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116-659: According to the museum, the photograph album was found by an unnamed American counterintelligence officer who was billeted in Frankfurt after Germany's surrender in 1945. This officer discovered the photo album in an apartment there, and when he returned to the United States, he took the album with him. In January 2007, the American officer donated the album to the USHMM , with the request that his identity not be disclosed. The captions of

232-486: A trained intuition possible connections and is trying to research them. Adding the new tools and techniques to [national arsenals], the counterintelligence community will seek to manipulate foreign spies, conduct aggressive investigations, make arrests and, where foreign officials are involved, expel them for engaging in practices inconsistent with their diplomatic status or exploit them as an unwitting channel for deception, or turn them into witting double agents. "Witting"

348-843: A "warrior spirit", which stated that an individual must calmly face death. Those who disobeyed orders would be sentenced to death via decapitation , usually carried out by the katana of Japanese officers. The sword was seen as a symbol of wisdom and perseverance to the Japanese, and they perceived that it was an honor to die by it. Allied prisoners-of-war in Japanese camps were forced to engage in physical labour such as building bridges, erecting forts, and digging defence trenches. These prisoners received limited food, and once their military uniforms wore out, no replacements were given. Some brutal prison guards would answer requests for water with their beatings or rifle butts. Prisoners who were seen as no use, physically weak, or rebellious, would often be killed. At

464-541: A daily basis. The interdependence of the US counterintelligence community is also manifest in its relationships with liaison services. The counterintelligence community cannot cut off these relationships because of concern about security, but experience has shown that it must calculate the risks involved. On the other side of the CI coin, counterespionage has one purpose that transcends all others in importance: penetration. The emphasis which

580-456: A different aspect of counterintelligence, such as domestic, international, and counter-terrorism. Some states will formalize it as part of the police structure, such as the United States' Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Others will establish independent bodies, such as the United Kingdom's MI5 , others have both intelligence and counterintelligence grouped under the same agency, like

696-400: A direct part in them. In postwar trials, Höcker denied his involvement in the selection process. While accounts from survivors and other SS officers all but placed him there, prosecutors could locate no conclusive evidence to prove the claim. In August 1965 Höcker was sentenced to seven years' imprisonment for aiding and abetting in over 1,000 murders at Auschwitz. He was released in 1970 and

812-454: A disability. Many survivors went home or to other areas of the world to have a successful life as a businessman, or they would devote themselves to helping poor people or people in the camps who were in need of support. A former PoW, Lieutenant Colonel Philip Toosey , stated that the Japanese committed brutal atrocities. Some of these included filling a prisoner's nose with water while the guards tied them with barbed wire, then they would stand on

928-613: A first step in which the prisoner is given the choice of co-operating or facing severe consequence up to and including a death sentence for espionage. Co-operation may consist of telling all one knows about the other service but preferably actively assisting in deceptive actions against the hostile service. Defensive counterintelligence specifically for intelligence services involves risk assessment of their culture, sources, methods and resources. Risk management must constantly reflect those assessments, since effective intelligence operations are often risk-taking. Even while taking calculated risks,

1044-629: A group opposing a recognized government by criminal or military means, as well as conducting clandestine intelligence and covert operations against the government in question, which could be one's own or a friendly one. Counterintelligence and counterterrorism analyses provide strategic assessments of foreign intelligence and terrorist groups and prepare tactical options for ongoing operations and investigations. Counterespionage may involve proactive acts against foreign intelligence services, such as double agents , deception , or recruiting foreign intelligence officers. While clandestine HUMINT sources can give

1160-548: A key role in providing indications and warning of terrorist and other force protection threats. Prisoner-of-war camp A prisoner-of-war camp (often abbreviated as POW camp ) is a site for the containment of enemy fighters captured as prisoners of war by a belligerent power in time of war . There are significant differences among POW camps, internment camps , and military prisons . Purpose-built prisoner-of-war camps appeared at Norman Cross in England in 1797 during

1276-772: A large focus onto Japanese-Canadians even though innocent. Japan seemed to be able to attack along the Pacific and Canada could potentially be next. Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King implemented the War Measures Act and the Defence of Canada Regulations ; therefore, they could not get involved with Canadian services along with the Italians and Germans. The Nikkei (Canadians and Immigrants of Japanese origin) were stripped of possessions, which were later auctioned off without consent. The intense cold winters made it hard to live as

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1392-592: A law enforcement framework. In France, a senior anti-terror magistrate is in charge of defense against terrorism. French magistrates have multiple functions that overlap US and UK functions of investigators, prosecutors, and judges. An anti-terror magistrate may call upon France's domestic intelligence service Direction générale de la sécurité intérieure (DGSI), which may work with the Direction générale de la sécurité extérieure (DGSE), foreign intelligence service. Spain gives its Interior Ministry, with military support,

1508-527: A means for dealing with large numbers of captured troops early in the American Civil War , the Union and Confederate governments relied on the traditional European system of parole and exchange of prisoners . While awaiting exchange, prisoners were confined to permanent camps. Neither Union or Confederate prison camps were always well run, and it was common for prisoners to die of starvation or disease. It

1624-504: A neutral country. A few countries were not on the same terms as Germany and Austria. For example, Hungary believed that harsh conditions would reduce the number of traitors. The countries in the east continued their fight to help the Red Cross provide support to POWs. At the end of the war, a Franco-German agreement was made that both countries would exchange their prisoners, but the French kept

1740-504: A neutral power. Not all combatants applied the provisions of the convention. In particular the Empire of Japan , which had signed but never ratified the convention, was notorious for its treatment of prisoners of war; this poor treatment occurred in part because the Japanese viewed surrender as dishonourable. Prisoners from all nations were subject to forced labour, beatings, torture, murder, and even medical experimentation. Rations fell short of

1856-652: A particular radio transmitter as one used only by a particular country, detecting that transmitter inside one's own country suggests the presence of a spy that counterintelligence should target. In particular, counterintelligence has a significant relationship with the collection discipline of HUMINT and at least some relationship with the others. Counterintelligence can both produce information and protect it. All US departments and agencies with intelligence functions are responsible for their own security abroad, except those that fall under Chief of Mission authority. Governments try to protect three things: In many governments,

1972-529: A result, the National Anti-Terrorism Coordination Center was created. Spain's 3/11 Commission called for this center to do operational coordination as well as information collection and dissemination. The military has organic counterintelligence to meet specific military needs. Frank Wisner , a well-known CIA operations executive said of the autobiography of Director of Central Intelligence Allen W. Dulles , that Dulles "disposes of

2088-758: A small number while the Germans released all French prisoners. Krasnoyarsk in Siberia , Russia, was used after the Russian defeat to the Japanese in the Russo-Japanese war , as a base for military camps to train for future wars. Conditions there were dire and the detainees could be conscripted for war while they lived in concentration camps and prisons. Over 50,000 camp tenants were used for transportation, agriculture, mining and machinery production. Throughout World War I, captured prisoners of war were sent to various camps including

2204-796: A warrant, etc. The Russian Federation 's major domestic security organization is the FSB , which principally came from the Second Chief Directorate and Third Chief Directorate of the USSR's KGB . Canada separates the functions of general defensive counterintelligence ( contre-ingérence ), security intelligence (the intelligence preparation necessary to conduct offensive counterintelligence), law enforcement intelligence, and offensive counterintelligence. Military organizations have their own counterintelligence forces, capable of conducting protective operations both at home and when deployed abroad. Depending on

2320-492: A wide range of functions, certainly including military or counterintelligence activities, but also humanitarian aid and aid to development ("nation building"). Terminology here is still emerging, and "transnational group" could include not only terrorist groups but also transnational criminal organization. Transnational criminal organizations include the drug trade, money laundering, extortion targeted against computer or communications systems, smuggling, etc. "Insurgent" could be

2436-466: Is a term of intelligence art that indicates that one is not only aware of a fact or piece of information but also aware of its connection to intelligence activities. Victor Suvorov , the pseudonym of a former Soviet military intelligence ( GRU ) officer, makes the point that a defecting HUMINT officer is a special threat to walk-in or other volunteer assets of the country that he is leaving. Volunteers who are "warmly welcomed" do not take into consideration

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2552-428: Is active measures against those hostile services. This is often called counterespionage : measures taken to detect enemy espionage or physical attacks against friendly intelligence services, prevent damage and information loss, and, where possible, to turn the attempt back against its originator. Counterespionage goes beyond being reactive and actively tries to subvert hostile intelligence service, by recruiting agents in

2668-410: Is an established term of art in the counterintelligence community, and, in today's world, "foreign" is shorthand for "opposing." Opposition might indeed be a country, but it could be a transnational group or an internal insurgent group. Operations against a FIS might be against one's own nation, or another friendly nation. The range of actions that might be done to support a friendly government can include

2784-522: Is believed to be the largest escape of POWs in recorded history and possibly the largest prison breakout ever. At least 545 Japanese POWs attempted to escape from a camp near Cowra, New South Wales , Australia . Most sources say that 234 POWs were killed or committed suicide. The remainder were recaptured. The Great Papago Escape , on December 23, 1944, was the largest POW escape to occur from an American facility. Over 25 German POWs tunneled out of Camp Papago Park , near Phoenix, Arizona , and fled into

2900-463: Is essential. Accordingly, each counterintelligence organization will validate the reliability of sources and methods that relate to the counterintelligence mission in accordance with common standards. For other mission areas, the USIC will examine collection, analysis, dissemination practices, and other intelligence activities and will recommend improvements, best practices, and common standards. Intelligence

3016-645: Is estimated that about 56,000 soldiers died in prisons during the war; almost 10% of all Civil War fatalities. During a period of 14 months in Camp Sumter , located near Andersonville, Georgia , 13,000 (28%) of the 45,000 Union soldiers confined there died. At Camp Douglas in Chicago, Illinois, 10% of its Confederate prisoners died during one cold winter month; and the 25% death rate at Elmira Prison in New York State very nearly equaled that of Andersonville's. During

3132-558: Is penetrated. A high-level defector can also do this, but the adversary knows that he defected and within limits can take remedial action. Conducting CE without the aid of penetrations is like fighting in the dark. Conducting CE with penetrations can be like shooting fish in a barrel . In the British service, the cases of the Cambridge Five , and the later suspicions about MI5 chief Sir Roger Hollis caused great internal dissension. Clearly,

3248-480: Is really specific to countering HUMINT , but, since virtually all offensive counterintelligence involves exploiting human sources, the term "offensive counterintelligence" is used here to avoid some ambiguous phrasing. Other countries also deal with the proper organization of defenses against Foreign Intelligence Services (FIS), often with separate services with no common authority below the head of government. France , for example, builds its domestic counterterror in

3364-415: Is the focus of Project Slammer. Without undue violations of personal privacy, systems can be developed to spot anomalous behavior, especially in the use of information systems. Decision makers require intelligence free from hostile control or manipulation. Since every intelligence discipline is subject to manipulation by our adversaries, validating the reliability of intelligence from all collection platforms

3480-460: Is thwarting efforts by hostile intelligence services to penetrate the service. Offensive counterintelligence is having identified an opponent's efforts against the system, trying to manipulate these attacks by either "turning" the opponent's agents into double agents or feeding them false information to report. Many governments organize counterintelligence agencies separately and distinct from their intelligence collection services. In most countries

3596-705: Is vulnerable not only to external but also to internal threats. Subversion, treason, and leaks expose vulnerabilities, governmental and commercial secrets, and intelligence sources and methods. The insider threat has been a source of extraordinary damage to US national security, as with Aldrich Ames , Robert Hanssen , and Edward Lee Howard , all of whom had access to major clandestine activities. Had an electronic system to detect anomalies in browsing through counterintelligence files been in place, Robert Hanssen 's searches for suspicion of activities of his Soviet (and later Russian) paymasters might have surfaced early. Anomalies might simply show that an especially-creative analyst has

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3712-513: The 1929 Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War , later superseded by the Third Geneva Convention , such camps have been required to be open to inspection by representatives of a neutral power , but this hasn't always been consistently applied. Before the Peace of Westphalia , enemy fighters captured by belligerent forces were usually executed, enslaved, or held for ransom. This, coupled with

3828-576: The Battle of Saratoga in 1777, several thousand British and German ( Hessian and Brunswick) troops were marched to Cambridge, Massachusetts . For various reasons, the Continental Congress desired to move them south. For this purpose, one of the congressmen offered his land outside of Charlottesville, Virginia . The remaining soldiers (some 2,000 British, upwards of 1,900 German, and roughly 300 women and children) marched south in late 1778—arriving at

3944-577: The Boers , the British government authorized the formation of a new intelligence section in the War Office , MO3 (subsequently redesignated MO5) headed by Melville, in 1903. Working under-cover from a flat in London, Melville ran both counterintelligence and foreign intelligence operations, capitalizing on the knowledge and foreign contacts he had accumulated during his years running Special Branch . Due to its success,

4060-653: The Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS). Modern tactics of espionage and dedicated government intelligence agencies developed over the course of the late-19th century. A key background to this development was the Great Game – the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empire throughout Central Asia between 1830 and 1895. To counter Russian ambitions in

4176-616: The French Revolutionary Wars and HM Prison Dartmoor , constructed during the Napoleonic Wars , and they have been in use in all the main conflicts of the last 200 years. The main camps are used for marines , sailors , soldiers , and more recently, airmen of an enemy power who have been captured by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. Civilians , such as merchant mariners and war correspondents , have also been imprisoned in some conflicts. Per

4292-672: The Hague Convention of 1907 . The main combatant nations engaged in World War I abided by the convention and treatment of prisoners was generally good. The situation on the eastern front was significantly worse than the western front , with prisoners in Russia at risk from starvation and disease. In total during the war about eight million men were held in prisoner of war camps, with 2.5 million prisoners in German custody, 2.9 million held by

4408-513: The Red Cross was entrusted with more rights and responsibilities. In the course of World War II , it provided millions of Red Cross parcels to Allied POWs in Axis prison camps; most of these contained food and personal hygiene items, while others held medical kits. A special "release kit" parcel was also provided to some newly released POWs at the war's end. During the United States' call for war on Japan,

4524-471: The Russian Empire , and about 720,000 held by Britain and France. Permanent camps did not exist at the beginning of the war. The unexpectedly large number of prisoners captured in the first days of the war by the German army created an immediate problem. By September 1914, the German army had captured over 200,000 enemy combatants. These first prisoners were held in temporary camps until 1915, by which time

4640-603: The Russian Empire , was also tasked with countering enemy espionage. Its main concern was the activities of revolutionaries, who often worked and plotted subversive actions from abroad. It set up a branch in Paris , run by Pyotr Rachkovsky , to monitor their activities. The agency used many methods to achieve its goals, including covert operations , undercover agents , and "perlustration"—the interception and reading of private correspondence. The Okhrana became notorious for its use of agents provocateurs , who often succeeded in penetrating

4756-591: The Second Boer War , the British government established prisoner-of-war camps (to hold captured Boer belligerents or fighters) and concentration camps (to hold Boer civilians). In total, six prisoner-of-war camps were erected in South Africa and around 31 in overseas British colonies to hold Boer prisoners of war. The majority of Boer prisoners of war were sent overseas (25,630 out of the 28,000 Boer men captured during

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4872-525: The Tuchola internment camp , in Pomerania . These prisoners lived in dugouts, and many died of hunger, cold, and infectious diseases. According to historians Zbigniew Karpus and Waldemar Rezmer , up to 2000 prisoners died in the camp during its operation. In a joint work by Polish and Russian historians, Karpus and Rezmer estimate the total death toll in all Polish POW camps during the war at 16,000–17,000, while

4988-732: The Auschwitz camps during that period that the crematoria were incapable of consuming all the bodies, so open pits were dug for that purpose. According to Rebecca Erbelding, the museum archivist who received the album from its donor and first recognized its significance, "the album reminds us that the perpetrators of the Holocaust were human beings, men and women with families, children and pets, who celebrated holidays and took vacations... These people were human beings... and these photographs remind us what human beings are capable of when they succumb to anti-Semitism, racism and hatred." Höcker married before

5104-554: The British were penetrated by Philby, but it has never been determined, in any public forum, if there were other serious penetrations. In the US service, there was also significant disruption over the contradictory accusations about moles from defectors Anatoliy Golitsyn and Yuri Nosenko , and their respective supporters in CIA and the British Security Service (MI5) . Golitsyn was generally believed by Angleton. George Kisevalter ,

5220-681: The CIA operations officer that was the CIA side of the joint US-UK handling of Oleg Penkovsky , did not believe Angleton's theory that Nosenko was a KGB plant. Nosenko had exposed John Vassall , a KGB asset principally in the British Admiralty, but there were arguments Vassall was a KGB sacrifice to protect other operations, including Nosenko and a possibly more valuable source on the Royal Navy. Defensive counterintelligence starts by looking for places in one's own organization that could easily be exploited by foreign intelligence services (FIS). FIS

5336-735: The Government Committee on Intelligence, with support from Richard Haldane and Winston Churchill , established the Secret Service Bureau in 1909 as a joint initiative of the Admiralty , the War Office and the Foreign Office to control secret intelligence operations in the UK and overseas, particularly concentrating on the activities of the Imperial German government. Its first director

5452-617: The Hamburg firm of Tesch & Stabenow . Counterintelligence Counterintelligence ( counter-intelligence ) or counterespionage ( counter-espionage ) is any activity aimed at protecting an agency's intelligence program from an opposition's intelligence service. It includes gathering information and conducting activities to prevent espionage , sabotage , assassinations or other intelligence activities conducted by, for, or on behalf of foreign powers, organizations or persons. Many countries will have multiple organizations focusing on

5568-484: The KGB places on penetration is evident in the cases already discussed from the defensive or security viewpoint. The best security system in the world cannot provide an adequate defense against it because the technique involves people. The only way to be sure that an enemy has been contained is to know his plans in advance and in detail. Moreover, only a high-level penetration of the opposition can tell you whether your own service

5684-530: The Nikkei were placed in camps; these campers were made of Japanese immigrants and Japanese-Canadians. They lived in barns and stables which were used for animals, therefore unsanitary. It took 5 years after the war for the Nikkei to gain their rights. Compensation was given but was not enough to cover the loss of properties. Over 22,000 Nikkei were put into these camps. In many POW camps, cigarettes were widely used as currency known as ' commodity money '. They performed

5800-811: The Red Cross held a conference in Geneva, Switzerland in September 1917. The conference addressed the war, and the Red Cross addressed the conditions that the civilians were living under, which resembled those of soldiers in prisoner of war camps, as well as "barbed wire disease" (symptoms of mental illness) suffered by prisoners in France and Germany. It was agreed at the conference that the Red Cross would provide prisoners of war with mail, food parcels, clothes, and medical supplies and that prisoners in France and Germany suffering from "barbed wire disease" should be interned in Switzerland,

5916-533: The Red Cross stepped up to provide services for the soldiers overseas. A large number of provisions were needed for the soldiers in World War II over the 4 years that the Americans were involved. The American Red Cross and thirteen million volunteers had donated in the country with an average weekly donation of 111,000 pints of blood. Nurses, doctors, and volunteer workers worked on the front lines overseas to provide for

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6032-502: The Russian historian Matvejev estimates it at 18,000–20,000. On the other side of the frontline about 20,000 out of about 51,000 Polish POWs died in Soviet and Lithuanian camps While the conditions for Soviet prisoners were clearly exposed by the free press in Poland, no corresponding fact-finding about Soviet camps for Polish POWs could be expected from the tightly controlled Soviet press of

6148-516: The SS resort Solahütte . These photographs appear to have been taken on July 29, 1944, to honour the end of Höss's second tenure as garrison senior. Other officers depicted at these celebrations alongside Mengele and Höss include Josef Kramer , Franz Hoessler , Walter Schmidetzki , Anton Thumann , Otto Moll and Max Sell . The photographs in the Höcker Album are viewed as especially chilling because of

6264-588: The U.S. courts. In the Hamdan v. Rumsfeld court case, on June 29, 2006, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the captives at Guantanamo Bay detention camp were entitled to the minimal protections listed under Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions . Other captives, including Saddam Hussein , have been accorded POW status. The International Red Cross has been permitted to visit at least some sites. Many prisoners were held in secret locations ( black sites ) around

6380-646: The UK government had recently declassified information that some British POWs in some Japanese POW camps were subjected to being fattened, then cannibalised. Apparently, Winston Churchill had been aware of this atrocity, but kept the information secret; families would have been too distressed to learn that their sons had been the victims of cannibalism rather than killed in action . More deaths occurred in Japanese POW camps than in any others. The Red Cross were not able to drop parcels into these camps because they were too well defended to fly over. The Second World War

6496-723: The actions of the Pan-Slavist movement operating out of Serbia . After the fallout from the Dreyfus affair of 1894–1906 in France, responsibility for French military counter-espionage passed in 1899 to the Sûreté générale —an agency originally responsible for order enforcement and public safety—and overseen by the Ministry of the Interior . The Okhrana initially formed in 1880 to combat political terrorism and left-wing revolutionary activity throughout

6612-605: The activities of revolutionary groups – including the Bolsheviks . Integrated counterintelligence agencies run directly by governments were also established. The British government founded the Secret Service Bureau in 1909 as the first independent and interdepartmental agency fully in control over all government counterintelligence activities. Due to intense lobbying from William Melville and after he obtained German mobilization plans and proof of their financial support to

6728-411: The camp. He regularly took part in the "selection" on the train arrival platform, judging which prisoners would be immediately executed and which would be permitted to live and perform slave labor. In all, the album contains eight photographs depicting Mengele. Before the donation of the album to the museum, no known images showed him within the camp grounds. The photographs of Mengele were all taken at

6844-473: The colonial rivalries between the major European powers and to the accelerating development of military technology. As espionage became more widely used, it became imperative to expand the role of existing police and internal security forces into a role of detecting and countering foreign spies. The Evidenzbureau (founded in the Austrian Empire in 1850) had the role from the late-19th century of countering

6960-488: The company of young women—stenographers and typists, trained at the SS school in Obernai , who were known generally as SS Helferinnen , the German word for (female) "helpers". Both of the camp's most well-known commanders, Richard Baer and Rudolf Höss , are visible in the photographs. Josef Mengele , known to camp prisoners as the "Angel of Death", was a trained physician, who directed medical experiments on twin children in

7076-630: The counterintelligence mission is spread over multiple organizations, though one usually predominates. There is usually a domestic counterintelligence service, usually part of a larger law enforcement organization such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the United States . The United Kingdom has the separate Security Service , also known as MI5, which does not have direct police powers but works closely with law enforcement especially Special Branch that can carry out arrests, do searches with

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7192-509: The country, there can be various mixtures of civilian and military in foreign operations. For example, while offensive counterintelligence is a mission of the US CIA 's National Clandestine Service , defensive counterintelligence is a mission of the U.S. Diplomatic Security Service (DSS), Department of State , who work on protective security for personnel and information processed abroad at US Embassies and Consulates. The term counter-espionage

7308-473: The death, was somewhat common in the camps. Punishments for major infractions could include death by hanging. German POWs wore shirts with a large red dot painted on the back, an easily identifiable mark outside the camps. Therefore, escapees could be easily found and recaptured. In the wake of the Japanese attacking Hong Kong, the Philippines and Pearl Harbor in which 2000 Canadians were involved, Canadians put

7424-439: The dedication of a new hospital. They also include images of the camp officers relaxing at a staff retreat known as the Solahütte , a rustic lodge only around 20 miles away from the camp complex. These images are regarded as the most striking, because they show cheerful staff officers singing, drinking and eating while, in the camp itself, tremendous suffering is taking place. A number of the photographs show officers relaxing in

7540-488: The direction of James Jesus Angleton . Later, operational divisions had subordinate counterintelligence branches, as well as a smaller central counterintelligence staff. Aldrich Ames was in the Counterintelligence Branch of Europe Division, where he was responsible for directing the analysis of Soviet intelligence operations. US military services have had a similar and even more complex split. This kind of division clearly requires close coordination, and this in fact occurs on

7656-417: The end of the conflict or under a parole not to take up arms. The practice of paroling enemy fighters had begun thousands of years earlier, at least as early as the time of Carthage but became normal practice in Europe from 1648 onwards. The consequent increase in the number of prisoners was to lead eventually to the development of the prisoner of war camps. Following General John Burgoyne 's surrender at

7772-414: The end of the war, when the camp inmates were released, many had lost body parts, and many were starved and faced extreme emaciation . Some prisoners feared execution by the Japanese in response to American bombing. The brutality of the guards caused traumatized prisoners to suffer mental illnesses that persisted for decades afterward. In many cases, survivors of camps were traumatized or ended up living with

7888-444: The existing gap in national level coverage, as well as satisfying the combatant commander's intelligence requirements. Military police and other patrols that mingle with local people may indeed be valuable HUMINT sources for counterintelligence awareness, but are not themselves likely to be CFSOs. Gleghorn distinguishes between the protection of national intelligence services, and the intelligence needed to provide combatant commands with

8004-414: The fact that they are despised by hostile intelligence agents. The Soviet operational officer, having seen a great deal of the ugly face of communism, very frequently feels the utmost repulsion to those who sell themselves to it willingly. And when a GRU or KGB officer decides to break with his criminal organization, something which fortunately happens quite often, the first thing he will do is try to expose

8120-480: The fighting). After an initial settling-in period, these prisoner-of-war camps were generally well administered. The number of concentration camps, all located in South Africa, was much higher and a total of 109 of these camps had been constructed by the end of the war - 45 camps for Boer civilians and 64 camps for black Africans. The vast majority of Boers held in the concentration camps were women and children. The concentration camps were generally poorly administered,

8236-404: The first time, governments had access to peacetime, centralized independent intelligence and counterintelligence bureaucracy with indexed registries and defined procedures, as opposed to the more ad hoc methods used previously. Collective counterintelligence is gaining information about an opponent's intelligence collection capabilities whose aim is at an entity. Defensive counterintelligence

8352-516: The food rations were insufficient to maintain health, standards of hygiene were low, and overcrowding was chronic. Due to these conditions, thousands perished in the 109 concentration camps. Of the Boer women and children held in captivity, over 26,000 died during the war. The first international convention on prisoners of war was signed at the Hague Peace Conference of 1899. It was widened by

8468-427: The foreign service, by discrediting personnel actually loyal to their own service, and taking away resources that would be useful to the hostile service. All of these actions apply to non-national threats as well as to national organizations. If the hostile action is in one's own country or in a friendly one with co-operating police, the hostile agents may be arrested, or, if diplomats, declared persona non grata . From

8584-657: The functions of money as a medium of exchange because they were generally accepted among the prisoners for settling payments or debts, and the function of money as a unit of account, because prices of other goods were expressed in terms of cigarettes. Compared with other goods, the supply of cigarettes was more stable, as they were rationed in the POW camps, and cigarettes were more divisible, portable, and homogeneous. The International Red Cross visited United Nations-run POW camps, often unannounced, noting prisoner hygiene, quality of medical care, variety of diet, and weight gain. They talked to

8700-428: The greatest insight into the adversary's thinking, they may also be most vulnerable to the adversary's attacks on one's own organization. Before trusting an enemy agent, remember that such people started out as being trusted by their own countries and may still be loyal to that country. Wisner emphasized his own, and Dulles', views that the best defense against foreign attacks on, or infiltration of, intelligence services

8816-614: The hardest part was surviving the Canadian winters. Most camps were isolated and located in the far north. Death and sickness caused by the elements was common. Many camps were only lightly watched, and as such, many Germans attempted escape. Tunnelling was the most common method. Peter Krug, an escapee from a prison located in Bowmanville, Ontario , managed to escape along the railroads, using forests as cover. He made his way to Toronto , where he then travelled to Texas . Fighting, sometimes to

8932-699: The hated volunteer. Attacks against military, diplomatic, and related facilities are a very real threat, as demonstrated by the 1983 attacks against French and US peacekeepers in Beirut, the 1996 attack on the Khobar Towers in Saudi Arabia, 1998 attacks on Colombian bases and on U.S. embassies (and local buildings) in Kenya and Tanzania the 2000 attack on the USS Cole , and many others. The U.S. military force protection measures are

9048-435: The information they need for force protection. There are other HUMINT sources, such as military reconnaissance patrols that avoid mixing with foreign personnel, that indeed may provide HUMINT, but not HUMINT especially relevant to counterintelligence. Active countermeasures, whether for force protection, protection of intelligence services, or protection of national security interests, are apt to involve HUMINT disciplines , for

9164-494: The international community to benefit the communist negotiation team. In May 1952, Chinese and North Korean prisoners rioted and took Brigadier General Francis T. Dodd captive. In 1952 the camp's administration were afraid that the prisoners would riot and demonstrate on May Day (a day honoring Communism) and so United States Navy ships (such as the USS Gunston Hall ) removed 15,000 North Korean and Chinese prisoners from

9280-543: The island and moved them to prison facilities at Ulsan and Cheju-do. These ships also participated in Operation Big Switch in September 1953 when prisoners were exchanged at the end of the war. The Chinese operated three types of POW camps during the Korean war. Peace camps housed POWs who were sympathetic to communism, reform camps were intended for skilled POWs who were to be indoctrinated in communist ideologies and

9396-680: The lead up to the Second World War, Japan had engaged in several conflicts aimed at expanding its empire, most notably the Second Sino-Japanese War . Although maintaining its neutrality at the outbreak of war in Europe, in 1941 the Japanese military launched surprise attacks on Hong Kong , Singapore , Thailand , the Philippines , and Pearl Harbor , which had brought the United States into

9512-645: The leadership in domestic counterterrorism. For international threats, the National Intelligence Center (CNI) has responsibility. CNI, which reports directly to the Prime Minister, is staffed principally by which is subordinated directly to the Prime Minister's office. After the March 11, 2004 Madrid train bombings , the national investigation found problems between the Interior Ministry and CNI, and, as

9628-537: The minimum required to sustain life, and many were forced into labour. After March 20, 1943, the Imperial Navy was under orders to execute all prisoners taken at sea. Japanese POW camps are found throughout south-east Asia and the Japanese conquered territories. The Great Escape from Stalag Luft III, on the night of March 24, 1944, involved the escape of 76 Allied servicemen, although only three were able to avoid recapture. The Cowra breakout , on August 5, 1944,

9744-509: The national to the field level. Counterintelligence is part of intelligence cycle security , which, in turn, is part of intelligence cycle management . A variety of security disciplines also fall under intelligence security management and complement counterintelligence, including: The disciplines involved in "positive security," measures by which one's own society collects information on its actual or potential security, complement security. For example, when communications intelligence identifies

9860-438: The noted Frankfurt Auschwitz trials , Höcker denied having participated in the selection of victims at Birkenau or having ever personally executed a prisoner. He further denied any knowledge of the fate of the approximately 400,000 Hungarian Jews who were murdered at Auschwitz during his term of service at the camp. Höcker was shown to have knowledge of the genocidal activities at the camp, but could not be proved to have played

9976-459: The one in Krasnoyarsk. There was a point where a large mix of nationalities was together in Krasnoyarsk which included Bulgarians, Czechs, Germans, and Poles. Many prisoners were nationalists, which led to violence within the camp. Militants would be forced to put down the instigators and keep the camp running. From autumn 1920, thousands of captured Red Army soldiers and guards had been placed in

10092-447: The perspective of one's own intelligence service, exploiting the situation to the advantage of one's side is usually preferable to arrest or actions that might result in the death of the threat. The intelligence priority sometimes comes into conflict with the instincts of one's own law enforcement organizations, especially when the foreign threat combines foreign personnel with citizens of one's country. In some circumstances, arrest may be

10208-420: The photographs, and the people featured in the images, quickly confirmed that it depicts life in and around the Auschwitz camps. The very first photograph is a double portrait of Richard Baer , Auschwitz camp commandant between 1944 and 1945, and Baer's adjutant, Karl Höcker . The album contains 116 photographs, all in black and white , almost all of them featuring German officers. It is believed to have been

10324-515: The popular misconception that counterintelligence is essentially a negative and responsive activity, that it moves only or chiefly in reaction to situations thrust upon it and in counter to initiatives mounted by the opposition." Rather, he sees that can be most effective, both in information gathering and protecting friendly intelligence services, when it creatively but vigorously attacks the "structure and personnel of hostile intelligence services." Today's counterintelligence missions have broadened from

10440-683: The prison population steadily rose, and by early 1966, there was no space to accommodate additional prisoners in the existing jails and prisons. In 1965, plans were made to construct five POW camps, each with an initial capacity of 1,000 prisoners and to be staffed by the South Vietnamese military police, with U.S. military policemen as a prisoner of war advisers assigned to each stockade. The United States of America refused to grant prisoner-of-war status to many prisoners captured during its War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) and 2003 invasion of Iraq . This

10556-457: The prisoner population had increased to 652,000 living in unsatisfactory conditions. In response, the government began constructing permanent camps both in Germany and the occupied territories. The number of prisoners increased significantly during the war, exceeding one million by August 1915 and 1,625,000 by August 1916, and reaching 2,415,000 by the end of the war. The International Committee of

10672-677: The prisoners and asked for their comments on conditions, as well as providing them with copies of the Geneva Convention. The IRC delegates dispersed boots, soap, and other requested goods. A prison camp was established on the island of Koje-do , where over 170,000 communist and non-communist prisoners were held from December 1950 until June 1952. Throughout 1951 and early 1952, upper-level communist agents infiltrated and conquered much of Koje section-by-section by uniting fellow communists; bending dissenters to their will through staged trials and public executions; and exporting allegations of abuse to

10788-524: The prisoners, stepping on the wires. Or the guards would tie a prisoner on a tree by their thumbs, with their toes barely touching the ground, and leave them there for two days without food or water. After the two days of torture, the prisoner would be jailed prior to execution, after which their corpses would later be burnt. Life in the POW camps was recorded at great risk to themselves by artists such as Jack Bridger Chalker , Philip Meninsky , John Mennie , Ashley George Old , and Ronald Searle . Human hair

10904-481: The property of Höcker because he appears in far more of the images than any other individual. On the title page underneath a picture of Höcker and Baer it is written "With the Commandant SS Stubaf. Baer, Auschwitz 21.6.44", identifying Höcker as the owner of the album. He is also the only person in the album to appear alone in any of the images. Some of the images depict formal events, like military funerals and

11020-401: The purpose of detecting FIS agents, involving screening and debriefing of non-tasked human sources, also called casual or incidental sources. such as: Physical security is important, but it does not override the role of force protection intelligence... Although all intelligence disciplines can be used to gather force protection intelligence, HUMINT collected by intelligence and CI agencies plays

11136-759: The region and the potential threat it posed to the British position in India , the Indian Civil Service built up a system of surveillance, intelligence and counterintelligence. The existence of this shadowy conflict was popularized in Rudyard Kipling 's famous spy book , Kim (1901), where he portrayed the Great Game (a phrase Kipling popularized) as an espionage and intelligence conflict that "never ceases, day or night". The establishment of dedicated intelligence and counterintelligence organizations had much to do with

11252-573: The relatively small size of armies, meant there was little need for any form of camp to hold prisoners of war. The Peace of Westphalia , a series of treaties signed between May and October 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years' War , contained a provision that all prisoners should be released without ransom. This is generally considered to mark the point where captured enemy fighters would be reasonably treated before being released at

11368-522: The remaining prisoners were moved to Frederick, Maryland ; Winchester, Virginia ; and perhaps elsewhere. No remains of the encampment site are left. The earliest known purpose-built prisoner-of-war camp was established by the Kingdom of Great Britain at Norman Cross , in 1797 to house the increasing number of prisoners from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars . The prison operated until 1814 and held between 3,300 and 6,272 men. Lacking

11484-500: The responsibility for protecting these things is split. Historically, CIA assigned responsibility for protecting its personnel and operations to its Office of Security, while it assigned the security of operations to multiple groups within the Directorate of Operations: the counterintelligence staff and the area (or functional) unit, such as Soviet Russia Division. At one point, the counterintelligence unit operated quite autonomously, under

11600-404: The services need to mitigate risk with appropriate countermeasures. FIS are especially able to explore open societies and, in that environment, have been able to subvert insiders in the intelligence community. Offensive counterespionage is the most powerful tool for finding penetrators and neutralizing them, but it is not the only tool. Understanding what leads individuals to turn on their own side

11716-513: The set of actions taken against military personnel and family members, resources, facilities and critical information, and most countries have a similar doctrine for protecting those facilities and conserving the potential of the forces. Force protection is defined to be a defense against deliberate attack, not accidents or natural disasters. Counterintelligence Force Protection Source Operations (CFSO) are human source operations, normally clandestine in nature, conducted abroad that are intended to fill

11832-570: The site (near Ivy Creek) in January 1779. Since the barracks were barely sufficient in construction, the officers were paroled to live as far away as Richmond and Staunton . The camp was never adequately provisioned, but the prisoners built a theater on the site. Hundreds escaped Albemarle Barracks because of the shortage of guards. As the British Army moved northward from the Carolinas in late 1780,

11948-587: The surrounding desert. Over the next few weeks all were recaptured. The escape of Felice Benuzzi, Giovanni ('Giuàn') Balletto, and Vincenzo ('Enzo') Barsotti from Camp 354 in Nanyuki, Kenya, on a lark to climb Mount Kenya is of particular note. The account is recorded by Benuzzi in No Picnic on Mount Kenya . After their attempt to climb Mount Kenya, the trio "escaped" back into Camp 354. After World War I , when around 40 million civilians and prisoners could not be saved,

12064-466: The third type was the normal POW camps . Chinese policy did not allow for the exchange of prisoners in the first two camp types. While these POW camps were designated numerically by the communists, the POWs often gave the camps a colloquial name. By the end of 1965, Viet Cong suspects, prisoners of war, and even juvenile delinquents were mixed together in South Vietnamese jails and prisons. After June 1965,

12180-545: The time during which they were made, between June and December 1944. It has been noted by archivists and historians that this period overlaps with the mass extermination of hundreds of thousands of Hungarian Jews in the spring and summer of 1944—an event known as "the Hungarian Transport ". These Jews were gathered and shipped to Auschwitz after the March 1944 invasion of Hungary by the Nazis. So many Hungarian Jews were killed in

12296-577: The time when the threat was restricted to the foreign intelligence services (FIS) under the control of nation-states. Threats have broadened to include threats from non-national or trans-national groups, including internal insurgents, organized crime, and transnational based groups (often called "terrorists", but that is limiting). Still, the FIS term remains the usual way of referring to the threat against which counterintelligence protects. In modern practice, several missions are associated with counterintelligence from

12412-479: The time. Available data shows many cases of mistreatment of Polish prisoners. There have been also cases of Polish POWs' being executed by the Soviet army, when no POW facilities were available. The 1929 Geneva Convention on the Prisoners of War established certain provisions relative to the treatment of prisoners of war. One requirement was that POW camps were to be open to inspection by authorised representatives of

12528-499: The war on the side of the Allies. In 1942, after they had captured Hong Kong from the British, the Japanese established several prisoner-of-war camps in Kowloon to house Allied prisoners of war. Believing it was shameful to be captured alive in combat, the Japanese ran their prisoner-of-war camps brutally, with many Allied prisoners of war dying in them. The Japanese field army code included

12644-417: The war and had a son and daughter during the war, with whom he was reunited after his release from 18 months in a British POW camp in 1946. Early in the 1960s, he was apprehended by West German authorities in his hometown, where he was a bank official. It is not known why the bank rehired and promoted him after a long absence during which he had nothing to do with banking. At his trial in Frankfurt , part of

12760-408: The work of Indian revolutionaries collaborating with the Germans during the war. Instead of a system whereby rival departments and military services would work on their own priorities with little to no consultation or cooperation with each other, the newly established Secret Intelligence Service was interdepartmental, and submitted its intelligence reports to all relevant government departments. For

12876-406: The wounded and the needy. This program saved thousands of lives as plasma donations were delivered to the camps and bases. However, the Red Cross only accepted donations from white Americans and excluded those of Japanese, Italian, German and African Americans . To combat this, activists tried to fight such segregation back home with arguments that blood of Whites and blood of Blacks is the same. In

12992-644: Was Captain Sir George Mansfield Smith-Cumming alias "C". The Secret Service Bureau was split into a foreign and counter-intelligence domestic service in 1910. The latter, headed by Sir Vernon Kell , originally aimed at calming public fears of large-scale German espionage. As the Service was not authorized with police powers, Kell liaised extensively with the Special Branch of Scotland Yard (headed by Basil Thomson ), and succeeded in disrupting

13108-595: Was able to return to his bank post as a chief cashier, where he worked until his retirement. On 3 May 1989 a district court in the German city of Bielefeld sentenced Höcker to four years' imprisonment for his involvement in gassing to death prisoners, primarily Polish Jews, in the Majdanek concentration camp in Poland. Camp records showed that between May 1943 and May 1944 Höcker had acquired at least 3,610 kilograms (7,960 lb) of Zyklon B poisonous gas for use in Majdanek from

13224-445: Was mainly because it classed them as insurgents or terrorists , which did not meet the requirements laid down by the Third Geneva Convention of 1949 such as being part of a chain of command , wearing a "fixed distinctive marking, visible from a distance", bearing arms openly, and conducting military operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war . The legality of this refusal has been questioned and cases are pending in

13340-451: Was mainly fought in Europe and western Russia, East Asia, and the Pacific; there were no invasions of Canada. The few prisoners of war sent to Canada included Japanese and German soldiers, captured U-boat crews, and prisoners from raids such as Dieppe and Normandy. The camps meant for German POWs were smaller than those meant for Japanese prisoners of war and were far less brutal. German prisoners generally benefitted from good food. However,

13456-664: Was often used for brushes, plant juices and blood for paint, and toilet paper as the "canvas". Some of their works were used as evidence in the trials of Japanese war criminals. Many are now held by the Australian War Memorial , State Library of Victoria , and the Imperial War Museum in London. The State Library of Victoria exhibited many of these works under the title The Major Arthur Moon Collection , in 1995. In 2016, war historian Antony Beevor (who had recently completed his book The Second World War ), said that

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