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114-418: Like all Motorola processors that share lineage from the 6800 , they use the von Neumann architecture as well as memory-mapped I/O. This family has five CPU registers that are not part of the memory: an 8-bit accumulator A, an 8-bit index register X, an 8-bit stack pointer SP with two most significant bits hardwired to 1, a 13-bit program counter PC, and an 8-bit condition code register CCR. Among

228-733: A desktop computer built with the M6800 ICs that could be used for prototyping and debugging new designs. An expansive documentation package included datasheets on all ICs, two assembly language programming manuals, and a 700-page application manual that showed how to design a point-of-sale terminal (a computerized cash register ) around the 6800. The 6800 was popular in computer peripherals , test equipment applications and point-of-sale terminals. It has also been used in arcade games and pinball machines. The MC6802, introduced in 1977, included 128 bytes of RAM and an internal clock oscillator on chip. The MC6801 and MC6805 included RAM, ROM and I/O on

342-501: A field-effect transistor , or may have two kinds of charge carriers in bipolar junction transistor devices. Compared with the vacuum tube , transistors are generally smaller and require less power to operate. Certain vacuum tubes have advantages over transistors at very high operating frequencies or high operating voltages, such as Traveling-wave tubes and Gyrotrons . Many types of transistors are made to standardized specifications by multiple manufacturers. The thermionic triode ,

456-461: A floppy disk controller could load data into memory without requiring any support from the CPU. It was even possible to have two 6800 processors access the same memory. However, in practice systems of such complexity usually required the use of external bus transceivers to drive the system bus; in such circuits, the on-processor bus control was disabled entirely in favor of using the similar capabilities of

570-529: A p-n-p transistor symbol, the arrow " P oints i N P roudly". However, this does not apply to MOSFET-based transistor symbols as the arrow is typically reversed (i.e. the arrow for the n-p-n points inside). The field-effect transistor , sometimes called a unipolar transistor , uses either electrons (in n-channel FET ) or holes (in p-channel FET ) for conduction. The four terminals of the FET are named source , gate , drain , and body ( substrate ). On most FETs,

684-472: A vacuum tube invented in 1907, enabled amplified radio technology and long-distance telephony . The triode, however, was a fragile device that consumed a substantial amount of power. In 1909, physicist William Eccles discovered the crystal diode oscillator . Physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld filed a patent for a field-effect transistor (FET) in Canada in 1925, intended as a solid-state replacement for

798-492: A "5-V single-supply n-channel technology" operating at 1 MHz. They could simulate a 50 MOSFET circuit on an IBM 370/165 mainframe computer. In November 1975, Lattin joined Intel to work on their next generation microprocessor. Bill Mensch joined Motorola in 1971 after graduating from the University of Arizona. He had worked several years as an electronics technician before earning his BSEE degree. The first year at Motorola

912-472: A 16-bit one. The second accumulator was omitted. The address buffers did not have a three-state mode for Direct Memory Access (DMA) data transfers. The goal was to get the chip size down to 153 mils x 168 mils ( 3.9 mm ×  4.3 mm ). Peddle was a very effective spokesman and the MOS Technology microprocessors were extensively covered in the trade press. One of the earliest was a full-page story on

1026-543: A 2 KB ROM, a 16-bit timer, 31 programmable parallel I/O lines, and a serial port. (The MC6803 was the same except without the ROM and with fewer different bus configurations.) It could also use the I/O lines as data and address buses to connect to standard M6800 peripherals. The 6801 would execute 6800 code, but it had ten additional instructions, and the execution time of key instructions was reduced. The two 8-bit accumulators could act as

1140-514: A 6800 computer system that allowed the user to examine the contents of RAM and to save or load programs to tape. This 512 byte program occupied half of an MCM6830 ROM. This ROM was used in the Motorola MEK6800 design evaluation kit and early hobby computer kits. Wiles stayed with Motorola, moved to Austin and helped design the MC6801 microcontroller that was released in 1978. Chuck Peddle joined

1254-449: A MC6800 socket and Bill Mensch did the MCS6502 that had the clock generation circuit on chip. These microprocessors would not run 6800 programs because they had a different architecture and instruction set. The major goal was a microprocessor that would sell for under $ 25 . This would be done by removing non-essential features to reduce the chip size. An 8-bit stack pointer was used instead of

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1368-406: A Motorola 6800 socket and licensing Motorola's peripheral chips. Motorola reduced the single-unit price of the 6800 to $ 35 . The MOS Technology vs. Motorola lawsuit has developed a David and Goliath narrative over the years. One point was that Motorola did not have patents on the technology. This was technically true when the lawsuit was filed in late 1975 On October 30, 1974, before the 6800

1482-568: A device had been built. In 1934, inventor Oskar Heil patented a similar device in Europe. From November 17 to December 23, 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at AT&T 's Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey , performed experiments and observed that when two gold point contacts were applied to a crystal of germanium , a signal was produced with the output power greater than the input. Solid State Physics Group leader William Shockley saw

1596-597: A few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved. Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively inexpensive. Before transistors were developed, vacuum (electron) tubes (or in the UK "thermionic valves" or just "valves") were the main active components in electronic equipment. The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace vacuum tubes in most applications are Transistors may have

1710-425: A field-effect transistor (FET) by trying to modulate the conductivity of a semiconductor, but was unsuccessful, mainly due to problems with the surface states , the dangling bond , and the germanium and copper compound materials. Trying to understand the mysterious reasons behind this failure led them instead to invent the bipolar point-contact and junction transistors . In 1948, the point-contact transistor

1824-488: A group that examined the needs of their existing customers such as Hewlett-Packard , National Cash Register , Control Data Corporation (CDC), and Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). They would study the customer's products and try to identify functions that could be implemented in larger integrated circuits at a lower cost. The result of the survey was a family of 15 building blocks; each could be implemented in an integrated circuit. Some of these blocks were implemented in

1938-994: A maximum rate of 1 MHz. Higher-speed versions of the 6800 were released in 1976. Other divisions in Motorola developed components for the M6800 family. The Components Products Department designed the MC6870 two-phase clock IC, and the Memory Products group provided a full line of ROMs and RAMs. The CMOS group's MC14411 Bit Rate Generator provided a 75 to 9600 baud clock for the MC6850 serial interface. The buffers for address and data buses were standard Motorola products. Motorola could supply every IC, transistor, and diode necessary to build an MC6800-based computer. The first-generation metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) chips used p-channel field-effect transistors, known as p-channel MOSFETs (p-channel describes

2052-411: A memory designer at Motorola when Bennett asked him to design a voltage doubler for the 6800. Typical n-channel MOS IC's required three power supplies: −5 volts, +5 volts and +12 volts. The M6800 family was to use only one, +5 volts. It was easy to eliminate the −5 volt supply by using an internal voltage inverter , but the enhancement-mode logic also needed a supply of 10 to 12 volts. To address this,

2166-412: A particular type, varies depending on the collector current. In the example of a light-switch circuit, as shown, the resistor is chosen to provide enough base current to ensure the transistor is saturated. The base resistor value is calculated from the supply voltage, transistor C-E junction voltage drop, collector current, and amplification factor beta. The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that

2280-473: A resistor capacitor network. Another project was incorporating 128 bytes of RAM and the clock generator on a single 11,000-transistor chip. The MC6802 microprocessor was released in March 1977. The companion MC6846 chip had 2048 byte ROM, an 8-bit bidirectional port and a programmable timer. This was a two-chip microcomputer. The 6802 has an on-chip oscillator that uses an external 4 MHz quartz crystal to produce

2394-421: A side. The target size for the 6800 was 180 mils (4.6 mm) on each side but the final size was 212 mils (5.4 mm) with an area of 29.0 mm . At 180 mils, a 3-inch (76 mm) wafer will hold about 190 chips, 212 mils reduces that to 140 chips. At this size the yield may be 20% or 28 chips per wafer. The Motorola 1975 annual report highlights the new MC6800 microprocessor but has several paragraphs on

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2508-467: A silicon MOS transistor in 1959 and successfully demonstrated a working MOS device with their Bell Labs team in 1960. Their team included E. E. LaBate and E. I. Povilonis who fabricated the device; M. O. Thurston, L. A. D’Asaro, and J. R. Ligenza who developed the diffusion processes, and H. K. Gummel and R. Lindner who characterized the device. With its high scalability , much lower power consumption, and higher density than bipolar junction transistors,

2622-422: A single 16-bit accumulator for double precision addition, subtraction and multiplication. It was initially designed for automotive use, with General Motors as the lead customer. The first application was a trip computer for the 1978 Cadillac Seville. This 35,000 transistor chip was too expensive for wide-scale adoption in automobiles, so a reduced function MC6805 single-chip microcomputer was designed. The MC6801

2736-523: A single chip and were popular in automotive applications. Some MC6805 models integrated a Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI). The Motorola 6809 was an updated compatible design. Galvin Manufacturing Corporation was founded in 1928; the company name was changed to Motorola in 1947. They began commercial production of transistors at a new US$ 1.5 million facility in Phoenix, Arizona in 1955. By

2850-662: A single flexible microprocessor design. A new effort began in late 1971, but in early 1972, the marketing department returned a report stating they could only sell 18,000 over a five year period. Unconvinced, Bennett hired Link Young to try again. Young returned with a potential order for 200,000 from National Data Corporation , more than enough to start design work. The team was composed of designer Tom Bennett, engineering director Jeff LaVell, product marketer Link Young and systems designers Mike Wiles, Gene Schriber and Doug Powell. They were all located in Mesa, Arizona , in greater Phoenix . By

2964-440: A single microprocessor at $ 360 . Many customers were hesitant to adopt this new microprocessor technology with such a high price tag. (The actual price for production quantities was much lower.) In mid-1974 Peddle proposed a simplified microprocessor that could be sold at a much lower price. Motorola's "total product family" strategy did not focus on the price of MPU but on reducing the customer's total design cost. Peddle's concept

3078-605: A small change in voltage ( V in ) changes the small current through the base of the transistor whose current amplification combined with the properties of the circuit means that small swings in V in produce large changes in V out . Various configurations of single transistor amplifiers are possible, with some providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some both. From mobile phones to televisions , vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound reproduction , radio transmission , and signal processing . The first discrete-transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied

3192-514: A small semiconductor company in Pennsylvania, MOS Technology. He was followed by seven other Motorola engineers: Harry Bawcom, Ray Hirt, Terry Holdt, Mike James, Will Mathis, Bill Mensch and Rod Orgill. Peddle's group at MOS Technology developed two new microprocessors that were compatible with the Motorola peripheral chips like the 6820 PIA. Rod Orgill designed the MCS6501 processor that would plug into

3306-403: A software and hardware development system. The software development tools were available on remote time-sharing computers or the source code was available so the customer could use an in-house computer system. The software that would run on a microprocessor system was typically written in assembly language. The development system consisted of a text editor, assembler and a simulator. This allowed

3420-448: A total of 197 opcodes . The original MC6800 could have a clock frequency of up to 1  MHz . Later versions had a maximum clock frequency of 2 MHz . In addition to the ICs, Motorola also provided a complete assembly language development system . The customer could use the software on a remote timeshare computer or on an in-house minicomputer system. The Motorola EXORciser was

3534-844: A two-page story on the Motorola MC6800 microprocessor along with the MC6820 Peripheral Interface Adapter, the MC6850 Asynchronous Communications Interface Adapter, the MCM6810 128 byte RAM and the MCM6830 1024 byte ROM. This was followed by an eight-page article in the April 18, 1974 issue, written by the Motorola design team. This issue also had an article introducing the Intel 8080. Both the Intel 8080 and

Motorola 68HC05 - Misplaced Pages Continue

3648-440: A type of 3D non-planar multi-gate MOSFET, originated from the research of Digh Hisamoto and his team at Hitachi Central Research Laboratory in 1989. Because transistors are the key active components in practically all modern electronics , many people consider them one of the 20th century's greatest inventions. The invention of the first transistor at Bell Labs was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009. Other Milestones include

3762-416: A weaker input signal, acting as an amplifier . It can also be used as an electrically controlled switch , where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements. There are two types of transistors, with slight differences in how they are used: The top image in this section represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. A charge flows between emitter and collector terminals depending on

3876-461: A working bipolar NPN junction amplifying germanium transistor. Bell announced the discovery of this new "sandwich" transistor in a press release on July 4, 1951. The first high-frequency transistor was the surface-barrier germanium transistor developed by Philco in 1953, capable of operating at frequencies up to 60 MHz . They were made by etching depressions into an n-type germanium base from both sides with jets of indium(III) sulfate until it

3990-481: Is not observed in modern devices, for example, at the 65 nm technology node. For low noise at narrow bandwidth , the higher input resistance of the FET is advantageous. FETs are divided into two families: junction FET ( JFET ) and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more commonly known as a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET ( MOSFET ), reflecting its original construction from layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs,

4104-670: Is now considered legacy and is replaced by the HC(S)08 MCU series. This microcomputer - or microprocessor -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Motorola 6800 The 6800 (" sixty-eight hundred ") is an 8-bit microprocessor designed and first manufactured by Motorola in 1974. The MC6800 microprocessor was part of the M6800 Microcomputer System (later dubbed 68xx ) that also included serial and parallel interface ICs , RAM , ROM and other support chips. A significant design feature

4218-421: Is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical system. A transistor can use a small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals, a property called gain . It can produce a stronger output signal, a voltage or current, proportional to

4332-513: Is still emulated as the baseline functionality of most modern PC video adapter chips) incorporates a compatible near-superset of the EGA CRTC, still mostly-compatible with the MC6845 (but by this point without the light pen support, which the EGA CRTC retained). The MC6801 was a single-chip microcomputer (that today would also be called a microcontroller) incorporating a 6802 CPU with 128 bytes of RAM,

4446-545: Is the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), the MOSFET was invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960. Transistors revolutionized the field of electronics and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios , calculators , computers , and other electronic devices. Most transistors are made from very pure silicon , and some from germanium , but certain other semiconductor materials are sometimes used. A transistor may have only one kind of charge carrier in

4560-526: The Intel 4004 to see if it would meet their calculator needs. Bennett joined Motorola in 1971 to design calculator ICs. He was soon assigned as the chief architect of the microprocessor project that produced the 6800. Others have taken credit for designing the 6800. In September 1975 Robert H. Cushman , EDN magazine's microprocessor editor, interviewed Chuck Peddle about MOS Technology's new 6502 microprocessor. Cushman then asked "Tom Bennett, master architect of

4674-399: The surface state barrier that prevented the external electric field from penetrating the material. In 1955, Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick accidentally grew a layer of silicon dioxide over the silicon wafer, for which they observed surface passivation effects. By 1957 Frosch and Derick, using masking and predeposition, were able to manufacture silicon dioxide field effect transistors;

Motorola 68HC05 - Misplaced Pages Continue

4788-449: The zero page in other processors, allowed fast access to the first 256 bytes of memory. I/O devices were addressed as memory so there were no special I/O instructions. When the 6800 was reset, it loaded the program counter from the highest address and started execution at the memory location stored there. The 6800 had a three-state control that would disable the address bus to allow another device direct memory access . For instance,

4902-597: The "MOS yield problems." The yield problem was solved with a design revision started in 1975 to use depletion mode in the M6800 family devices. The 6800 die size was reduced to 160 mils (4 mm) per side with an area of 16.5 mm . This also allowed faster clock speeds, the MC68A00 would operate at 1.5 MHz and the MC68B00 at 2.0 MHz. The new parts were available in July 1976. The March 7, 1974 issue of Electronics had

5016-431: The 1983 "Pocket Telex". Transistor A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals and power . It is one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics . It is composed of semiconductor material , usually with at least three terminals for connection to an electronic circuit . A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals controls

5130-537: The 20th century's greatest inventions. Physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld proposed the concept of a field-effect transistor (FET) in 1926, but it was not possible to construct a working device at that time. The first working device was a point-contact transistor invented in 1947 by physicists John Bardeen , Walter Brattain , and William Shockley at Bell Labs who shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for their achievement. The most widely used type of transistor

5244-510: The 6800 family. Motorola's n-channel MOS test integrated circuits were complete in late 1971 and these indicated the clock rate would be limited to 1 MHz. These used " enhancement-mode " MOS transistors. There was a newer fabrication technology that used " depletion-mode " MOS transistors as loads, which would allow smaller and faster circuits (this was also known as depletion-load nMOS ). The "depletion-mode" processing required extra steps so Motorola decided to stay with "enhancement-mode" for

5358-421: The 6800", to comment about this new competitor. After the 6800 project Bennett worked on automotive applications and Motorola became a major supplier of microprocessors used in automobiles. Jeff LaVell joined Motorola in 1966 and worked in the computer industry marketing organization. LaVell had previously worked for Collins Radio on their C8500 computer that was built with small scale ECL ICs. In 1971, he led

5472-502: The HC05's there are several processor families, each targeted to different embedded applications. The 68HC05 family broke ground with the introduction of the EEPROM -based MC68HC805C4 and MC68HC805B6 variants in the late 1980s. Using a serial bootloader , they could be programmed in-circuit with simple software running on a PC and a low current 19 V supply (no programmer required). The HC05 series

5586-585: The M6800 family was complete in mid-1974, and many engineers left the group or the company. Several factors led to the break-up of the design group. Motorola had opened a new MOS semiconductor facility in Austin, Texas. The entire engineering team was scheduled to relocate there in 1975. Many of the employees liked living in the Phoenix suburb of Mesa and were very wary about moving to Austin. The team leaders were unsuccessful with their pleas to senior management on deferring

5700-580: The M6800 family were also redesigned to use depletion-mode technology. The Peripheral Interface Adapter had a slight change in the electrical characteristics of the I/O pins so the MC6820 became the MC6821. These new IC were completed in July 1976. A new low-cost clock generator chip, the MC6875, was released in 1977. It replaced the $ 35 MC6870 hybrid IC. The MC6875 came in a 16-pin dip package and could use quartz crystal or

5814-458: The MC6800 for a new desktop calculator and had a prototype system working by June. The MC6800 used a new single-voltage N-channel MOS process that proved to be very difficult to implement. The M6800 microcomputer system was finally in production by November 1974. Motorola matched Intel's price for single microprocessor, $ 360. (The IBM System/360 was a well-known computer at this time.) In April 1975

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5928-449: The MC6800 microprocessor. The MC6845 CRT Controller (CRTC) provided the control logic for a character based computer terminal. The 6845 had support for a light pen , an alternative to a computer mouse. The MC6845 was a very popular chip: it was even used in the original IBM Monochrome Display Adapter and the original IBM Color Graphics Adapter for the IBM PC and successors, where the 6845

6042-614: The MCS6501 and MCS6502 microprocessors in the July 24, 1975 issue of Electronics magazine. Stories also ran in EE Times (August 24, 1975), EDN (September 20, 1975), Electronic News (November 3, 1975) and Byte (November 1975). Advertisements for the 6501 appeared in several publications the first week of August 1975. The 6501 would be for sale at the WESCON trade show in San Francisco, September 16–19, 1975, for $ 20 each. In September 1975

6156-469: The MEK6800D1 microcomputer design kit was offered for $ 300. The kit included all six chips in the M6800 family plus application and programming manuals. The price of a single MC6800 microprocessor was $ 175. Link Young was the product marketer that developed the total system approach for the M6800 family release. In addition to releasing a full set of support chips with the 6800 microprocessor, Motorola offered

6270-412: The MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits, allowing the integration of more than 10,000 transistors in a single IC. Bardeen and Brattain's 1948 inversion layer concept forms the basis of CMOS technology today. The CMOS (complementary MOS ) was invented by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963. The first report of a floating-gate MOSFET

6384-581: The Motorola MC6800 processors began layout around December 1972. The first working 8080 chips were produced January 1974 and the first public announcement was in February 1974. The 8080 used same three voltage N-channel MOS process as Intel's existing memory chips allowing full production to begin that April. The first working MC6800 chips were produced in February 1974 and engineering samples were given to select customers. Hewlett-Packard in Loveland, Colorado wanted

6498-752: The Regency Division of Industrial Development Engineering Associates, I.D.E.A. and Texas Instruments of Dallas, Texas, the TR-1 was manufactured in Indianapolis, Indiana. It was a near pocket-sized radio with four transistors and one germanium diode. The industrial design was outsourced to the Chicago firm of Painter, Teague and Petertil. It was initially released in one of six colours: black, ivory, mandarin red, cloud grey, mahogany and olive green. Other colours shortly followed. The first production all-transistor car radio

6612-471: The advertisements included both the 6501 and the 6502 microprocessors. The 6502 would only cost $ 25 . Motorola responded to MOS Technology's $ 20 microprocessor by immediately reducing the single-unit price of the 6800 microprocessor from $ 175 to $ 69 and then suing MOS Technology in November 1975. Motorola claimed that the eight former Motorola engineers used technical information developed at Motorola in

6726-431: The basis of modern digital electronics since the late 20th century, paving the way for the digital age . The US Patent and Trademark Office calls it a "groundbreaking invention that transformed life and culture around the world". Its ability to be mass-produced by a highly automated process ( semiconductor device fabrication ), from relatively basic materials, allows astonishingly low per-transistor costs. MOSFETs are

6840-404: The body is connected to the source inside the package, and this will be assumed for the following description. In a FET, the drain-to-source current flows via a conducting channel that connects the source region to the drain region. The conductivity is varied by the electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals, hence the current flowing between

6954-454: The bus transceiver. In contrast, the 6802 dispensed with this on-chip control entirely in order to free up pins for other functions in the same 40-pin package as the 6800, but this functionality could still be achieved using an external bus transceiver. MOS ICs typically used dual clock signals (a two-phase clock ) in the 1970s. These were generated externally for the 6800, The 6800 had a minimum clock rate of 100 kHz, and initially ran at

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7068-437: The collector to the emitter. If the voltage difference between the collector and emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector current would be limited only by the load resistance (light bulb) and the supply voltage. This is called saturation because the current is flowing from collector to emitter freely. When saturated, the switch is said to be on . The use of bipolar transistors for switching applications requires biasing

7182-575: The computer simulation tools for characterizing the new MOS circuits in the 6800. Lattin and Frank Jenkins had both attended UC Berkeley and studied computer circuit simulators under Donald Pederson , the designer of the SPICE circuit simulator. Motorola's simulator, MTIME, was an advanced version of the TIME circuit simulator that Jenkins had developed at Berkeley. The group published a technical paper, "MOS-device modeling for computer implementation" in 1973 describing

7296-445: The concept of an inversion layer, forms the basis of CMOS and DRAM technology today. In the early years of the semiconductor industry , companies focused on the junction transistor , a relatively bulky device that was difficult to mass-produce , limiting it to several specialized applications. Field-effect transistors (FETs) were theorized as potential alternatives, but researchers could not get them to work properly, largely due to

7410-593: The configuration of the transistor). These ICs were used in calculators and in the first microprocessor, the Intel 4004. They were easy to produce but were slow and difficult to interface to the popular TTL digital logic ICs. An n-channel MOS integrated circuit could operate two or three times faster and was compatible with TTL. They were much more difficult to produce because of an increased sensitivity to contamination that required an ultra clean production line and meticulous process control. Motorola did not have an n-channel MOS production capability and had to develop one for

7524-559: The current in the base. Because the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between them. The amount of this drop, determined by the transistor's material, is referred to as V BE . (Base Emitter Voltage) Transistors are commonly used in digital circuits as electronic switches which can be either in an "on" or "off" state, both for high-power applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates . Important parameters for this application include

7638-456: The current switched, the voltage handled, and the switching speed, characterized by the rise and fall times . In a switching circuit, the goal is to simulate, as near as possible, the ideal switch having the properties of an open circuit when off, the short circuit when on, and an instantaneous transition between the two states. Parameters are chosen such that the "off" output is limited to leakage currents too small to affect connected circuitry,

7752-414: The current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Some transistors are packaged individually, but many more in miniature form are found embedded in integrated circuits . Because transistors are the key active components in practically all modern electronics , many people consider them one of

7866-488: The design added an on-chip voltage doubler. Buchanan did the circuit design, analysis and layout for the 6800 microprocessor. He received patents on the voltage doubler and the 6800 chip layout. Rod Orgill assisted Buchanan with analyses and 6800 chip layout. Later Orgill would design the MOS Technology 6501 microprocessor that was socket compatible with the 6800. Bill Lattin joined Motorola in 1969 and his group provided

7980-399: The design of the 6501 and 6502 microprocessors. MOS Technology's other business, calculator chips, was declining due to a price war with Texas Instruments so their financial backer, Allen-Bradley , decided to limit the possible losses and sold the assets of MOS Technology back to the founders. The lawsuit was settled in April 1976 with MOS Technology dropping the 6501 chip that would plug into

8094-429: The design team in 1973 after the 6800 processor design was done but he contributed to overall system design and to several peripheral chips, particularly the 6820 (PIA) parallel interface. Peddle is listed as an inventor on sixteen Motorola patents, most have six or more co-inventors. Like the other engineers on the team, Peddle visited potential customers and solicited their feedback. Peddle and John Buchanan built one of

8208-471: The developer to test the software before the target system was complete. The hardware development was a desktop computer built with M6800 family CPU and peripherals known as the EXORcisor. Motorola offered a three- to five-day microprocessor design course for the 6800 hardware and software. This systems-oriented approach became the standard way new microprocessor were introduced. The principal design effort on

8322-402: The division but they did change the management and organization. By the end of 1974 Intel fired almost a third of its 3,500 employees. The MOS IC business rebounded but job security was not taken for granted in 1974 and 1975. Chuck Peddle (and other Motorola engineers) had been visiting customers to explain the benefits of microprocessors. Both Intel and Motorola had initially set the price of

8436-460: The drain and source is controlled by the voltage applied between the gate and source. As the gate–source voltage ( V GS ) is increased, the drain–source current ( I DS ) increases exponentially for V GS below threshold, and then at a roughly quadratic rate: ( I DS ∝ ( V GS − V T ) , where V T is the threshold voltage at which drain current begins) in the " space-charge-limited " region above threshold. A quadratic behavior

8550-404: The earliest 6800 demonstration boards. In August 1974, Chuck Peddle left Motorola and joined a small semiconductor company in Pennsylvania, MOS Technology . There he led the team that designed the 6500 microprocessor family. The Motorola 6800 and the Intel 8080 were designed at the same time and were similar in function. The 8080 was an extension and enhancement of the Intel 8008, which in turn

8664-422: The effort, the hired Bennett away from Victor. Shortly after joining, Olivetti visited Motorola with a outline of a design for a microprocessor they were planning to use in a series of programmable calculators. Motorola agreed to complete the design and produce it on their PMOS lines in Phoenix. While the design was eventually completed successfully, their fab proved unable to produce the chips. The problems with

8778-463: The first planar transistors, in which drain and source were adjacent at the same surface. They showed that silicon dioxide insulated, protected silicon wafers and prevented dopants from diffusing into the wafer. After this, J.R. Ligenza and W.G. Spitzer studied the mechanism of thermally grown oxides, fabricated a high quality Si/ SiO 2 stack and published their results in 1960. Following this research, Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng proposed

8892-451: The following limitations: Transistors are categorized by Hence, a particular transistor may be described as silicon, surface-mount, BJT, NPN, low-power, high-frequency switch . Convenient mnemonic to remember the type of transistor (represented by an electrical symbol ) involves the direction of the arrow. For the BJT , on an n-p-n transistor symbol, the arrow will " N ot P oint i N" . On

9006-450: The idea of a field-effect transistor that used an electric field as a "grid" was not new. Instead, what Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented in 1947 was the first point-contact transistor . To acknowledge this accomplishment, Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain jointly received the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect". Shockley's team initially attempted to build

9120-401: The initial M6800 release and more were added over the next few years. To evaluate the 6800 architecture while the chip was being designed, LaVell's team built an equivalent circuit using 451 small scale TTL ICs on five 10 by 10 inch (25 by 25 cm) circuit boards. Later they reduced this to 114 ICs on one board by using ROMs and MSI (medium scale integration) logic devices. John Buchanan was

9234-451: The initial concept of what would become the Intel 4004 , and on their sales trips they visited Victor Comptometer in Chicago looking for potential customers. Victor had introduced the world's first electronic calculator that used integrated circuits , the Victor 3900 . There, Tom Bennett saw the design. In 1971, Motorola decided to enter the calculator business. Looking for someone to lead

9348-418: The inventions of the junction transistor in 1948 and the MOSFET in 1959. The MOSFET is by far the most widely used transistor, in applications ranging from computers and electronics to communications technology such as smartphones . It has been considered the most important transistor, possibly the most important invention in electronics, and the device that enabled modern electronics. It has been

9462-402: The length and width of each chip in "mils" (0.001 inch). The current industry practice is to state the chip area. Processing wafers required multiple steps and flaws would appear at various locations on the wafer during each step. The larger the chip the more likely it would encounter a defect. The percentage of working chips, or yield, declined steeply for chips larger than 160 mils (4 mm) on

9576-556: The line had become obvious with a number of similar failures; it also proved unable to make competitive memory devices and other designs. To save the contract, Motorola licensed the design to their competitor, Mostek , with the requirement that Mostek could only sell outside the calculator market. Mostek then put the design on the market as the Mostek 5065 . Customers continued to approach the company with new ideas, and it became increasingly obvious that these concepts could be implemented using

9690-586: The mechanical encoding from punched metal cards. The first prototype pocket transistor radio was shown by INTERMETALL, a company founded by Herbert Mataré in 1952, at the Internationale Funkausstellung Düsseldorf from August 29 to September 6, 1953. The first production-model pocket transistor radio was the Regency TR-1 , released in October 1954. Produced as a joint venture between

9804-521: The mid-1960s, Motorola had expanded their semiconductor division under the direction of Lester Hogan. Motorola's transistors and integrated circuits were used in-house for their communication, military, automotive and consumer products and they were also sold to other companies. In 1968, Robert Noyce left Fairchild Semiconductor to found Intel , and Fairchild responded by hiring Hogan as the new CEO . Eight other Motorola employees moved with him, they became known as " Hogan's heroes ". The resulting chaos

9918-927: The most numerously produced artificial objects in history, with more than 13 sextillion manufactured by 2018. Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known as discrete ) MOS transistors every year, the vast majority are produced in integrated circuits (also known as ICs , microchips, or simply chips ), along with diodes , resistors , capacitors and other electronic components , to produce complete electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up to about 20 transistors, whereas an advanced microprocessor , as of 2022, may contain as many as 57 billion MOSFETs. Transistors are often organized into logic gates in microprocessors to perform computation. The transistor's low cost, flexibility and reliability have made it ubiquitous. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It

10032-477: The move. A recession hit the semiconductor industry in mid-1974 resulting in thousands of layoffs. A November 1974 issue of Electronics magazine reports that Motorola had laid off 4,500 employees, Texas Instruments 7,000 and Signetics 4,000. Motorola's Semiconductor Products Division would lose thirty million dollars in the next 12 months and there were rumors that the IC group would be sold off. Motorola did not sell

10146-471: The new single-supply-voltage design. The 1 MHz clock rate meant the chip designers would have to come up with several architectural innovations to speed up the microprocessor throughput. These resulting circuits were faster but required more area on the chip. In the 1970s, semiconductors were fabricated on 3 inch (75 mm) diameter silicon wafers . Each wafer could produce 100 to 200 integrated circuit chips or dies. The technical literature would state

10260-559: The next ten years before he was promoted to a vice president.) The first task was to redesign the 6800 MPU to improve the manufacturing yield and to operate at a faster clock. This design used depletion-mode technology and was known internally as the MC6800D. The transistor count went from 4000 to 5000 but the die area was reduced from 29.0 mm to 16.5 mm (allowing the price of the CPU to be lowered to $ 35). The maximum clock rate for selected parts doubled to 2 MHz. The other chips in

10374-416: The peripheral chips interfaced with the microprocessor. Gary Daniels was designing ICs for electronic wristwatches when Motorola shut down their Timepiece Electronics Unit. Tom Bennett offered him a job in the microprocessor group in November 1974. Bennett did not want to leave the Phoenix area so Gary Daniels managed the microprocessor development in Austin. (Daniels was the microprocessor design manager for

10488-548: The potential in this, and over the next few months worked to greatly expand the knowledge of semiconductors . The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a contraction of the term transresistance . According to Lillian Hoddeson and Vicki Daitch, Shockley proposed that Bell Labs' first patent for a transistor should be based on the field-effect and that he be named as the inventor. Having unearthed Lilienfeld's patents that went into obscurity years earlier, lawyers at Bell Labs advised against Shockley's proposal because

10602-405: The resistance of the transistor in the "on" state is too small to affect circuitry, and the transition between the two states is fast enough not to have a detrimental effect. In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises, the emitter and collector currents rise exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of reduced resistance from

10716-452: The time the project was finished, Bennett had 17 chip designers and layout people working on five chips. LaVell had 15 to 20 system engineers and there was another applications engineering group of similar size. Tom Bennett had a background in industrial controls and had worked for Victor Comptometer in the 1960s designing the first electronic calculator to use MOS ICs, the Victor 3900 . In May 1969 Ted Hoff showed Bennett early diagrams of

10830-409: The transistor so that it operates between its cut-off region in the off-state and the saturation region ( on ). This requires sufficient base drive current. As the transistor provides current gain, it facilitates the switching of a relatively large current in the collector by a much smaller current into the base terminal. The ratio of these currents varies depending on the type of transistor, and even for

10944-479: The transistor, the company rushed to get its "transistron" into production for amplified use in France's telephone network, filing his first transistor patent application on August 13, 1948. The first bipolar junction transistors were invented by Bell Labs' William Shockley, who applied for patent (2,569,347) on June 26, 1948. On April 12, 1950, Bell Labs chemists Gordon Teal and Morgan Sparks successfully produced

11058-479: The triode. He filed identical patents in the United States in 1926 and 1928. However, he did not publish any research articles about his devices nor did his patents cite any specific examples of a working prototype. Because the production of high-quality semiconductor materials was still decades away, Lilienfeld's solid-state amplifier ideas would not have found practical use in the 1920s and 1930s, even if such

11172-647: The two-phase 1 MHz clock. The internal 128 byte RAM could be disabled by grounding a pin and devices with defective RAM were sold as a MC6808. The 6808 was rarely used as the main microprocessor on general-purpose computers, being more popular in embedded systems (the 1979 ACFA-8 microcomputer proved an exception). A series of peripheral chip were introduced by 1978. The MC6840 programmable counter had three 16-bit binary counters that could be used for frequency measurement, event counting, or interval measurement. The MC6844 Direct Memory Access Controller could transfer data from an I/O controller to RAM without loading down

11286-408: The widespread adoption of transistor radios. Seven million TR-63s were sold worldwide by the mid-1960s. Sony's success with transistor radios led to transistors replacing vacuum tubes as the dominant electronic technology in the late 1950s. The first working silicon transistor was developed at Bell Labs on January 26, 1954, by Morris Tanenbaum . The first production commercial silicon transistor

11400-513: Was a few ten-thousandths of an inch thick. Indium electroplated into the depressions formed the collector and emitter. AT&T first used transistors in telecommunications equipment in the No. 4A Toll Crossbar Switching System in 1953, for selecting trunk circuits from routing information encoded on translator cards. Its predecessor, the Western Electric No. 3A phototransistor , read

11514-414: Was a series of three-month rotations through four different areas. Mensch did a flowchart for a modem that would become the 6860. He also worked the application group that was defining the M6800 system. After this training year, he was assigned to the 6820 Peripheral Interface Adapter (PIA) development team. Mensch was a major contributor to the design of this chip and received a patent on the IC layout and

11628-655: Was an LSI implementation of the TTL -based CPU design used in the Datapoint 2200 . The 6800 architecture was a TTL-compatible LSI design modeled after the DEC PDP-11 processor. The 6800 had an 8-bit bidirectional data bus, a 16-bit address bus that could address 64 KB of memory, and came in a 40-pin DIP package. The 6800 had two 8-bit accumulators, a 16-bit index register, and a 16-bit stack pointer. The direct addressing mode, often known as

11742-483: Was announced by Texas Instruments in May 1954. This was the work of Gordon Teal , an expert in growing crystals of high purity, who had previously worked at Bell Labs. The basic principle of the field-effect transistor (FET) was first proposed by physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld when he filed a patent for a device similar to MESFET in 1926, and for an insulated-gate field-effect transistor in 1928. The FET concept

11856-465: Was developed by Chrysler and Philco corporations and was announced in the April 28, 1955, edition of The Wall Street Journal . Chrysler made the Mopar model 914HR available as an option starting in fall 1955 for its new line of 1956 Chrysler and Imperial cars, which reached dealership showrooms on October 21, 1955. The Sony TR-63, released in 1957, was the first mass-produced transistor radio, leading to

11970-900: Was independently invented by physicists Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker while working at the Compagnie des Freins et Signaux Westinghouse , a Westinghouse subsidiary in Paris . Mataré had previous experience in developing crystal rectifiers from silicon and germanium in the German radar effort during World War II . With this knowledge, he began researching the phenomenon of "interference" in 1947. By June 1948, witnessing currents flowing through point-contacts, he produced consistent results using samples of germanium produced by Welker, similar to what Bardeen and Brattain had accomplished earlier in December 1947. Realizing that Bell Labs' scientists had already invented

12084-455: Was later also theorized by engineer Oskar Heil in the 1930s and by William Shockley in the 1940s. In 1945 JFET was patented by Heinrich Welker . Following Shockley's theoretical treatment on JFET in 1952, a working practical JFET was made in 1953 by George C. Dacey and Ian M. Ross . In 1948, Bardeen and Brattain patented the progenitor of MOSFET at Bell Labs, an insulated-gate FET (IGFET) with an inversion layer. Bardeen's patent, and

12198-521: Was made by Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze in 1967. In 1967, Bell Labs researchers Robert Kerwin, Donald Klein and John Sarace developed the self-aligned gate (silicon-gate) MOS transistor, which Fairchild Semiconductor researchers Federico Faggin and Tom Klein used to develop the first silicon-gate MOS integrated circuit . A double-gate MOSFET was first demonstrated in 1984 by Electrotechnical Laboratory researchers Toshihiro Sekigawa and Yutaka Hayashi. The FinFET (fin field-effect transistor),

12312-464: Was named as a co-inventor of seven other M6800 system patents. Later Mensch would design the MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor. Mike Wiles was a design engineer in Jeff LaVell's group and made numerous customer visits with Tom Bennett during 6800 product definition phase. He is listed as an inventor on eighteen 6800 patents but is best known for a computer program, MIKBUG . This was a monitor for

12426-528: Was nevertheless short lived, and the company continued to grow through this period. By 1973 the Semiconductor Products Division (SPD) had sales of $ 419 million and was the second largest semiconductor company after Texas Instruments . By the early 1970s it was clear that most of the large companies in the semiconductor space, including Fairchild and the still-new Intel, were planning to introduce microprocessors . Intel began shopping around

12540-517: Was one of the first microprocessors with a multiply instruction. The Hitachi HD6303 (not to be confused with the Hitachi 6309 ) is a second-source reimplementation of the Motorola MC6803, with a few additional instructions, and a slightly faster implementation of the 8x8 multiply instruction. The Hitachi HD6303 is used in the first PDA, the 1984 Psion Organiser . The Hitachi HD6303 was also used in

12654-418: Was released, Motorola filed numerous patents applications on the microprocessor family, and over twenty patents were subsequently granted. The first was to Tom Bennett on June 8, 1976, for the 6800 internal address bus. The second was to Bill Mensch on July 6, 1976, for the 6820 chip layout. Many of these patents named several of the departing engineers as co-inventors. These patents covered the 6800 bus and how

12768-515: Was repeatedly rejected, and eventually management told him to stop talking about it. He wrote a memo stating that these instructions were a clear statement that Motorola was abandoning the concept, meaning they could not claim intellectual property against it. Peddle continued working for Motorola while looking for investors for his new microprocessor concept. After approaching Mostek and being rejected, in August 1974 Chuck Peddle left Motorola and joined

12882-439: Was that the M6800 family of ICs required only a single five-volt power supply at a time when most other microprocessors required three voltages. The M6800 Microcomputer System was announced in March 1974 and was in full production by the end of that year. The 6800 has a 16-bit address bus that can directly access 64  KB of memory and an 8-bit bi-directional data bus. It has 72 instructions with seven addressing modes for

12996-505: Was used with an Intel 8088 CPU. During the time of cold war technology embargoes, a 6845 clone named CM607 was produced in Bulgaria. The later IBM Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) card contained a custom IBM chip (the EGA CRTC) that replaced the Motorola 6845, adding many enhancements, in a mostly-compatible way. The IBM Video Graphics Array (VGA), which became ubiquitous (to the point that it

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