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79-447: The Havana Plan Piloto was a 1955–1958 urban proposal by Town Planning Associates , which included Paul Lester Wiener , Paul Schulz, the Catalan architect Josep Lluis Sert , and Seely Stevenson of Value & Knecht, Consulting Engineers, seeking to combine "architecture, planning, and law". The Charter got its name from the location of the fourth CIAM conference in 1933, which, due to

158-555: A 10-year tax exemption, and waive duties on imported equipment and furnishings for new hotels. Each casino would pay the government $ 250,000 for the license, plus a percentage of the profits. The policy omitted background checks, as required for casino operations in the United States, which opened the door for casino investors with illegally obtained funds. Cuban contractors with the right connections made windfalls by importing, duty-free, more materials than needed for new hotels and selling

237-643: A bad memory and a bad example to the country" and returned Cuba to the corrupt practices of colonial times. On January 29, 1909, the sovereign government of Cuba was restored, and José Miguel Gómez became president. No explicit evidence of Magoon's corruption ever surfaced, but his parting gesture of issuing lucrative Cuban contracts to U.S. firms was a continued point of contention. Several months later, Magoon received an official commendation from President Taft for his excellent service in Cuba. Following his service in Cuba, Magoon retired from public service and vacationed for

316-494: A certain level of protection of life, though the extent of this intrusion was not defined. Most significant, the amendment forced the Cuban Government to sign a treaty officially binding the amendment into law. The reasoning of United States policies behind the amendment was based on the significant commercial interests held on the island. Spain had previously been unable to preserve U.S. interests and maintain law and order. At

395-537: A corrupt dictatorship that involved close links with organized crime organizations and the reduction of civil freedoms of Cubans. This period resulted in Bastista engaging in more "sophisticated practices of corruption" at both the administrative and civil society levels. Batista and his administration engaged in profiteering from the lottery as well as illegal gambling. Corruption further flourished in civil society through increasing amounts of police corruption, censorship of

474-656: A friendship and business relationship that flourished for a decade. During a stay at the Waldorf-Astoria in New York in the late 1940s, it was mutually agreed that, in return for kickbacks, Batista would give Lansky and the Mafia control of Havana's racetracks and casinos. After World War II, Luciano was paroled from prison on the condition that he permanently return to Sicily . Luciano secretly moved to Cuba, where he worked to resume control over American Mafia operations. Luciano also ran

553-539: A large sector of the economy and unable to participate in managerial roles that were taken over by United States employers. Along similar lines, Louis A. Pérez has written, "World War Two created new opportunities for Cuban economic development, few of which, however, was fully realized. Funds were used irrationally. Corruption and graft increased and contributed in no small part to missed opportunities, but so did mismanagement and miscalculation." Transparency International 's 2017 Corruption Perception Index (CPI) gave Cuba

632-793: A new and legitimate government. Following the election of José Miguel Gómez in November 1908, U.S. officials judged the situation in Cuba sufficiently stable for the U.S. to withdraw its troops, a process that was completed in February 1909. A United States intervention in 1906 resulted in Charles Edward Magoon , an American diplomat, to take over the government until 1909. It has been debated whether Magoon's government condoned or in fact engaged in corrupt practices. Hugh Thomas suggests that while Magoon disapproved of corruption, fraud, bribery, and nepotism persisted under his administration and he undermined

711-587: A number of casinos in Cuba with the sanction of Batista, though the American government eventually succeeded in pressuring the Batista government to deport him. Batista encouraged large-scale gambling in Havana. In 1955, he announced that Cuba would grant a gaming license to anyone who invested US$ 1  million in a hotel or $ 200,000 in a new nightclub—and that the government would provide matching public funds for construction,

790-524: A product of the colonial heritage of Cuban politics and the financial aid provided by the United States that favored international sugar prices in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Following World War II , the level of corruption in Cuba, among many other Latin American and Caribbean countries, was said to have risen significantly. Some scholars, such as Eduardo Sáenz Rovner, attribute this to North America's increased involvement in Cuba after World War I as it isolated Cuban workers. Cubans were excluded from

869-588: A result of the Platt Amendment's conditions. As with Afro-Cubans, women played important roles in the Cuban independence movement and were characterised as 'mambisas', or courageous warrior mothers symbolising the struggle for social justice. However, they were also denied voting rights and female suffrage would not be obtained until 1940. Any attempts by women to discuss gender equality with the Cuban government saw them labelled as nationalists or flat out ignored. Most of

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948-643: A revolt, and the U.S. military sent in 5,600 men to reassert control over the country in what would be called the Second Occupation of Cuba . This was permitted under the Cuban-American Treaty of Relations of 1903, a treaty that stipulated the degree of United States intervention in Cuba. After a brief period of stabilization by Secretary Taft, Magoon was appointed governor under the Constitution of Cuba, effectively with absolute authority and backed by

1027-490: A score of 47/100, where 0 indicates that a country is very corrupt and 100 indicates that it is very clean. Cuba ranks 62nd out of 180 countries in terms of corruption perception, which is an increase of 2 places since last years' CPI score in 2016. Alfredo Zayas succeeded Menocal from 1921 to 1925 and engaged in what Calixto Maso refers to as the most "maximum expression of administrative corruption". Both petty and grand corruption spread to nearly all aspects of public life and

1106-619: A shot of rum . And only slightly more expensive." As a result, the playwright Arthur Miller described Batista's Cuba in The Nation as "hopelessly corrupt, a Mafia playground, (and) a bordello for Americans and other foreigners". In a bid to profit from such an environment, Batista established lasting relationships with organized crime , notably with American mobsters Meyer Lansky and Lucky Luciano , and under his rule, Havana became known as "the Latin Las Vegas ". Batista and Lansky formed

1185-511: A suitcase containing $ 2 million to Luciano, his share of the U.S. rackets he still controlled. The most pressing items on the conference agenda were the leadership and authority within the New York mafia, the mob-controlled Havana casino interests, the narcotics operations, and the West Coast operations of Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel , especially the new Flamingo Hotel and casino in Las Vegas . Siegel

1264-634: A year in Europe before returning to the United States. Speculation at the time pointed to him taking a position as ambassador to China, a special commission on stability in Central America, or a Cabinet position. Ultimately Magoon did not take up any of those new responsibilities and formally entered retirement. He died in Washington, D.C., in 1920 after complications from surgery for acute appendicitis. Cuba had suffered from widespread and rampant corruption since

1343-650: Is reported to have transgressed the Mafia 10 commandments by stealing money. Luciano, absent from the American underworld scene for several months, was especially concerned with the situation in New York. Boss Vito Genovese had returned to New York from exile in Italy and was not content with assuming a minor role in the organization. For more information: Havana Conference The Havana Conference convened on December 20, 1946. Delegates were present representing New York City, New Jersey, Buffalo, Chicago, New Orleans, and Florida, with

1422-595: The American mafia , corrupt law-enforcement officials, and their politically elected cronies . In the assessment of the Cuban-American historian Louis Perez, "Havana was then what Las Vegas has become." Relatedly, it is estimated that by the end of the 1950s the city of Havana had 270 brothels. In addition, drugs, be it marijuana or cocaine , were so plentiful at the time that one American magazine in 1950 proclaimed "Narcotics are hardly more difficult to obtain in Cuba than

1501-631: The Havana Plan Piloto , as an architectural, urban planning, and site planning consultant firm. During this period, Wiener and Sert lectured in the United States and Latin America as experts in urban planning. Their designs exhibited elements of the "functional city" doctrine that Town Planning Associates promoted the Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM), an organization founded by modern movement architects in 1928. The doctrine

1580-659: The Spanish-American War would mean equality with the white planters and commercial elites of Cuba. Nearly 40% of the Cuban fighting force against Spain were made up of people of colour, and Afro-Cubans had spent generations fighting for their country's independence. As well as becoming disenfranchised through voting acts, Afro-Cubans were also blocked from many state institutions as they now required educational or property qualifications to be gained. Tensions between Afro-Cubans and U.S. military officials were rife, with hostile language and sometimes gunfire being exchanged between

1659-690: The Trujillo –ruled Dominican Republic , then Corporatist Portugal and eventually Francoist Spain ). Batista's exile marked the climax of the Cuban Revolution , which started on July 26, 1953, with the attack on the Moncada Barracks in Santiago de Cuba , and saw Fidel Castro emerging as the new leader of Cuba. Throughout the 1950s, Havana served as "a hedonistic playground for the world's elite", producing sizable gambling, prostitution and drug profits for

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1738-478: The U.S. State Department was "very worried" about corruption under President Fulgencio Batista , describing the problem as "endemic" and exceeding "anything which had gone on previously". British diplomats believed that corruption was rooted within Cuba's most powerful institutions, with the highest individuals in government and military being heavily involved in gambling and the drug trade. In terms of civil society, Eduardo Saenz Rovner writes that corruption within

1817-478: The sugar boom that occurred in Cuba under the Menocal administration. Furthermore, the emergence of World War I enabled the Cuban government to manipulate sugar prices, the sales of exports and import permits. In 1906, Cuba was in the midst of a constitutional crisis as a result of a disputed election and an attempt by elected President Tomás Estrada Palma to stay in power after the conclusion of his term. This led to

1896-557: The 16th-century city. The plan was abandoned and was not made. The 20th century began with Cuba under occupation by the United States (1898–1902) , which officially ended when Tomás Estrada Palma , first president of Cuba , took office on 20 May 1902. During the Republican Period, from 1902 to 1959, Havana saw a new era of development. Cuba recovered from the devastation of war to become a prosperous country: "Cuba ranked fifth in

1975-475: The 1901 Cuban Constitution and Article III of the Platt Amendment meant that constitutional rights could be suspended under emergency provisions. Therefore, the Platt Amendment contributed to an erosion of the individual rights of the Cuban people, and it was not long before the Cuban public were calling for a replacement to the 1901 Constitution. The Platt Amendment was a major blow to hopes of social advancement for Afro-Cubans, who hoped that their participation in

2054-596: The Chicago meeting in 1932. Lansky set about cleaning up the games at the Montmartre Club, which soon became the "place to be" in Havana. He also wanted to open a casino in the Hotel Nacional, the most elegant hotel in Havana. Batista endorsed Lansky's idea over the objections of American expatriates such as Ernest Hemingway , and the renovated casino wing opened for business in 1955 with a show by Eartha Kitt . The casino

2133-540: The Communist revolution, Cuba was ruled under the elected government of Fulgencio Batista from 1940 to 1944. Throughout this time period, Batista's support base consisted mainly of corrupt politicians and military officials. Batista himself was able to heavily profit from the regime before coming into power through inflated government contracts and gambling proceeds. In 1942, the British Foreign Office reported that

2212-515: The Cuban administration became largely characterized by nepotism as Zayas relied on friends and relatives to illegally gain greater access to wealth. Due to Zaya's previous policies, Gerardo Machado aimed to diminish corruption and improve the public sector's performance under his successive administration from 1925 to 1933. While he was successfully able to reduce the amounts of low level and petty corruption, grand corruption still largely persisted. Machado embarked on development projects that enabled

2291-404: The Hotel Nacional, the Montmartre Club, and others—was said to be 30%. Lansky was said to have personally contributed millions of dollars per year to Batista's Swiss bank accounts. T.J. English notes: "I would say [Batista] was an equal partner with the mobsters; it was particularly interesting that someone like Batista and Lansky , who'd come from extreme poverty, wound up being the protectors of

2370-580: The Platt Amendment from the new Cuban constitution . The long-term lease of Guantanamo Bay Naval Base continues. The Cuban government since 1959 has strongly denounced the treaty as a violation of Article 52 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties , which declares a treaty void if procured by the threat or use of force. However, Article 4 of the Vienna Convention states that its provisions shall not be applied retroactively. Following acceptance of

2449-650: The Platt Amendment provisions were repealed in 1934 when the Cuban-American Treaty of Relations of 1934 between the United States and Cuba was negotiated as a part of U.S. president Franklin Roosevelt's " Good Neighbor policy " toward Latin America. José Manuel Cortina and other members of the Cuban Constitutional Convention of 1940 eliminated the Platt Amendment from the new Cuban constitution . The long-term lease of Guantanamo Bay Naval Base continues. The Cuban government since 1959 has strongly denounced

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2528-433: The U.S. military. On October 13, 1906, Magoon officially became Cuban governor. Magoon declined to have an official inauguration ceremony, and, instead, news of the appointment was announced to the Cuban public via the newspapers. In his written appointment address to the country, Magoon indicated that he would "perform the duties provided for by the ... constitution of Cuba for the preservation of Cuban independence". He

2607-540: The United States military forces, officially the Provisional Government of Cuba , lasted from September 1906 to February 1909. When the government of Cuban President Tomás Estrada Palma collapsed, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt ordered U.S. military forces into Cuba. Their mission was to prevent fighting between the Cubans, to protect U.S. economic interests there, and to hold free elections in order to establish

2686-438: The United States necessary for coaling or the development of naval stations. Most of the Platt Amendment provisions were repealed in 1934 when the Cuban-American Treaty of Relations of 1934 between the United States and Cuba was negotiated as a part of U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt's " Good Neighbor policy " toward Latin America. José Manuel Cortina and other members of the Cuban Constitutional Convention of 1940 eliminated

2765-740: The United States. The conference was held during the week of December 22, at the Hotel Nacional . The Havana Conference is considered to have been the most important mob summit since the Atlantic City Conference of 1929. Decisions made in Havana resonated throughout US crime families during the ensuing decades. Havana achieved the title of being the Latin American city with the biggest middle-class population per capita, simultaneously accompanied by gambling and corruption where gangsters and stars were known to mix socially. During this era, Havana

2844-420: The amendment, the United States ratified a tariff that gave Cuban sugar preference in the U.S. market and protection to select U.S. products in the Cuban market. The huge American investment into sugar led to land being concentrated into the hands of the largest sugar mills, however, with estimates that 20% of all Cuban land was owned by these mills. This led to further impoverishment of the rural masses. Workers on

2923-491: The autonomy of the judiciary and their court decisions. Cuba's subsequent president, Jose Miguel Gomez , was the first to become involved in pervasive corruption and government corruption scandals . These scandals involved bribes that were allegedly paid to Cuban officials and legislators under a contract to search the Havana harbor, as well as the payment of fees to government associates and high-level officials. Gomez's successor, Mario Garcia Menocal , wanted to put an end to

3002-453: The bourgeoisie, and yet Castro, who was from the bourgeoisie, became the leader of the downtrodden." The Havana Conference of 1946 was a historic meeting of United States Mafia and Cosa Nostra leaders in Havana, Cuba. Supposedly arranged by Charles "Lucky" Luciano , the conference was held to discuss important mob policies, rules, and business interests. The Havana Conference was attended by delegations representing crime families throughout

3081-704: The city. Santo Trafficante Jr. took the roulette wheel at the Sans Souci Cabaret , Meyer Lansky directed the Hotel Habana Riviera , with Lucky Luciano at the Hotel Nacional Casino. At the time, Havana became an exotic capital with numerous activities ranging from private clubs , marinas, Grand Prix car racing , musical shows, and parks and promenades . It was also the favorite destination of sex tourism and gambling. For more information: Republic of Cuba (1902–1959) The Republic of Cuba at

3160-407: The corruption scandals and claimed to be committed to administrative integrity as he ran on a slogan of "honesty, peace, and work." Despite his intentions, corruption actually intensified under his government from 1913 to 1921. Instances of fraud became more common while contractors frequently colluded with public officials and legislators. Charles Edward Chapman attributes the increase of corruption to

3239-555: The country. Not only did the Platt Amendment outlined the role of the United States in Cuba and the Caribbean, limiting Cuba's right to make treaties with other nations and restricting Cuba in the conduct of foreign policy and commercial relations. but it also established that Cuba's boundaries would not include the Isle of Pines ( Isla de la Juventud ) until its title could be established in a future treaty and that Cuba must sell or lease lands to

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3318-588: The cultural exchanges fostered under the Roosevelt Administration’s Good Neighbor Policy, Town Planning Associates received their first commission for a model town in Brazil, the Cidade dos Motores (Motor City), intended to accommodate twenty-five thousand industrial and agricultural workers in a site next to an aircraft-engine factory. This unrealized project and a series of others produced over

3397-410: The decade after the 1903 Treaty of Relations. Overall, over $ 200 million was spent by American companies on Cuban sugar between 1903 and 1913. Tomás Estrada Palma , who had once favored outright annexation of Cuba by the United States, became president of Cuba on May 20, 1902. He was re-elected in 1905 despite accusations of fraud from his liberal opponents, but was forced to resign along with the rest of

3476-560: The deteriorating political situation in Russia, took place on the "in SS Patris II" bound for Athens from Marseilles . This conference is documented in a film commissioned by Sigfried Giedion and made by his friend László Moholy-Nagy . The Charter had a significant impact on urban planning after World War II and, through Josep Lluis Sert and Paul Lester Wiener , on the proposed modernization of Havana and in an effort to erase all vestiges of

3555-414: The economic sector with alliances that he forged with foreign investors and the prevalence of illegal casinos and criminal organizations in Havana. From the 1933 Sergeants' Revolt onwards, Fulgencio Batista acted as an éminence grise , making and undoing governments in Cuba. After eight years of government under the presidencies of Ramón Grau (1944–1948) and Carlos Prío Socarrás (1948–1952), Batista

3634-473: The end of the military occupation, the amendment served as the primary method of ensuring a permanent [United States presence. Due to the previously enacted Teller Amendment , The United States was forced to grant Cuba its independence after Spanish rule ended. Since the Platt Amendment was successfully incorporated into the constitution of Cuba, the influence was maintained without direct U.S. involvement in

3713-657: The establishment of the Republic in 1902. The book Corruption in Cuba states that public ownership resulted in "a lack of identifiable ownership and widespread misuse and theft of state resources... when given opportunity, few citizens hesitate to steal from the government." Furthermore, the complex relationship between governmental and economic institutions makes them especially "prone to corruption". Brothels flourished. A major industry grew up around them; government officials received bribes, policemen collected protection money. Prostitutes could be seen standing in doorways, strolling

3792-434: The executive when opposition against his rule turned violent. The U.S. invoked the Platt Amendment to begin the Second Occupation of Cuba and install a Provisional Government. Political instability and frequent American occupation through the early 1900s meant that legitimate constitutional rule was increasingly difficult to come about. Though Cuban citizens enjoyed an improved standard of living in this period, Article 40 of

3871-570: The first night dinner hosted by Meyer Lansky , Frank Costello , and Joe Adonis , Luciano was presented with the money. The official cover story for the Havana Conference was that the mobsters were attending a gala party with Frank Sinatra as the entertainment. Sinatra flew to Havana with Al Capone cousins, Charles Fischetti , and Rocco Fischetti from Chicago. Joseph "Joe Fish" Fischetti, an old Sinatra acquaintance, acted as Sinatra's chaperone and bodyguard. Charlie and Rocco Fischetti delivered

3950-624: The growth of Cuba's tourism industry, Machado's administration was able to use insider information to profit from private sector business deals. Argote-Freyre points out that Cuba's population under the Republic had a high tolerance for corruption. Furthermore, Cubans knew and criticized who was corrupt, but admired them for their ability to act as "criminals with impunity". Corrupt officials went beyond members of congress to also include military officials who granted favours to residents and accepted bribes. The establishment of an illegal gambling network within

4029-432: The hands of Cuban writers who described him as a "man of wax", who was "gross in character, rude in manners, of profound ambition and greedy for despoilment". The Cuban nationalist bibliographer Carlos Manuel Trelles later wrote that Magoon "profoundly corrupted the Cuban nation, and on account of his venality was looked upon with contempt." Other Cuban historians point to the fiscal wastefulness of Magoon's tenure, which "left

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4108-554: The hemisphere in per capita income, third in life expectancy, second in per capita ownership of automobiles and telephones, first in the number of television sets per inhabitant. The literacy rate, 76%, was the fourth-highest in Latin America. Cuba ranked 11th in the world in the number of doctors per capita. Many private clinics and hospitals provided services for the poor. Cuba's income distribution compared favorably with that of other Latin American societies. A thriving middle class held

4187-794: The largest delegation of bosses from the New York-New Jersey area. Several major bosses from the Jewish Syndicate were at the conference to discuss joint La Cosa Nostra – Jewish Syndicate business. According to conference rules, the Jewish delegates could not vote on Cosa Nostra rules or policies; however, the Jewish crime bosses were allowed input on any joint business ventures, such as the Flamingo Hotel . Town Planning Associates Wiener joined José Luis Sert in 1942 to form Town Planning Associates which operated until 1959, when they finished

4266-427: The military enabled army personnel such as Lieutenant Colonel Pedraza and Major Mariné to engage in extensive illegal gambling activities. Mauricio Augusto Font and Alfonso Quiroz, authors of The Cuban Republic and José Martí , say that corruption pervaded in public life under the administrations of Presidents Ramón Grau and Carlos Prío Socarrás . Prío was reported to have stolen over $ 90 million in public funds, which

4345-417: The mill were in constant fear of eviction, with cheap imported labour from other parts of the Caribbean keeping wages very low and the prices for independent cane pushed down to a minimum. In addition, the mills monopolised the railroads and ran them for private benefit. The lack of consumer purchasing power and the limited market available for manufactured goods meant that little industrialisation would occur in

4424-679: The next dozen years for cities in Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, and Cuba served as testing grounds for the "functional city" doctrine that Sert was instrumental in promoting as a member of the International Congresses for Modern Architecture (CIAM), an organization founded by the leading lights of the modern movement in 1928. The doctrine, which was codified in a summary document called the Athens Charter, drafted at CIAM’s fourth meeting in 1933 in Greece,

4503-444: The persistence of grand corruption through inflated costs and the creation of "large margins" that enabled public officials to appropriate money illegally. Under his government, opportunities for corruption became concentrated into fewer hands with "centralized government purchasing procedures" and the collection of bribes among a smaller number of bureaucrats and administrators. Through the development of real estate infrastructures and

4582-539: The police and government enabled the expansion of criminal organizations in Cuba. Batista refused U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt 's offer to send experts to help reform the Cuban Civil Service. In 1952, the Cuban Army, led by Fulgencio Batista , intervened in the election that was scheduled to be held on June 1, Batista led a U-S backed military coup against Carlos Prío Socarrás . Under his rule, Batista led

4661-406: The population. Batista overthrew President Carlos Prío Socarrás, canceled the election and took control of the government as "Provisional President". Soon after the coup, the government of the United States recognized his regime. Batista (whose rule was formalized after the 1954 general election ) went on to rule the country until January 1, 1959, when he left the country with his family (first to

4740-477: The press as well as media, and creating anti-communist campaigns that suppressed opposition with violence, torture and public executions. The former culture of toleration and acceptance towards corruption also dissolved with the dictatorship of Batista. For instance, one citizen wrote that "however corrupt Grau and Prío were, we elected them and therefore allowed them to steal from us. Batista robs us without our permission." Corruption under Batista further expanded into

4819-508: The promise of prosperity and social mobility." Apartment buildings to accommodate the new middle class, and mansions for the well to do were built at a fast pace. Numerous luxury hotels , casinos , and nightclubs were constructed during the 1930s to serve Havana's burgeoning tourist industry, which greatly benefited by the U.S. prohibition on alcohol from 1920 to 1933. In the 1930s, organized crime characters were not unaware of Havana's nightclub and casino life, and they made their inroads in

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4898-574: The removal of the sunken USS Maine , the ship whose destruction led to the Spanish–American War, because it was interfering with traffic in Havana 's harbor. In his yearly report to the secretary of war, Magoon reported that many Cubans held the popular belief that neither the United States nor the US-backed Cuban government had explored the wreckage because evidence might be found to suggest that

4977-410: The ship was not sunk by a torpedo , as was the official report— something that would cast doubt on the justification for the United States' war against Spain. The removal of the ship did not take place while Magoon was in office; it was authorized by Congress in 1910. While he was well regarded in the United States, Magoon was not popular among Cubans. He reaped a vast number of lurid accusations at

5056-483: The streets, or leaning from windows. One report estimated that 11,500 of them worked their trade in Havana. Beyond the outskirts of the capital, beyond the slot machines, was one of the poorest, and most beautiful countries in the Western world. The question of what causes corruption in Cuba presently and historically continues to be discussed and debated by scholars. Jules R. Benjamin suggests that Cuba's corrupt politics were

5135-438: The surplus to others. It was rumored that, besides the $ 250,000 to obtain a license, an additional "under the table" fee was sometimes required. Lansky became a prominent figure in Cuba's gambling operations, and exerted influence over Batista's casino policies. The Mafia's Havana Conference was held on December 22, 1946, at the Hotel Nacional de Cuba ; this was the first full-scale meeting of American underworld leaders since

5214-456: The treaty as a violation of Article 52 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties , which declares a treaty void if procured by the threat or use of force. However, Article 4 of the Vienna Convention states that its provisions shall not be applied retroactively. Historian Louis A. Perez Jr. has argued that the Platt Amendment resulted in the conditions it had hoped to avoid, including Cuban volatility. The Second Occupation of Cuba by

5293-430: The turn of the 20th century was largely characterized by a deeply ingrained tradition of corruption where political participation resulted in opportunities for elites to engage in increased chances for wealth accumulation. Cuba's first presidential period under Tomás Estrada Palma from 1902 to 1906 was considered to uphold the highest standards of administrative integrity in the history of the Republic of Cuba. Initially he

5372-819: The two groups. Frustrated middle class blacks would launch the Independent Party of Colour (PIC) in 1908, but this was barred by the Cuban Congress soon along with all other parties of colour, accused of inciting race war. The PIC's call for limited armed protests would eventually spark the Negro Rebellion of 1912 which killed between 3,000 and 6,000 and led to the PIC dissolving afterwards. Many African-Americans also joined Afro-Cubans in solidarity, hoping that fighting for America would lead to more opportunities back home, but they too were left disappointed. Women also suffered as

5451-447: Was an early and persistent voice calling for the United States to intervene in Cuba on humanitarian grounds. He was the first President of Cuba . During his presidency, his major accomplishments include improving Cuba's infrastructure, communication, and public health. He is remembered in Cuba however for allowing the Platt Amendment to be enacted, which ensured American political and economic dominance over Cuba. The Platt Amendment

5530-528: Was an immediate success. As the new hotels, nightclubs, and casinos opened, Batista collected his share of the profits. Nightly, the "bagman" for his wife collected 10% of the profits at Santo Trafficante's casinos, the Sans Souci cabaret, and the casinos in the hotels Sevilla-Biltmore, Comodoro, Deauville, and Capri (partly owned by the actor George Raft ). His take from the Lansky casinos—his prized Habana Riviera ,

5609-518: Was codified in a document called the Athens Charter, drafted at CIAM's fourth meeting in 1933 in Greece. It also promoted ideas of GATEPAC (Grupo de Artistas y Técnicos Españoles Para la Arquitectura Contemporánea) the Spanish branch of C.I.A.M. Writing in reference to the writings of Josep Lluís Sert , Joan Ockman notes: in 1941, he set up the firm Town Planning Associates in New York, joined by Paul Lester Wiener and Paul Schulz. Benefiting from

5688-417: Was designed to return control of Cuba to the Cubans. It had eight conditions to which the Cuban Government needed to adhere to before full sovereignty would be transferred. The main conditions of the amendment prohibited Cuba from signing any treaty allowing foreign powers to use the island for military purposes. The United States also maintained the right to interfere with Cuban independence in order to maintain

5767-537: Was equivalent to one fourth of the annual national budget. Senator Eduardo Chibás dedicated himself to exposing corruption in the Cuban government, and formed the Partido Ortodoxo in 1947 to further this aim. Fidel Castro was an active member of the Orthodox Party in the late 1940s and early 1950s. He intended to run as an Orthodox Party candidate for the Cuban parliament prior to the coup by Batista. Prior to

5846-478: Was generally producing more revenue than Las Vegas, Nevada , whose boom as a tourist destination began only after Havana's casinos closed in 1959. In 1958, about 300,000 American tourists visited the city. In December 1946, the Havana Conference started as planned. To welcome Luciano back from exile and acknowledge his continued authority within the mob, all the conference invitees brought Luciano cash envelopes. These "Christmas Presents" totaled more than $ 200,000. At

5925-483: Was introduced to the U.S. Congress by Senator Orville H. Platt on February 25, 1901. It passed the U.S. Senate by a vote of 43 to 20, and although it was initially rejected by the Cuban assembly, the amendment was eventually accepted by a vote of 16 to 11 with four abstentions it was thus integrated into the 1901 Cuban Constitution. It defined the terms by which the United States would cease its occupation of Cuba. The amendment, placed into an army appropriations bill that

6004-468: Was one of the candidates in the 1952 election. However, as some of the polling put him in a distant third place, on March 10, 1952, just four months before the presidential election, Batista struck, claiming several unjustifiable reasons, using his position within the Army and being supported by some political sectors of the country. The coup itself was bloodless, but it attracted the attention and concern of most of

6083-435: Was premised on strict compartmentalization of the city into four discrete zones—housing, work, recreation, and circulation. List of Presidents of Cuba This article lists the heads of state of Cuba from 1902 until the present day. Between 1902 and 1976 (under the 1901 and the 1940 constitutions), the role of the head of state was performed by the president of Cuba . Between 1976 and 2019 (under

6162-607: Was the President of the Cuban Republic in Arms during the Ten Years' War and again between May 20, 1902, and September 28, 1906. His collateral career as a New York City Area Educator and writer enabled Estrada Palma to create Pro-Cuban literature aimed at gaining sympathy, assistance, and publicity. He was eventually successful in garnering the attention of influential Americans. Estrada Palma

6241-422: Was there, in short, to restore order and not to colonize. During Magoon's time as governor, the remaining revolutionaries were defeated, and his attention was turned inward to infrastructure. He coordinated the construction of two hundred kilometers of highway. He called for the reorganization of the Cuban military into a formal army, rather than a Mexican -style "rural guard". More controversially, he called for

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