or may cause disability or pain) as well as broader impacts of the disease on functioning in work and social roles. For instance, an individual may perceive that influenza

1625-412: A good from the comfort of their home instead of purchasing in-store, then the placement of products is not going to influence their purchase decision. In management, behaviors are associated with desired or undesired focuses. Managers generally note what the desired outcome is, but behavioral patterns can take over. These patterns are the reference to how often the desired behavior actually occurs. Before

1750-407: A health problem. The HBM predicts that individuals who perceive that they are susceptible to a particular health problem will engage in behaviors to reduce their risk of developing the health problem. Individuals with low perceived susceptibility may deny that they are at risk for contracting a particular illness. Others may acknowledge the possibility that they could develop the illness, but believe it

1875-945: A health-related behavior. Interpersonal influences are also particularly difficult to measure as cues. Another reason why research does not always support the HBM is that factors other than health beliefs also heavily influence health behavior practices. These factors may include: special influences, cultural factors, socioeconomic status, and previous experiences. Scholars extend the HBM by adding four more variables (self-identity, perceived importance, consideration of future consequences and concern for appearance) as possible determinants of healthy behavior. They prove that consideration of future consequences, self-identity, concern for appearance, perceived importance, self-efficacy, perceived susceptibility are significant determinants of healthy eating behavior that can be manipulated by healthy eating intervention design. Health behavior Behavior ( American English ) or behaviour ( British English )

2000-427: A lengthy turn-around time to get results. Visual inspection with acetic acid and HPV DNA testing have been tried, though with mixed success. There are six licensed HPV vaccines: three bivalent (protect against two types of HPV), two quadrivalent (against four), and one nonavalent vaccine (against nine) Three HPV vaccines ( Gardasil, Gardasil 9 , and Cervarix ) reduce the risk of cancerous or precancerous changes of

2125-402: A low desire to quit. Additionally, the perceived benefits had a weak positive correlation meaning that the individuals saw that the adoption of healthy behaviors would have a beneficial impact on their overall lifestyle. Perceived barriers showed a weak negative correlation meaning that the more barriers the individual associated with stopping smoking then the less likely they were to quit. Lastly,

2250-495: A marketing tool and stand for Price, Promotion, Product, and Placement. Due to the significant impact of business-to-consumer marketing on consumer behavior, the four elements of the marketing mix, known as the 4 P's (product, price, place, and promotion), exert a notable influence on consumer behavior. The price of a good or service is largely determined by the market, as businesses will set their prices to be similar to that of other businesses so as to remain competitive whilst making

2375-507: A more serious CIN which, if left untreated, can develop into cervical cancer. CIN is often diagnosed during routine Pap smear examination or colposcopy. The naming and histologic classification of cervical carcinoma precursor lesions has changed many times over the 20th century. The World Health Organization classification system was descriptive of the lesions, naming them mild, moderate, or severe dysplasia or carcinoma in situ (CIS). The term cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)

2500-404: A particular action will reduce susceptibility to a health problem or decrease its seriousness, then he or she is likely to engage in that behavior regardless of objective facts regarding the effectiveness of the action. For example, individuals who believe that wearing sunscreen prevents skin cancer are more likely to wear sunscreen than individuals who believe that wearing sunscreen will not prevent

2625-508: A pathologist might report from a biopsy. These should not be confused with the Bethesda system terms for Pap test ( cytopathology ) results. Among the Bethesda results: Low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL) and high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL). An LSIL Pap may correspond to CIN1, and HSIL may correspond to CIN2 and CIN3, but they are results of different tests, and

SECTION 20

#1732883493620

2750-487: A person's beliefs and actions regarding their health and well-being . Health behaviors are direct factors in maintaining a healthy lifestyle. Health behaviors are influenced by the social, cultural, and physical environments in which we live. They are shaped by individual choices and external constraints. Positive behaviors help promote health and prevent disease, while the opposite is true for risk behaviors. Health behaviors are early indicators of population health. Because of

2875-422: A positive correlation for physical activity among PMI. These findings support previous literature that self-efficacy and perceived barriers plays a significant role in physical activity and it should be included in interventions. The study also stated that the participants acknowledged that most of their attention is focused on their psychiatric conditions with little focus on their physical health needs. This study

3000-410: A profit. When market prices for a product are high, it will cause consumers to purchase less and use purchased goods for longer periods of time, meaning they are purchasing the product less often. Alternatively, when market prices for a product are low, consumers are more likely to purchase more of the product, and more often. The way that promotion influences consumer behavior has changed over time. In

3125-430: A result of their behavior) and self-efficacy (i.e., the person's belief in their ability to carry out preventive behavior). The theoretical constructs that constitute the HBM are broadly defined. Furthermore, the HBM does not specify how constructs of the model interact with one another. Therefore, different operationalizations of the theoretical constructs may not be strictly comparable across studies. Research assessing

3250-407: A serious illness and who have an established relationship with a primary care doctor may be easily persuaded to get screened for the illness after seeing a public service announcement, whereas individuals who believe they are at low risk for the same illness and also do not have reliable access to health care may require more intense external cues in order to get screened. Self-efficacy was added to

3375-474: A vaginal mass may indicate the presence of malignancy. Also, moderate pain during sexual intercourse and vaginal discharge are symptoms of cervical cancer. In advanced disease, metastases may be present in the abdomen , lungs , or elsewhere. Symptoms of advanced cervical cancer may include loss of appetite , weight loss, fatigue, pelvic pain, back pain, leg pain, swollen legs, heavy vaginal bleeding, bone fractures, and (rarely) leakage of urine or faeces from

3500-509: A wide variety of health-related behaviors such as being screened for the early detection of asymptomatic diseases and receiving immunizations . More recently, the model has been applied to understand intentions to vaccinate (e.g. COVID-19), responses to symptoms of disease, compliance with medical regimens, lifestyle behaviors (e.g. sexual risk behaviors), and behaviors related to chronic illnesses , which may require long-term behavior maintenance in addition to initial behavior change. Amendments to

3625-555: Is a function of the degree to which people value a result and their evaluation of the expectation, that a certain action will lead that result. In terms of the health-related behaviors, the value is avoiding sickness. The expectation is that a certain health action could prevent the condition for which people consider they might be at risk. The following constructs of the HBM are proposed to vary between individuals and predict engagement in health-related behaviors. Perceived susceptibility refers to subjective assessment of risk of developing

3750-445: Is actively trying to conceive. Early stages (IB1 and IIA less than 4 cm) can be treated with radical hysterectomy with removal of the lymph nodes or radiation therapy . Radiation therapy is given as external beam radiotherapy to the pelvis and brachytherapy (internal radiation). Women treated with surgery who have high-risk features found on pathologic examination are given radiation therapy with or without chemotherapy to reduce

3875-408: Is another important factor both in the health belief model and in behavior change in general. When people believe that they actually have the power to prevent the given risk, then they are more likely to take the appropriate measures to do so. When individuals believe that they cannot change their behavior or prevent the risk no matter what they do, then they are less likely to engage in behavior to stop

Health belief model - Misplaced Pages Continue

4000-438: Is better. A radical abdominal trachelectomy with lymphadenectomy usually only requires a two- to three-day hospital stay, and most women recover very quickly (about six weeks). Complications are uncommon, although women who can conceive after surgery are susceptible to preterm labour and possible late miscarriage. A wait of at least one year is generally recommended before attempting to become pregnant after surgery. Recurrence in

4125-515: Is important to note in regards to the HBM because it illustrates how culture can play a role in this model. The Chinese culture holds different health beliefs than the United States, placing a greater emphasis on fate and the balance of spiritual harmony than on their physical fitness. Since the HBM does not consider these outside variables it highlights a limitation associated with the model and how multiple factors can impact health decisions, not just

4250-424: Is more effective than radiation alone. Chemoradiotherapy may increase overall survival and reduce the risk of disease recurrence compared to radiotherapy alone. Precancerous cells ( cervical intraepithelial neoplasia ) that would lead to cancer and early-stage cervical cancer (IA1) can be treated effectively by various surgical techniques. Surgical treatment methods include excision, where a cone-shaped portion of

4375-566: Is not beneficial before age 25, as the rate of disease is low. Screening is not beneficial in women older than 60 years if they have a history of negative results. The American Society of Clinical Oncology guideline has recommend for different levels of resource availability. Pap tests have not been as effective in developing countries. This is in part because many of these countries have an impoverished health care infrastructure, too few trained and skilled professionals to obtain and interpret Pap tests, uninformed women who get lost to follow-up, and

4500-416: Is not medically serious, but if he or she perceives that there would be serious financial consequences as a result of being absent from work for several days, then he or she may perceive influenza to be a particularly serious condition. Through studying Australians and their self-reporting in 2019 of receiving the influenza vaccine , researchers found that by studying perceived severity they could determine

4625-405: Is not yet considered a standard of care, as few doctors are skilled in this procedure. Even the most experienced surgeon cannot promise that a trachelectomy can be performed until after surgical microscopic examination, as the extent of the spread of cancer is unknown. If the surgeon is not able to microscopically confirm clear margins of cervical tissue once the woman is under general anaesthesia in

4750-405: Is one of the most common causes of cancer death with an incidence rate of 47.3 per 100,000 women. In developed countries , the widespread use of cervical screening programs has dramatically reduced rates of cervical cancer. Expected scenarios for the reduction of mortality due to cervical cancer worldwide (and specially in low-income countries) have been reviewed, given assumptions with respect to

4875-557: Is present, it is thought to be the most active single agent in periodic diseases. Such addition of platinum-based chemotherapy to chemoradiation seems not only to improve survival but also reduces risk of recurrence in women with early stage cervical cancer (IA2–IIA). A Cochrane review found a lack of evidence on the benefits and harms of primary hysterectomy compared to primary chemoradiotherapy for cervical cancer in stage IB2. Advanced-stage tumors (IIB-IVA) are treated with radiation therapy and cisplatin-based chemotherapy. On 15 June 2006,

5000-444: Is referred to as perceived threat. Perceived severity and perceived susceptibility to a given health condition depend on knowledge about the condition. The HBM predicts that higher perceived threat leads to a higher likelihood of engagement in health-promoting behaviors. Perceived severity refers to the subjective assessment of the severity of a health problem and its potential consequences. The HBM proposes that individuals who perceive

5125-536: Is similar to the concept of phenotypic plasticity . It describes behavior as a response to an event or environment change during the course of the lifetime of an individual, differing from other physiological or biochemical changes that occur more rapidly, and excluding changes that are a result of development ( ontogeny ). Behaviors can be either innate or learned from the environment. Behaviour can be regarded as any action of an organism that changes its relationship to its environment. Behavior provides outputs from

Health belief model - Misplaced Pages Continue

5250-436: Is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals , organisms , systems or artificial entities in some environment. These systems can include other systems or organisms as well as the inanimate physical environment. It is the computed response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious , overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary . Taking

5375-524: Is through consumer willingness to pay, and consumer preferences. This means that even if a company were to have a long history of products in the market, consumers will still pick a cheaper product over the company in question's product if it means they will pay less for something that is very similar. This is due to consumer willingness to pay, or their willingness to part with the money they have earned. The product also influences consumer behavior through customer preferences. For example, take Pepsi vs Coca-Cola,

5500-410: Is typically by cervical screening followed by a biopsy . Medical imaging is then done to determine whether or not the cancer has spread. HPV vaccination is the most cost-effective public health measure against cervical cancer. There are six licensed HPV vaccines. They protect against two to seven high-risk strains of this family of viruses and may prevent up to 90% of cervical cancers. By

5625-409: Is unlikely. Individuals who believe they are at low risk of developing an illness are more likely to engage in unhealthy, or risky, behaviors. Individuals who perceive a high risk that they will be personally affected by a particular health problem are more likely to engage in behaviors to decrease their risk of developing the condition. The combination of perceived severity and perceived susceptibility

5750-405: The intention with self-efficacy from individual's mastery in problem solving and task completion is important to bring about a positive change. Self efficacy is often cemented through standard persuasive techniques. Cervical cancer Cervical cancer is a cancer arising from the cervix or in any layer of the wall of the cervix. It is due to the abnormal growth of cells that have

5875-474: The 1950s. It remains one of the most widely used and well-tested models for explaining and predicting health-related behavior. A 1984 review of 18 prospective and 28 retrospective studies suggests that the evidence for each component of the HBMl is strong. The review reports that empirical support for the HBM is particularly notable given the diverse populations, health conditions, and health-related behaviors examined and

6000-435: The 2010 European guidelines, the age at which to start screening ranges between 20 and 30 years of age, but preferentially not before age 25 or 30 years, and depends on burden of the disease in the population and the available resources. In the United States, screening is recommended to begin at age 21, regardless of age at which a woman began having sex or other risk factors. Pap tests should be done every three years between

6125-505: The HBM may provide cues to action to remind and encourage individuals to engage in health-promoting behaviors. Interventions may also aim to boost self-efficacy by providing training in specific health-promoting behaviors, particularly for complex lifestyle changes (e.g., changing diet or physical activity, adhering to a complicated medication regimen). Interventions can be aimed at the individual level (i.e., working one-on-one with individuals to increase engagement in health-related behaviors) or

6250-485: The HBM model because it was one of the most frequently used models to explain health behaviors and the HBM was used as a framework to understand the PMI physical activity levels. The study had 443 PMI complete the survey with the mean age being 45 years old. The survey found that among the HBM variables, perceived barriers were significant in predicting physical activity. Additionally, the research demonstrated that self-efficacy had

6375-404: The HBM was applied to more substantial, long-term behavior change such as diet modification, exercise, and smoking. Developers of the model recognized that confidence in one's ability to effect change in outcomes (i.e., self-efficacy) was a key component of health behavior change. For example, Schmiege et al. found that when dealing with calcium consumption and weight-bearing exercises, self-efficacy

SECTION 50

#1732883493620

6500-479: The Pap test or acetic acid can identify precancerous changes, which when treated, can prevent the development of cancer. Treatment may consist of some combination of surgery , chemotherapy , and radiation therapy . Five-year survival rates in the United States are 68%. Outcomes, however, depend very much on how early the cancer is detected. Worldwide, cervical cancer is both the fourth-most common type of cancer and

6625-429: The Pap test results need not match the histologic findings. Histologic subtypes of invasive cervical carcinoma include: Though squamous cell carcinoma is the cervical cancer with the most incidence, the incidence of adenocarcinoma of the cervix has been increasing in recent decades. Endocervical adenocarcinoma represents 20–25% of the histological types of cervical carcinoma. Gastric-type mucinous adenocarcinoma of

6750-517: The US Food and Drug Administration approved the use of a combination of two chemotherapy drugs, hycamtin and cisplatin, for women with late-stage (IVB) cervical cancer treatment. Combination treatment has significant risk of neutropenia , anemia , and thrombocytopenia side effects. There is insufficient evidence whether anticancer drugs after standard care help women with locally advanced cervical cancer to live longer. For surgery to be curative,

6875-683: The ability to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Early on, typically no symptoms are seen. Later symptoms may include abnormal vaginal bleeding , pelvic pain or pain during sexual intercourse . While bleeding after sex may not be serious, it may also indicate the presence of cervical cancer. Virtually all cervical cancer cases (99%) are linked to genital human papillomavirus infection (HPV); most who have had HPV infections, however, do not develop cervical cancer. HPV 16 and 18 strains are responsible for approximately 70% of cervical cancer cases globally and nearly 50% of high grade cervical pre-cancers. Minor risk factors include smoking ,

7000-532: The achievement of recommended prevention targets using triple-intervention strategies defined by WHO. In medical research, the most famous immortalized cell line , known as HeLa , was developed from cervical cancer cells of a woman named Henrietta Lacks . 17 November is the Cervical Cancer Elimination Day of Action. The date marks the day in 2020 when WHO launched the Global strategy to accelerate

7125-432: The age, childbearing plans of the woman, the size and location of the cancer cells are crucial for choosing the right procedure. There is low-certainty evidence that peri-operative care approaches, such as 'fast-track surgery' or 'enhanced recovery programmes' may lower surgical stress and improve recovery after gynaecological cancer surgery. Microinvasive cancer (stage IA) may also be treated by hysterectomy (removal of

7250-465: The ages of 21 and 65. In women over the age of 65, screening may be discontinued if no abnormal screening results were seen within the previous 10 years and no history of CIN2 or higher exists. HPV vaccination status does not change screening rates. A number of recommended options exist for screening those 30 to 65. This includes cervical cytology every 3 years, HPV testing every 5 years, or HPV testing together with cytology every 5 years. Screening

7375-415: The case of encountering violence while walking along, research shows that many women have high amounts of perceived susceptibility in regards to how susceptible they believe themselves to be to the risk of being attacked while walking along. Studies show that around 50% of women feel unsafe when walking alone at night Since women may already have increased perceive susceptibility to night-violence, according to

7500-529: The cause of 75% of cervical cancer cases globally, while 31 and 45 are the causes of another 10%. Women who have multiple sexual partners, or have partners who have multiple sexual partners, regardless of sex are at higher risk of cervical cancer. Over 200 types of HPV known, 12 are classified as high-risk types (16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, and 59), three as probable high-risk (26, 53, and 66), and 12 as low-risk (6, 11, 40, 42, 43, 44, 54, 61, 70, 72, 81, and CP6108). Genital warts , which are

7625-415: The cervix and perineum by about 93% and 62%, respectively. All have excellent safety profiles and are highly efficacious, or have met immunobridging standards. The vaccines are between 92% and 100% effective against HPV 16 and 18 up to at least 8 years. HPV vaccines are typically given to age 9 to 26, as the vaccine is most effective if given before infection occurs. The primary target group in most of

SECTION 60

#1732883493620

7750-518: The cervix is a rare type of cancer with aggressive behavior. This type of malignancy is not related to high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV). Noncarcinoma malignancies which can rarely occur in the cervix include melanoma and lymphoma . The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) stage does not incorporate lymph node involvement in contrast to the TNM staging for most other cancers. For cases treated surgically, information obtained from

7875-419: The cervix is removed, and ablation which removes only the parts with abnormal tissues. While these effectively reduce the risk of cancer developing or spreading, they cause an increased risk of premature birth in future pregnancies. Surgical techniques that remove more cervical tissue come with less risk of the cancer recurring but a higher chance of giving birth prematurely. Due to this risk, taking into account

8000-421: The cervix. Interventions such as playing music during the procedure and viewing the procedure on a monitor can reduce the anxiety associated with the examination. Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) means the development of abnormal cells on the surface of the cervix. It is caused by an HPV infection but in most cases it is resolved by the immune system. However a small percentage of people might develop

8125-587: The choice by eliminating the less appealing products until there is one left. After this has been identified, the consumer will purchase the product. Finally, the consumer will evaluate the purchase decision, and the purchased product, bringing in factors such as value for money, quality of goods, and purchase experience. However, this logical process does not always happen this way, people are emotional and irrational creatures. People make decisions with emotion and then justify them with logic according to Robert Cialdini Ph.D. Psychology. The Marketing mix (4 P's) are

8250-477: The compliance levels of persons chronically ill with diabetes mellitus . The HBM has been used to develop effective interventions to change health-related behaviors by targeting various aspects of the model's key constructs. Interventions based on the HBM may aim to increase perceived susceptibility to and perceived seriousness of a health condition by providing education about prevalence and incidence of disease, individualized estimates of risk, and information about

8375-574: The consequences of disease (e.g., medical, financial, and social consequences). Interventions may also aim to alter the cost-benefit analysis of engaging in a health-promoting behavior (i.e., increasing perceived benefits and decreasing perceived barriers) by providing information about the efficacy of various behaviors to reduce risk of disease, identifying common perceived barriers, providing incentives to engage in health-promoting behaviors, and engaging social support or other resources to encourage health-promoting behaviors. Furthermore, interventions based on

8500-406: The construction of HBM. The 58 participants were active adult women smokers between 16 and 30 years of age. Table 1 provides more background information while Table 2 shows the correlation between the participants perceived variables and the intention to stop smoking. Table 2 shows that all variables besides perceived barriers had a weak positive correlation. In regards to perceived susceptibility,

8625-428: The contribution of cues to action in predicting health-related behaviors is limited. Cues to action are often difficult to assess, limiting research in this area. For instance, individuals may not accurately report cues that prompted behavior change. Cues such as a public service announcement on television or on a billboard may be fleeting and individuals may not be aware of their significance in prompting them to engage in

8750-483: The cost, time, and other inconveniences that pursuing these changes in behavior may require. The benefit to implementing these behaviors would be that women could feel more safe when walking alone at night. It is not surprise that the modifying variable of sex plays a large role in applying the health belief model to women's safety agendas/ movements. While studies show that around 50% of women feel unsafe walking at night, they also show that fewer than one fifth of men feel

8875-723: The countries recommending HPV vaccination is young adolescent girls, aged 9-14. As of 2022, 125 countries include HPV vaccines in their routine vaccinations for girls, and 47 countries recommend them for boys, as well, including Japan. The duration of effectiveness and whether a booster will be needed is unknown. The high cost of this vaccine has been a cause for concern. Several countries have considered (or are considering) programs to fund HPV vaccination. The American Society of Clinical Oncology guideline has recommendations for different levels of resource availability. Barrier protection or spermicidal gel use during sexual intercourse decreases, but does not eliminate risk of transmitting

9000-449: The development of HPV, which is the leading cause of this type of cancer. Also, not only does it aid in the development of HPV, but also if the woman is already HPV-positive, she is at an even greater likelihood of contracting cervical cancer. Long-term use of oral contraceptives is associated with increased risk of cervical cancer in women who have had HPV . Women who have used oral contraceptives for 5 to 9 years have about three times

9125-415: The elimination of cervical cancer as a public health problem, with a resolution passed by 194 countries. To eliminate cervical cancer, all countries must reach and maintain an incidence rate of below 4 per 100 000 women. The early stages of cervical cancer may be completely free of symptoms . Vaginal bleeding , contact bleeding (one most common form being bleeding after sexual intercourse), or (rarely)

9250-465: The emergence of fertility-sparing therapy in developed nations. Less advanced stages of cervical cancer typically have treatment options that allow fertility to be maintained if the patient desires. Because cervical cancers are radiosensitive, radiation may be used in all stages where surgical options do not exist. Surgical intervention may have better outcomes than radiological approaches. In addition, chemotherapy can be used to treat cervical cancer and

9375-472: The end of 2023, 143 countries (74% of WHO member states) provided the HPV vaccine in their national immunization schedule for girls. As of 2022, 47 countries (24% of WHO member states) also did it for boys. As a risk of cancer still exists, guidelines recommend continuing regular Pap tests . Other methods of prevention include having few or no sexual partners and the use of condoms . Cervical cancer screening using

9500-407: The expectation that when one gives, one will receive the same. This behavior can be affected by both the qualities of the individual and the environmental (situational) factors. Therefore, social behavior arises as a result of an interaction between the two—the organism and its environment. This means that, in regards to humans, social behavior can be determined by both the individual characteristics of

9625-426: The fact that barriers to action are easily overcome. The theory of planned behavior suggests using persuasive messages for tackling behavioral beliefs to increase the readiness to perform a behavior, called intentions . The theory of planned behavior advocates the need to tackle normative beliefs and control beliefs in any attempt to change behavior. Challenging the normative beliefs is not enough but to follow through

9750-690: The flu vaccine. In a study about the breast and cervical cancer screening among Hispanic women, perceived barriers, like fear of cancer, embarrassment, fatalistic views of cancer and language, was proved to impede screening. Individual characteristics, including demographic , psychosocial , and structural variables, can affect perceptions (i.e., perceived seriousness, susceptibility, benefits, and barriers) of health-related behaviors. Demographic variables include age, sex, race, ethnicity, and education, among others. Psychosocial variables include personality, social class, and peer and reference group pressure, among others. Structural variables include knowledge about

9875-508: The four components of the HBM (i.e., perceived susceptibility, severity, benefits, and barriers) in 1988. Self-efficacy refers to an individual's perception of his or her competence to successfully perform a behavior. Self-efficacy was added to the HBM in an attempt to better explain individual differences in health behaviors. The model was originally developed in order to explain engagement in one-time health-related behaviors such as being screened for cancer or receiving an immunization. Eventually,

10000-489: The fourth-most common cause of death from cancer in women, with over 660,000 new cases and around 350,000 deaths in 2022. This is about 8% of the total cases and total deaths from cancer. 88% (2020 figure) of cervical cancers and 90% of deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries and 2% (2020 figure) in high-income countries. Of the 20 hardest hit countries by cervical cancer, 19 are in Africa. In low-income countries, it

10125-425: The health belief model states, individuals must consider the potential benefits of adopting the change in behavior that is being suggested to them. In the case of night-violence against women organizations that seek to prevent it do so by using advertising to demonstrate to women that tools such as pocket knives, pepper spray, self-defense classes, alarm systems, and traveling with a "buddy" can outweigh barriers such as

10250-468: The health belief model, they may be more apt to engage in behavior changes to help them increase their safety/ defend themselves. As the statistics on perceived susceptibility demonstrate, many women feel they are at risk for encountering night-violence. Thus, women also have a higher perception of the severity of the violence as stories such as the tragic death of Sarah Everard demonstrate that night-violence attacks can be not only severe, but fatal. As

10375-416: The horrific violent acts committed against women while they are walking at night serve as external cues to action that can spur individuals to take the necessary precautions and make the necessary change to their behavior in order to reduce the likelihood of them encountering night-time violence. Cues to action further factor into increased perceived susceptibility and severity of the given risk. Self efficacy

10500-482: The incidence of invasive cancer, and those who used them for 10 years or longer have about four times the risk. Having many pregnancies is associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer. Among HPV-infected women, those who have had seven or more full-term pregnancies have around four times the risk of cancer compared with women with no pregnancies, and two to three times the risk of women who have had one or two full-term pregnancies. The Pap test can be used as

10625-464: The incidence of invasive cancer. Passive smoking is also associated with increased risk, but to a lesser extent. Smoking has also been linked to the development of cervical cancer. Smoking can increase the risk in women a few different ways, which can be by direct and indirect methods of inducing cervical cancer. A direct way of contracting this cancer is a smoker has a higher chance of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN3) occurring, which has

10750-531: The infection. Condoms may protect against genital warts. They also provide protection against other sexually transmitted infections, such as HIV and Chlamydia , which are associated with greater risks of developing cervical cancer. Vitamin A is associated with a lower risk as are vitamin B12 , vitamin C , vitamin E , and beta-Carotene . The treatment of cervical cancer varies worldwide, largely due to access to surgeons skilled in radical pelvic surgery and

10875-483: The inner lining of the cervix is removed to be examined pathologically. These are carried out if the biopsy confirms severe cervical intraepithelial neoplasia . Often before the biopsy, the doctor asks for medical imaging to rule out other causes of woman's symptoms. Imaging modalities such as ultrasound , CT scan, and MRI have been used to look for alternating disease, spread of the tumor, and effect on adjacent structures. Typically, they appear as heterogeneous mass on

11000-415: The likelihood that Australians would receive the shot. They asked, "On a scale from 0 to 10, how severe do you think the flu would be if you got it?" to measure the perceived severity and they found that 31% perceived the severity of getting the flu as low, 44% as moderate, and 25% as high. Additionally, the researchers found those with a high perceived severity were significantly more likely to have received

11125-606: The lungs and skeleton, and cervical conization . However, the system allows use of any imaging or pathological methods for staging. Checking cervical cells with the Papanicolaou test (Pap test) for cervical pre-cancer has dramatically reduced the number of cases of, and mortality from, cervical cancer. Liquid-based cytology may reduce the number of inadequate samples. Pap test screening every three to five years with appropriate follow-up can reduce cervical cancer incidence up to 80%. Pap test screening can reveal abnormal cells on

11250-474: The media, or health care providers promoting engagement in health-related behaviors. Examples of cues to action include a reminder postcard from a dentist, the illness of a friend or family member, mass media campaigns on health issues, and product health warning labels. The intensity of cues needed to prompt action varies between individuals by perceived susceptibility, seriousness, benefits, and barriers. For example, individuals who believe they are at high risk for

11375-399: The model is warranted. Several studies have provided empirical support from the chronic illness perspective. Becker et al. used the model to predict and explain a mother's adherence to a diet prescribed for their obese children. Cerkoney et al. interviewed insulin-treated diabetic individuals after diabetic classes at a community hospital. It empirically tested the HBM's association with

11500-608: The model were made as late as 1988 to incorporate emerging evidence within the field of psychology about the role of self-efficacy in decision-making and behavior. The HBM theoretical constructs originate from theories in Cognitive Psychology . In early twentieth century, cognitive theorists believed that reinforcements operated by affecting expectations rather than by affecting behavior straightly. Mental processes are severe consists of cognitive theories that are seen as expectancy-value models, because they propose that behavior

11625-554: The need for women to protect themselves and stay vigilant when walking alone at night. Everard was kidnapped and murdered while walking home from work in South London, England. The health belief model can provide insight into the steps that need to be taken in order to reach more women and convince them to take the necessary steps to increase safety when walking alone. As stated, perceived susceptibility refers to how susceptible an individual perceives themselves to be to any given risk. In

11750-406: The needs of each individual in an ethical and respected manner. Health belief model encourages increasing individuals' perceived susceptibility to negative health outcomes and making individuals aware of the severity of such negative health behavior outcomes. E.g. through health promotion messages. In addition, the health belief model suggests the need to focus on the benefits of health behaviors and

11875-430: The occurrence of skin cancer Health-related behaviors are also a function of perceived barriers to taking action. Perceived barriers refer to an individual's assessment of the obstacles to behavior change. Even if an individual perceives a health condition as threatening and believes that a particular action will effectively reduce the threat, barriers may prevent engagement in the health-promoting behavior. In other words,

12000-504: The ones noted in the model. Movements such as the #MeToo movements and current political tensions surrounding abortion laws have moved women's rights and violence against women to the forefront of topical conversation. Additionally, many organizations, such as Women On Guard, have begun to place emphasize on trying to educate women on what measures to take in order to increase their safety when walking alone at night. The murder of Sarah Everard on March 3, 2021, has placed further attention on

12125-606: The onset of chronic disease and extending active lifespan. Smoking, alcohol consumption, diet, gaps in primary care services and low screening uptake are all significant determinants of poor health, and changing such behaviors should lead to improved health. For example, in US, Healthy People 2000, United States Department of Health and Human Services , lists increased physical activity, changes in nutrition and reductions in tobacco, alcohol and drug use as important for health promotion and disease prevention. Any interventions done are matched with

12250-453: The operating room, a hysterectomy may still be needed. This can only be done during the same operation if the woman consented. Due to the possible risk of cancer spreading to the lymph nodes in stage 1B cancers and some stage 1A cancers, the surgeon may also need to remove some lymph nodes from around the uterus for pathologic evaluation. A radical trachelectomy can be performed abdominally or vaginally and opinions are conflicting as to which

12375-438: The organism to the environment. The endocrine system and the nervous system likely influence human behavior. Complexity in the behavior of an organism may be correlated to the complexity of its nervous system. Generally, organisms with more complex nervous systems have a greater capacity to learn new responses and thus adjust their behavior. Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behavior, usually with

12500-619: The past, large promotional campaigns and heavy advertising would convert into sales for a business, but nowadays businesses can have success on products with little or no advertising. This is due to the Internet and in particular social media. They rely on word of mouth from consumers using social media, and as products trend online, so sales increase as products effectively promote themselves. Thus, promotion by businesses does not necessarily result in consumer behavior trending towards purchasing products. The way that product influences consumer behavior

12625-575: The pathologist can be used in assigning a separate pathologic stage, but is not to replace the original clinical stage. Cervical cancer is staged by the FIGO system, which is based on clinical examination rather than surgical findings. Prior to the 2018 revisions to FIGO staging, the system allowed only these diagnostic tests to be used in determining the stage: palpation, inspection, colposcopy , endocervical curettage , hysteroscopy , cystoscopy , proctoscopy , intravenous urography , and X-ray examination of

12750-473: The perceived benefits must outweigh the perceived barriers in order for behavior change to occur. Perceived barriers to taking action include the perceived inconvenience, expense, danger (e.g., side effects of a medical procedure) and discomfort (e.g., pain, emotional upset) involved in engaging in the behavior. For instance, lack of access to affordable health care and the perception that a flu vaccine shot will cause significant pain may act as barriers to receiving

12875-565: The perceived self-efficacy of respondents were low and this led to a low desire to quit smoking. The intention to stop smoking among young adult women had a significant correlation with the perceived factors of the Health Belief Model. Another use of the HBM was in 2016 in a study that was interested in examining the factors associated with physical activity among people with mental illness (PMI) in Hong Kong (Mo et al., 2016). The study used

13000-493: The person, and the situation they are in. Behavior informatics also called behavior computing , explores behavior intelligence and behavior insights from the informatics and computing perspectives. Different from applied behavior analysis from the psychological perspective, BI builds computational theories, systems and tools to qualitatively and quantitatively model, represent, analyze, and manage behaviors of individuals, groups and/or organizations. Health behavior refers to

13125-477: The potential of forming cervical cancer. When CIN3 lesions lead to cancer, most of them have the assistance of the HPV virus, but that is not always the case, which is why it can be considered a direct link to cervical cancer. Heavy smoking and long-term smoking seem to have more of a risk of getting the CIN3 lesions than lighter smoking or not smoking at all. Although smoking has been linked to cervical cancer, it aids in

13250-475: The processes consumers go through, and reactions they have towards products or services. It has to do with consumption, and the processes consumers go through around purchasing and consuming goods and services. Consumers recognize needs or wants, and go through a process to satisfy these needs. Consumer behavior is the process they go through as customers, which includes types of products purchased, amount spent, frequency of purchases and what influences them to make

13375-1130: The proper skills to do so. These classes can help to increase self efficacy. Organizations such as community centers may offer classes along these lines. The issues of night violence against women is an issue of safety and wellness which makes it applicable to a health belief model approach. Defense and preparation for night violence can require behavioral changes on behalf of women if they feel that doing so will help them protect themselves should they ever be attacked. The HBM attempts to predict health-related behaviors by accounting for individual differences in beliefs and attitudes. However, it does not account for other factors that influence health behaviors. For instance, habitual health-related behaviors (e.g., smoking, seatbelt buckling) may become relatively independent of conscious health-related decision-making processes. Additionally, individuals engage in some health-related behaviors for reasons unrelated to health (e.g., exercising for aesthetic reasons). Environmental factors outside an individual's control may prevent engagement in desired behaviors. For example, an individual living in

13500-557: The purchase decision or not. Circumstances that influence consumer behaviour are varied, with contributions from both internal and external factors. Internal factors include attitudes, needs, motives, preferences and perceptual processes, whilst external factors include marketing activities, social and economic factors, and cultural aspects. Doctor Lars Perner of the University of Southern California claims that there are also physical factors that influence consumer behavior, for example, if

13625-414: The residual cervix is rare if the trachelectomy has cleared the cancer. Yet, women are recommended to practice vigilant prevention and follow-up care, including Pap screenings/ colposcopy , with biopsies of the remaining lower uterine segment as needed (every 3–4 months for at least 5 years) to monitor for any recurrence in addition to minimizing any new exposures to HPV through safe sex practices until one

13750-405: The respondents agreed that they were vulnerable to the health and social consequences associated to women smokers; however, they did not fully believe that smoking would trigger such severe health concerns or social consequences therefore they had a low desire to stop smoking. Similarly, with perceived severity the respondents did not view their habits as having a severe consequence therefore they had

13875-564: The risk of relapse. A Cochrane review has found moderate-certainty evidence that radiation decreases the risk of disease progression in people with stage IB cervical cancer, when compared to no further treatment. However, little evidence was found on its effects on overall survival. Larger early-stage tumors (IB2 and IIA more than 4 cm) may be treated with radiation therapy and cisplatin -based chemotherapy, hysterectomy (which then usually requires adjuvant radiation therapy), or cisplatin chemotherapy followed by hysterectomy. When cisplatin

14000-449: The risk. This concept factors greatly into initiatives to help women defend themselves against night violence because, based on the statistics, many women do feel that if they carry items such as tasers, pepper spray, or alarms they will be able to defend themselves against attackers. Self-defense classes are also things that organizations offer in order to teach individuals that they have the power to learn how to defend themselves and acquire

14125-470: The same fear and discomfort Thus, it is evident that the modifying variable of gender plays a large role in how night-time violence is perceived. According to the model, women may be more likely to change their behavior toward preventing night-time violence than men. Cues to action are perhaps the most powerful part of the health belief model and of getting individual to change their behavior. In regards to preventing night-time violence against women, stories of

14250-413: The search tends to rely on internal resources, retrieving alternatives from memory. Conversely, for high-involvement products, the search is typically more extensive, involving activities like reviewing reports, reading reviews, or seeking recommendations from friends. The consumer will then evaluate his or her alternatives, comparing price, and quality, doing trade-offs between products, and narrowing down

14375-408: The societal level (e.g., through legislation, changes to the physical environment, mass media campaigns). Multiple studies have used the Health Belief Model to understand an individual's intention to change a particular behavior and the factors that influence their ability to do so. Researchers analyzed the correlation between young adult women's intention to stop smoking and their perceived factors in

14500-494: The surface of the cervix called cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) that in a small percentage can develop into cervical cancer. These precancerous changes can be confirmed with further examination known as colposcopy . Personal invitations encouraging women to get screened are effective at increasing the likelihood they will do so. Educational materials also help increase the likelihood women will go for screening, but they are not as effective as invitations. According to

14625-437: The surface of the cervix, with visual contrast provided by staining the normal tissues a mahogany brown with Lugol's iodine. Medical devices used for biopsy of the cervix include punch forceps . Colposcopic impression, the estimate of disease severity based on the visual inspection, forms part of the diagnosis. Further diagnostic and treatment procedures are loop electrical excision procedure and cervical conization , in which

14750-629: The time lag that often occurs between certain behaviors and the development of disease, these indicators may foreshadow the future burdens and benefits of health-risk and health-promoting behaviors. A variety of studies have examined the relationship between health behaviors and health outcomes (e.g., Blaxter 1990) and have demonstrated their role in both morbidity and mortality. These studies have identified seven features of lifestyle which were associated with lower morbidity and higher subsequent long-term survival (Belloc and Breslow 1972): Health behaviors impact upon individuals' quality of life, by delaying

14875-437: The tumor is surrounded by cancer free tissue, suggesting all of the tumor is removed), one more possible treatment option for women who want to preserve their fertility is a trachelectomy . This attempts to surgically remove the cancer while preserving the ovaries and uterus, providing for a more conservative operation than a hysterectomy. It is a viable option for those in stage I cervical cancer which has not spread; however, it

15000-454: The vaccine than those with a moderate perceived severity. Furthermore, self-reported vaccination was similar for individuals with low and moderate perceived severity of influenza. Health-related behaviors are also influenced by the perceived benefits of taking action. Perceived benefits refer to an individual's assessment of the value or efficacy of engaging in a health-promoting behavior to decrease risk of disease. If an individual believes that

15125-485: The vagina. Bleeding after douching or after a pelvic exam is a common symptom of cervical cancer. Infection with some types of HPV is the greatest risk factor for cervical cancer, followed by smoking. HIV infection is also a risk factor. Not all of the causes of cervical cancer are known, however, and several other contributing factors have been implicated. Infection with HPV is generally believed to be required for cervical cancer to occur. HPV types 16 and 18 are

15250-439: The various study designs and assessment strategies used to evaluate the model. A more recent meta-analysis found strong support for perceived benefits and perceived barriers predicting health-related behaviors, but weak evidence for the predictive power of perceived seriousness and perceived susceptibility. The authors of the meta-analysis suggest that examination of potential moderated and mediated relationships between components of

15375-465: The whole uterus, including part of the vagina ). For stage IA2, the lymph nodes are removed as well. Alternatives include local surgical procedures such as a loop electrical excision procedure or cone biopsy . A systematic review concluded that more evidence is needed to inform decisions about different surgical techniques for women with cervical cancer at stage IA2. If a cone biopsy does not produce clear margins (findings on biopsy showing that

15500-565: Was a more powerful predictor than beliefs about future negative health outcomes. Rosenstock et al. argued that self-efficacy could be added to the other HBM constructs without elaboration of the model's theoretical structure. However, this was considered short-sighted because related studies indicated that key HBM constructs have indirect effects on behavior as a result of their effect on perceived control and intention, which might be regarded as more proximal factors of action. The HBM has gained substantial empirical support since its development in

15625-406: Was developed to place emphasis on the spectrum of abnormality in these lesions, and to help standardize treatment. For premalignant dysplastic changes, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grading (CIN 1–3) is used. It classifies mild dysplasia as CIN1, moderate dysplasia as CIN2, and severe dysplasia and CIS as CIN3. More recently, CIN2 and CIN3 have been combined into CIN2/3. These results are what

#619380