56-654: The Hakkōda Mountains ( 八甲田山系 , Hakkōda-sankei ) are an active volcanic complex in south-central Aomori Prefecture , Japan, in Towada-Hachimantai National Park . Often called Mount Hakkōda ( 八甲田山 , Hakkōda-san ) or simply Hakkōda ( 八甲田 ) , the mountains are collectively listed as one of the 100 Famous Japanese Mountains . Its highest peak, Mount Ōdake, lies 21.3 kilometers (13.2 mi) southeast of central Aomori and 28 kilometers (17 mi) west of central Towada and has an elevation of 1,585 meters (5,200 ft). The Hakkōda Mountains are
112-455: A compound volcano or a volcanic complex , is a mixed landform consisting of related volcanic centers and their associated lava flows and pyroclastic rock . They may form due to changes in eruptive habit or in the location of the principal vent area on a particular volcano. Stratovolcanoes can also form a large caldera that gets filled in by a lava dome, or else multiple small cinder cones , lava domes and craters may develop on
168-410: A postage stamp released on 20 July 1951 and, more recently, in a set of stamps released on 30 March 2015. Shikō Munakata , an internationally acclaimed local sōsaku-hanga artist, designed a badge for the climbers of Hakkōda in 1954. A 6,409.7-hectare (15,839-acre) portion of the mountains' forests was designated as a Biotic Community Protection Forest in 1989. The Hakkōda Mountains, particularly
224-572: A volcanic crater lake . Large scale eruptions from Mount Ōdake have the potential to send lahars (volcanic mudflows) to heavily populated areas of the cities of Aomori and Towada, to the northwest and east, respectively, of the volcanic complex. Potential lahars would flow to Towada by the Oirase River and its tributaries and to Aomori by the Tsutsumi and Komagome rivers . The junction of the Tsutsumi and Komagome rivers just north of Tsutsui Station on
280-409: A caldera, possibly an ash-flow caldera. The volcanic activity of Mars is concentrated in two major provinces: Tharsis and Elysium . Each province contains a series of giant shield volcanoes that are similar to what we see on Earth and likely are the result of mantle hot spots . The surfaces are dominated by lava flows, and all have one or more collapse calderas. Mars has the tallest volcano in
336-400: A diameter of 290 km (180 mi). The average caldera diameter on Mars is 48 km (30 mi), smaller than Venus. Calderas on Earth are the smallest of all planetary bodies and vary from 1.6–80 km (1–50 mi) as a maximum. The Moon has an outer shell of low-density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick, which formed due to a rapid creation. The craters of
392-467: A magma chamber whose magma is rich in silica . Silica-rich magma has a high viscosity , and therefore does not flow easily like basalt . The magma typically also contains a large amount of dissolved gases, up to 7 wt% for the most silica-rich magmas. When the magma approaches the surface of the Earth, the drop in confining pressure causes the trapped gases to rapidly bubble out of the magma, fragmenting
448-583: A noticeable drop in temperature around the world. Large calderas may have even greater effects. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the Lake Toba eruption in Indonesia . At some points in geological time , rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters. The remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the Eocene Rum Complex of Scotland,
504-586: A part Ōu Mountains which make up part of the Northeastern Japan Arc , a segment of the Pacific Ring of Fire . The volcanic complex consists of fourteen stratovolcanoes and lava domes arranged into two volcanic groups . The Northern Hakkōda Volcanic Group emerges from the rim of an 8-kilometer-wide (5.0 mi) caldera that dates back to the Pleistocene . The Southern Hakkōda Volcanic Group predates
560-410: Is a large cauldron -like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcanic eruption . An eruption that ejects large volumes of magma over a short period of time can cause significant detriment to the structural integrity of such a chamber, greatly diminishing its capacity to support its own roof, and any substrate or rock resting above. The ground surface then collapses into
616-755: Is also a complex volcano; the San Juan Mountains in southwestern Colorado are formed on a group of Neogene -age caldera complexes, and most of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks of Nevada , Idaho , and eastern California are also caldera complexes and their erupted ash flow tuffs. The Bennett Lake Caldera in British Columbia and the Yukon Territory is another example of a Cenozoic ( Eocene ) caldera complex. Caldera A caldera ( / k ɔː l ˈ d ɛr ə , k æ l -/ kawl- DERR -ə, kal- )
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#1733086083851672-405: Is ejected, the emptied chamber is unable to support the weight of the volcanic edifice above it. A roughly circular fracture , the "ring fault", develops around the edge of the chamber. Ring fractures serve as feeders for fault intrusions which are also known as ring dikes . Secondary volcanic vents may form above the ring fracture. As the magma chamber empties, the center of the volcano within
728-477: Is protected as a Biotic Community Protection Forest due to the variety of forests contained within the relatively compact area of the mountains. Below the alpine zone that begins around 1,000 meters (3,300 ft), the Hakkōda Mountains are covered with Siebold's beech forests. In the lower alpine zone the mountains contain stands of Maries' fir , a species of fir known locally as Aomori todomatsu. During
784-529: Is relatively young (1.25 million years old) and unusually well preserved, and it remains one of the best studied examples of a resurgent caldera. The ash flow tuffs of the Valles caldera, such as the Bandelier Tuff , were among the first to be thoroughly characterized. About 74,000 years ago, this Indonesian volcano released about 2,800 cubic kilometres (670 cu mi) dense-rock equivalent of ejecta. This
840-478: The 100 Famous Japanese Mountains compiled by the mountaineer Kyūya Fukada in 1964. This list gained popularity after it gained the attention of Emperor Naruhito , who would attempt to summit every entry on the list. The Hakkōda Ropeway was opened in October 1968, providing aerial lift access to the top of Mount Tamoyachidake, one of the peaks in the northern Hakkōda Mountains. The Hakkōda Mountains have appeared on
896-498: The Aoimori Railway Line would be the most heavily impacted populated area during a large eruption, with many areas struck by over a meter of debris. An eruption from Mount Ōdake could also produce pyroclastic flows that could travel up to 3.7 kilometers (2.3 mi) and expel lava up to 3.0 kilometers (1.9 mi) from the volcano. Due to volcanic deformation, the summit of Mount Takada-Ōdake shifted 115 meters (377 ft) to
952-440: The San Juan Mountains of Colorado , where the 5,000 cubic kilometres (1,200 cu mi) Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in eruptions about 27.8 million years ago. The caldera produced by such eruptions is typically filled in with tuff, rhyolite , and other igneous rocks . The caldera is surrounded by an outflow sheet of ash flow tuff (also called an ash flow sheet ). If magma continues to be injected into
1008-417: The Earth's volcanic activity (the other 40% is attributed to hotspot volcanism). Caldera structure is similar on all of these planetary bodies, though the size varies considerably. The average caldera diameter on Venus is 68 km (42 mi). The average caldera diameter on Io is close to 40 km (25 mi), and the mode is 6 km (3.7 mi); Tvashtar Paterae is likely the largest caldera with
1064-661: The English term cauldron is also used, though in more recent work the term cauldron refers to a caldera that has been deeply eroded to expose the beds under the caldera floor. The term caldera was introduced into the geological vocabulary by the German geologist Leopold von Buch when he published his memoirs of his 1815 visit to the Canary Islands , where he first saw the Las Cañadas caldera on Tenerife , with Mount Teide dominating
1120-422: The Hakkōda Mountains are made up of several mountains they are often collectively called Mount Hakkōda ( 八甲田山 , Hakkōda-san ) or simply Hakkōda ( 八甲田 ) . The name Hakkōda is a geographic description of the mountains and their appearance. The first part of the name Hakkō ( 八甲 ) 'eight armor' from eight of the mountains having peaks that resemble helmets. The second part of the name da ( 田 ) 'field' refers to
1176-510: The Hakkōda Mountains. The 199 deaths during a single ascent make it the world's largest mountaineering disaster in the modern history of mountain climbing. Two people were killed and 12 were injured after an avalanche struck a hiking party in 2007. A woman who was snowboarding in a backcountry skiing area 400 meters (1,300 ft) away from the Hakkōda Ropeway was killed as a result of another avalanche on 21 February 2021. Depressions in
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#17330860838511232-404: The Hakkōda Ropeway, both of which can be accessed by public buses or private automobiles from National Route 103 and National Route 394. From Sukayu Onsen, it takes about two hours to complete the 694 meters (2,277 ft) ascent to the summit that is accessible by a well-marked pathway. From the top of the Hakkōda Ropeway it takes two hours to ascend to the summit and another two to descend back to
1288-635: The Lake Towada area, were set aside under the National Park Law [ ja ] as a protected part of Towada National Park in 1936. On 3 August 1953, the national park was expanded, extending its protected status to the Tashiro Plateau Wetland in the caldera of the Northern Group of the Hakkōda Mountains. After the park was established, the mountains were listed collectively as one of
1344-492: The Lake Towada volcanic caldera. It is hypothesized that the removal of the mountains' beech forest in the eruption made room for the chestnut groves that the Jōmon people in the area relied heavily on. In 1684, during the Edo period , Sukayu Onsen was founded at a hot spring near Jigokunuma. A hunter tracking a deer he had wounded came upon the deer near a hot spring. The hunter noticed that
1400-510: The Moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity, but are currently believed to have been formed by meteorites, nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the Moon formed. Around 500 million years afterward, the Moon's mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements. Massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at
1456-578: The Pleistocene, the southern group is older than the northern group. The southern group is made from rock that is 700,000 to 1,700,000 years old, while the northern group is made from rock that is 13,000 to 700,000 years old along the southwestern rim of an older caldera . Eight eruptive events have occurred in the Northern Hakkōda Volcanic Group since 4,000 BCE, including phreatic and vulcanian eruptions . Four eruptive events occurred at
1512-647: The San Juan Mountains of Colorado (formed during the Oligocene , Miocene , and Pliocene epochs) or the Saint Francois Mountain Range of Missouri (erupted during the Proterozoic eon). For their 1968 paper that first introduced the concept of a resurgent caldera to geology, R.L. Smith and R.A. Bailey chose the Valles caldera as their model. Although the Valles caldera is not unusually large, it
1568-720: The Solar System, Olympus Mons , which is more than three times the height of Mount Everest, with a diameter of 520 km (323 miles). The summit of the mountain has six nested calderas. Because there is no plate tectonics on Venus , heat is mainly lost by conduction through the lithosphere . This causes enormous lava flows, accounting for 80% of Venus' surface area. Many of the mountains are large shield volcanoes that range in size from 150–400 km (95–250 mi) in diameter and 2–4 km (1.2–2.5 mi) high. More than 80 of these large shield volcanoes have summit calderas averaging 60 km (37 mi) across. Io, unusually,
1624-419: The aerial lift. The summit can be reached outside of the mentioned climbing season; however dangers imposed by avalanches and harsh weather make advance training, personal radio beacons , and preparation necessary. The Hakkōda Mountains incident occurred on 23 January 1902, when a group of Imperial Japanese Army soldiers marched in a blizzard on the Hakkōda Mountains en route to Tashiro Hot Spring located in
1680-536: The area around the Hakkōda Ropeway, Sukayu Onsen, and Mount Ōdake, are a popular destination for skiers and snowboarders from around the world. The mountains offer an extensive area for backcountry winter and early spring recreation, with dry, powdery snow similar to what is seen at resorts in Hokkaido despite being slightly further south. Multiple ski resorts serve tourists near the bottom of the aerial lift and within close proximity of Sukayu Onsen. Jōgakura Bridge , spanning
1736-411: The base of large impact craters. Also, eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust. This forms a dome, possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form. Although caldera-like structures are rare on the Moon, they are not completely absent. The Compton-Belkovich Volcanic Complex on the far side of the Moon is thought to be
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1792-577: The caldera atop Fernandina Island collapsed in 1968 when parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 metres (1,150 ft). Since the early 1960s, it has been known that volcanism has occurred on other planets and moons in the Solar System . Through the use of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft, volcanism has been discovered on Venus , Mars , the Moon , and Io , a satellite of Jupiter . None of these worlds have plate tectonics , which contributes approximately 60% of
1848-495: The caldera's rim. Although a comparatively unusual type of volcano, they are widespread in the world and in geologic history. Metamorphosed ash flow tuffs are widespread in the Precambrian rocks of northern New Mexico , which indicates that caldera complexes have been important for much of Earth's history. Yellowstone National Park is on three partly covered caldera complexes. The Long Valley Caldera in eastern California
1904-568: The caldera. The Hakkōda Mountains attract many climbers, skiers, and sightseers. The mountains offer extensive backcountry skiing in the winter and early spring. There is a lift, the Hakkōda Ropeway in the northern Hakkōda Mountains used by visitors year-round and several hiking trails cross the mountains. While the trails do not pose any technical climbing challenges, Hakkōda presents dangers such as volcanic gases, harsh winter weather, and avalanches. The most notable incident in mountains' history
1960-664: The collapsed magma chamber, the center of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a resurgent dome such as is seen at the Valles Caldera , Lake Toba , the San Juan volcanic field, Cerro Galán , Yellowstone , and many other calderas. Because a silicic caldera may erupt hundreds or even thousands of cubic kilometers of material in a single event, it can cause catastrophic environmental effects. Even small caldera-forming eruptions, such as Krakatoa in 1883 or Mount Pinatubo in 1991, may result in significant local destruction and
2016-499: The deer had apparently been healed of its injuries by the hot spring. The location became known as Shikayu Onsen, literally "the deer's hot spring". As the amount of visitors grew, the onsen became known as Sukayu. The onsen is still a major attraction in the mountains. In 1929, Tohoku University established the Mount Hakkōda Plant Experimentation Laboratory near Sukayu Onsen. The mountains, along with
2072-403: The emptied or partially emptied magma chamber, leaving a large depression at the surface (from one to dozens of kilometers in diameter). Although sometimes described as a crater , the feature is actually a type of sinkhole , as it is formed through subsidence and collapse rather than an explosion or impact. Compared to the thousands of volcanic eruptions that occur over the course of a century,
2128-464: The formation of a caldera is a rare event, occurring only a few times within a given window of 100 years. Only eight caldera-forming collapses are known to have occurred between 1911 and 2018, with a caldera collapse at Kīlauea , Hawaii in 2018. Volcanoes that have formed a caldera are sometimes described as "caldera volcanoes". The term caldera comes from Spanish caldera , and Latin caldaria , meaning "cooking pot". In some texts
2184-463: The human species was reduced to approximately 5,000–10,000 people. There is no direct evidence, however, that either theory is correct, and there is no evidence for any other animal decline or extinction, even in environmentally sensitive species. There is evidence that human habitation continued in India after the eruption. Some volcanoes, such as the large shield volcanoes Kīlauea and Mauna Loa on
2240-429: The island of Hawaii , form calderas in a different fashion. The magma feeding these volcanoes is basalt , which is silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less viscous than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano, and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas and can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For instance,
2296-479: The landscape, and then the Caldera de Taburiente on La Palma . A collapse is triggered by the emptying of the magma chamber beneath the volcano, sometimes as the result of a large explosive volcanic eruption (see Tambora in 1815), but also during effusive eruptions on the flanks of a volcano (see Piton de la Fournaise in 2007) or in a connected fissure system (see Bárðarbunga in 2014–2015). If enough magma
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2352-561: The magma to produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other tephra with the very hot gases. The mixture of ash and volcanic gases initially rises into the atmosphere as an eruption column . However, as the volume of erupted material increases, the eruption column is unable to entrain enough air to remain buoyant, and the eruption column collapses into a tephra fountain that falls back to the surface to form pyroclastic flows . Eruptions of this type can spread ash over vast areas, so that ash flow tuffs emplaced by silicic caldera eruptions are
2408-576: The mountains are forested interspersed with moorland . Above 1,300 meters (4,300 ft), the Alpine climate zone starts. The Hakkōda Mountains, along with Lake Towada and the Oirase Valley , make up the northern section of Towada-Hachimantai National Park . The mountains dominate the southern horizon of the city of Aomori. On a clear day they can be seen on a clear day from Hakodate in Hokkaido . Though
2464-408: The mountains can trap toxic volcanic gases emitted from vents. These gases have led to the deaths of several people in modern history. 6,409.7 hectares (15,839 acres) of the land area within the Hakkōda Mountains is designated as a Protected Forest. Located primarily to the south of Mount Ōdake, it stretches about half the distance from that peak across the southern Hakkōda Mountains to Lake Towada. It
2520-582: The mountains' flat plateaus that are referred to as 神の田圃 ( kami no tano ) 'field of god' . The following is a list of peaks and their heights: The Hakkōda Mountains are famous for their high-altitude wetlands : The Hakkōda Mountains are two clusters of stratovolcanoes in the Northeastern Japan Arc that consists of lava flows , debris flows , and pyroclastic ejecta and flows arranged into southern and northern groups. The volcanic peaks are made of non-alkali mafic rock; mostly andesite , dacite , and basalt . Although both groups of mountains formed in
2576-399: The northern and southern groups of the mountains, is a draw for tourists because of the panoramic views it offers of the mountains and their surroundings. Climbing to the summit of Mount Ōdake, the highest peak of the Hakkōda Mountains, is not difficult and does not require any technical skill between May and November. To reach the peak climbers start their ascent at Sukayu Onsen or the top of
2632-468: The only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of flood basalts . For example, when Yellowstone Caldera last erupted some 650,000 years ago, it released about 1,000 km of material (as measured in dense rock equivalent (DRE)), covering a substantial part of North America in up to two metres of debris. Eruptions forming even larger calderas are known, such as the La Garita Caldera in
2688-462: The ring fracture begins to collapse. The collapse may occur as the result of a single cataclysmic eruption, or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions. The total area that collapses may be hundreds of square kilometers. Some calderas are known to host rich ore deposits . Metal-rich fluids can circulate through the caldera, forming hydrothermal ore deposits of metals such as lead, silver, gold, mercury, lithium, and uranium. One of
2744-476: The summit of Ōdake, with another possible eruption at Ōdake. The three most recent eruptions occurred at Jigokunuma on the southwestern foot of Ōdake near Sukayu Onsen during the 13th to 17th centuries. Two fatal incidents have happened in modern history due to volcanic gas emitted from the northern group. On 12 July 1997, three soldiers of the Japan Self-Defense Forces died after gas accumulated in
2800-421: The valley where they were training. On 20 June 2010, a teenage girl died after being exposed to volcanic gas near Sukayu Onsen. After the 2011 Great East Japan earthquake , seismic activity around the volcanic group increased. After a series of earthquakes between February and October 2013, Mount Ōdake saw a degree of deformation . Future eruptions are forecast to come from the peak of Mount Ōdake and Jigokunuma,
2856-459: The west and increased in elevation by 7 meters (23 ft), shifting its summit from the border of Aomori and Towada to being entirely in the city of Towada. As of May 2020, intense fumarole activity was ongoing at Jigokunuma near Sukayu Onsen and National Routes 103 / 394 . During the Jōmon period , human activity rapidly increased in the Hakkōda Mountains after a large-scale, Plinian eruption of
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#17330860838512912-708: The wetlands of the mountains. The mountains support a wide variety of animal life. The Tsuta Wild Bird Sanctuary lies within the Southern Group of the Hakkōda Mountains. Its marshes and ponds support populations of Mandarin duck , forest green tree frog , and ruddy kingfisher . Other species that can be found in the Hakkōda Mountains are the golden eagle , the Japanese serow , and the Asian black bear . [REDACTED] Media related to Hakkōda Mountains at Wikimedia Commons Volcanic complex A complex volcano , also called
2968-486: The winter these fir trees get blasted with snow, sculpting the precipitation onto the trees resulting in the phenomenon known as "snow monsters". In the higher alpine zone in elevations above 1,400 meters (4,600 ft), the stands of fir thin out and are interspersed with a mixture of alpine shrubs , primarily made up of East Asian alder and Japanese rowan . Hare's-tail cottongrass , evergreen azaleas , and Narthecium asiaticum are flowering plants that can be found in
3024-633: The world's best-preserved mineralized calderas is the Sturgeon Lake Caldera in northwestern Ontario , Canada, which formed during the Neoarchean era about 2.7 billion years ago. In the San Juan volcanic field , ore veins were emplaced in fractures associated with several calderas, with the greatest mineralization taking place near the youngest and most silicic intrusions associated with each caldera. Explosive caldera eruptions are produced by
3080-619: Was the Hakkōda Mountains incident , the worst mountaineering accident in modern history. After Mount Iwaki , the Hakkōda Mountains contain the second highest peak in Aomori Prefecture , Mount Ōdake with an elevation of 1,585 meters (5,200 ft). Mount Ōdake can be climbed from Sukayu Onsen in about four hours. Heavy snowfall makes the Hakkōda Mountains a prime destination for backcountry and mountain skiers , and there are two mountain huts for overnight trips. The lower slopes of
3136-464: Was the largest known eruption during the ongoing Quaternary period (the last 2.6 million years) and the largest known explosive eruption during the last 25 million years. In the late 1990s, anthropologist Stanley Ambrose proposed that a volcanic winter induced by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2,000–20,000 individuals, resulting in a population bottleneck . More recently, Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending proposed that
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