194-602: György (Móric) Klapka ( German : Georg Klapka ; 7 April 1820 – 17 May 1892) was a Hungarian general. He was one of the most important Hungarian generals of the Hungarian War of Independence of 1848–1849, politician, member of the Hungarian Parliament , and deputy War Minister. Klapka was born at Temesvár , Kingdom of Hungary on 7 April 1820 in a German-speaking Roman-Catholic family of Moravian origin. His ancestors migrated there from Moravia during
388-460: A de facto official language of Namibia after the end of German colonial rule alongside English and Afrikaans , and had de jure co-official status from 1984 until its independence from South Africa in 1990. However, the Namibian government perceived Afrikaans and German as symbols of apartheid and colonialism, and decided English would be the sole official language upon independence, stating that it
582-478: A nation and a clear sense of national identity. In the early 1830s, Serbia gained autonomy and its borders were recognized, with Miloš Obrenović being recognized as its ruler. Serbia is the fourth modern-day European country, after France, Austria and the Netherlands, to have a codified legal system, as of 1844. The last Ottoman troops withdrew from Serbia in 1867, although Serbia's and Montenegro's independence
776-402: A second language , and 75–100 million as a foreign language . This would imply the existence of approximately 175–220 million German speakers worldwide. German sociolinguist Ulrich Ammon estimated a number of 289 million German foreign language speakers without clarifying the criteria by which he classified a speaker. As of 2012 , about 90 million people, or 16% of
970-587: A "commonly used" language and the Pan South African Language Board is obligated to promote and ensure respect for it. Cameroon was also a colony of the German Empire from the same period (1884 to 1916). However, German was replaced by French and English, the languages of the two successor colonial powers, after its loss in World War I . Nevertheless, since the 21st century, German has become
1164-677: A 78-day-long NATO bombing campaign which effectively drove Yugoslav security forces from Kosovo. Subsequently, more than 200,000 Serbs and other non-Albanians fled the province. On 5 October 2000, Yugoslav President Slobodan Milosević was overthrown in a bloodless revolt after he refused to admit defeat in the 2000 Yugoslav general election . Modern demographic distribution of ethnic Serbs throughout homeland and native regions, as well as in Serbian ethnic diaspora , represents an outcome of several historical and demographic processes, shaped both by economic migrations and forced displacements during
1358-621: A Croatian military offensive known as Operation Storm put a stop to the Croatian Serb rebellion and causing as many as 200,000 Serbs to flee the country. The Bosnian War ended that same year, with the Dayton Agreement dividing the country along ethnic lines. In 1998–99, a conflict in Kosovo between the Yugoslav Army and Albanians seeking independence erupted into full-out war, resulting in
1552-443: A Serbian American biomedical engineer focusing on engineering human tissues for regenerative medicine , stem cell research and modeling of disease. She is one of the most highly cited scientists of all times. Notable Serb mathematicians include Mihailo Petrović , Jovan Karamata and Đuro Kurepa . Mihailo Petrović is known for having contributed significantly to differential equations and phenomenology, as well as inventing one of
1746-719: A cadet in the 2nd Artillery Regiment in Vienna, then in the Bombardier Corps. In the spring of 1842, after his family's Hungarian nobility had been confirmed, he was commissioned, at the proposal of Sebő Vukovics , to the Hungarian Nobiliary Royal Bodyguards (Magyar királyi nemesi testőrség), as a delegate of the Temes County , continuing his career in the Guards of Vienna, where he became friend with Artúr Görgei . He
1940-588: A child, he recalls, I had the greatest pleasure of watching military ceremonies, where I admired the uniforms of the Hungarian generals , as well as spending much time on the ramparts of the fortress of Temesvár. Despite his Moravian origin Klapka considered himself a Hungarian. He made his early education at the Roman Catholic secondary schools from Kecskemét and Szeged . His mother tongue was German, he learned Latin in
2134-460: A compromise with Klapka and the defenders. Finally on 27 September 1849 the delegation of the defenders agreed with Field Marshal Haynau about the conditions of the capitulation of the fortress. These conditions were as follows: - The soldiers could leave without their arms, while the officers could leave retaining theirs; - Those officers who prior to the Hungarian War of Independence were in
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#17330851118792328-448: A csatára (Rise, Rise Soldiers to the Battle) were written much later, in 1861, by Kálmán Thaly . At the end of August all of the mobile Hungarian troops surrendered, as well as the fortresses, with the exception of Pétervárad , which held until 7 September. Only the fortress of Komárom refused to surrender. On 5, 7, 10, 25 and 27 September the Hungarian defenders fought with success against
2522-776: A few years before. Loanwords in the Serbian language besides common internationalisms are mostly from Greek , German and Italian, while words of Hungarian origin are present mostly in the north. The Ottoman conquest began a linguistical contact between Ottoman Turkish and South Slavic; Ottoman Turkish influence grew stronger after the 15th century. Besides Turkish loanwords, also many Arabic (such as alat , "tool", sat , "hour, clock") and Persian ( čarape , "socks", šećer , "sugar") words entered via Turkish, called "Orientalisms" ( orijentalizmi ). Also, many Greek words entered via Turkish. Words for hitherto unknown sciences, businesses, industries, technologies and professions were brought by
2716-641: A form of slavery in the Ottoman Empire , in which boys from Balkan Christian families were forcibly converted to Islam and trained for infantry units of the Ottoman army known as the Janissaries . A number of Serbs who converted to Islam occupied high-ranking positions within the Ottoman Empire , such as Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha and Minister of War field marshal Omar Pasha Latas . In 1688,
2910-556: A greater need for regularity in written conventions. While the major changes of the MHG period were socio-cultural, High German was still undergoing significant linguistic changes in syntax, phonetics, and morphology as well (e.g. diphthongization of certain vowel sounds: hus (OHG & MHG "house") → haus (regionally in later MHG)→ Haus (NHG), and weakening of unstressed short vowels to schwa [ə]: taga (OHG "days")→ tage (MHG)). A great wealth of texts survives from
3104-565: A humanitarian of Austrian descent, carried out rescue operations from Ustaše camps and saved more than 15,000 children, mostly Serbs. More than half a million Serbs were killed in the territory of Yugoslavia during World War II. Serbs in occupied Yugoslavia subsequently formed a resistance movement known as the Yugoslav Army in the Homeland , or the Chetniks. The Chetniks had the official support of
3298-453: A native tongue today, mostly descendants of German colonial settlers . The period of German colonialism in Namibia also led to the evolution of a Standard German-based pidgin language called " Namibian Black German ", which became a second language for parts of the indigenous population. Although it is nearly extinct today, some older Namibians still have some knowledge of it. German remained
3492-535: A new Hungarian uprising or a foreign help. He also hoped that with these exaggerated demands he would be able to obtain at least amnesty for the defenders of Komárom. This was rejected, Lieutenant Field Marshal Anton Csorich demanding unconditional surrender , so the Hungarians decided to continue the resistance. On 26 September the main commander of the Austrian forces Julius Jacob von Haynau arrived to Komárom, took over
3686-568: A note to all Serb bishops to come to him and collaborate only with Habsburg forces. A Great Migration of the Serbs (1690) to Habsburg lands was undertaken by Patriarch Arsenije III. The large community of Serbs concentrated in Banat, southern Hungary and the Military Frontier included merchants and craftsmen in the cities, but mainly refugees that were peasants. Smaller groups of Serbs also migrated to
3880-726: A phonetic ending, -ich or -itch in foreign languages. Other common surname suffixes found among Serbian surnames are - ov , - ev , - in and - ski (without -ić ) which is the Slavic possessive case suffix, thus Nikola's son becomes Nikolin, Petar's son Petrov, and Jovan's son Jovanov. Other, less common suffices are -alj/olj/elj , -ija , -ica , -ar/ac/an . The ten most common surnames in Serbia, in order, are Jovanović , Petrović , Nikolić , Marković , Đorđević , Stojanović , Ilić , Stanković , Pavlović and Milošević . Serbs are predominantly Orthodox Christians . The autocephaly of
4074-413: A poem entitled Egy goromba tábornokra (About a Rude General), in which he named Klapka an unworthy man and a weak general. Klapka prosecuted Petőfi for this, and when he met him on 14 May at Pest, he arrested the poet. Petőfi was saved by General Görgei, whose favorite poet he was, liberating him from the arrest, sending a deputation made of officers to ask for pardon from Klapka in the name of Petőfi. In
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#17330851118794268-679: A popular foreign language among pupils and students, with 300,000 people learning or speaking German in Cameroon in 2010 and over 230,000 in 2020. Today Cameroon is one of the African countries outside Namibia with the highest number of people learning German. In the United States, German is the fifth most spoken language in terms of native and second language speakers after English, Spanish , French , and Chinese (with figures for Cantonese and Mandarin combined), with over 1 million total speakers. In
4462-475: A result, the surviving texts are written in highly disparate regional dialects and exhibit significant Latin influence, particularly in vocabulary. At this point monasteries, where most written works were produced, were dominated by Latin, and German saw only occasional use in official and ecclesiastical writing. While there is no complete agreement over the dates of the Middle High German (MHG) period, it
4656-451: A significant diaspora with several communities across Europe , the Americas and Oceania . The Serbs share many cultural traits with the rest of the peoples of Southeast Europe . They are predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christians by religion. The Serbian language (a standardized version of Serbo-Croatian ) is official in Serbia, co-official in Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and
4850-411: A soldier, besmirching the Hungarian army to the public, thus weakening the will of the nation to fight against the enemy. Klapka was angered on Petőfi also because of the poet's former conflicts with other Hungarian officers and war ministers like Lieutenant General Antal Vetter and Lieutenant General Lázár Mészáros (against whom he wrote also a satirical poem), so he reprimanded the poet, who came to
5044-444: A triple analysis – autosomal , mitochondrial and paternal — of available data from large-scale studies on Balto-Slavs and their proximal populations, the whole genome SNP data situates Serbs with Montenegrins in between two Balkan clusters. Y-DNA results show that haplogroups I2a and R1a together stand for the majority of the makeup, with more than 50 percent. According to several recent studies Serbia's people are among
5238-580: Is a recognized minority language in the following countries: In France, the High German varieties of Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as " regional languages ", but the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of 1998 has not yet been ratified by the government. Namibia also was a colony of the German Empire, from 1884 to 1915. About 30,000 people still speak German as
5432-415: Is a world-renowned performance artist , writer, and art filmmaker . Traditional Serbian music includes various kinds of bagpipes , flutes , horns , trumpets , lutes , psalteries , drums and cymbals . The kolo is the traditional collective folk dance, which has a number of varieties throughout the regions. The first Serbian composers started working in the 14th and 15th century, like Kir Stefan
5626-596: Is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects , with many varieties existing in Europe and other parts of the world. Some of these non-standard varieties have become recognized and protected by regional or national governments. Since 2004, heads of state of the German-speaking countries have met every year, and the Council for German Orthography has been the main international body regulating German orthography . German
5820-546: Is an Indo-European language that belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages . The Germanic languages are traditionally subdivided into three branches: North Germanic , East Germanic , and West Germanic . The first of these branches survives in modern Danish , Swedish , Norwegian , Faroese , and Icelandic , all of which are descended from Old Norse . The East Germanic languages are now extinct, and Gothic
6014-472: Is called the "German Sprachraum ". German is the official language of the following countries: German is a co-official language of the following countries: Although expulsions and (forced) assimilation after the two World wars greatly diminished them, minority communities of mostly bilingual German native speakers exist in areas both adjacent to and detached from the Sprachraum. Within Europe, German
György Klapka - Misplaced Pages Continue
6208-430: Is complicated by the existence of several varieties whose status as separate "languages" or "dialects" is disputed for political and linguistic reasons, including quantitatively strong varieties like certain forms of Alemannic and Low German . With the inclusion or exclusion of certain varieties, it is estimated that approximately 90–95 million people speak German as a first language , 10–25 million speak it as
6402-409: Is considered one of the most intriguing writers from the beginning of the 21st century. Charles Simic is a notable contemporary Serbian-American poet, former United States Poet Laureate and a Pulitzer Prize winner . Contemporary writer Zoran Živković authored more than 20 prose books and is best-known for his SF works which have been published in 23 countries. Many Serbs have contributed to
6596-459: Is estimated that over two thirds of all Serbian surnames have the suffix -ić (-ић) ( [itɕ] ), a Slavic diminutive , originally functioning to create patronymics . Thus the surname Petrović means the "son of Petar" (from a male progenitor, the root is extended with possessive -ov or -ev ). Due to limited use of international typewriters and unicode computer encoding, the suffix may be simplified to -ic , historically transcribed with
6790-520: Is generally seen as ending when the 1346–53 Black Death decimated Europe's population. Modern High German begins with the Early New High German (ENHG) period, which Wilhelm Scherer dates 1350–1650, terminating with the end of the Thirty Years' War . This period saw the further displacement of Latin by German as the primary language of courtly proceedings and, increasingly, of literature in
6984-595: Is generally seen as lasting from 1050 to 1350. This was a period of significant expansion of the geographical territory occupied by Germanic tribes, and consequently of the number of German speakers. Whereas during the Old High German period the Germanic tribes extended only as far east as the Elbe and Saale rivers, the MHG period saw a number of these tribes expanding beyond this eastern boundary into Slavic territory (known as
7178-559: Is less closely related to languages based on Low Franconian dialects (e.g., Dutch and Afrikaans), Low German or Low Saxon dialects (spoken in northern Germany and southern Denmark ), neither of which underwent the High German consonant shift. As has been noted, the former of these dialect types is Istvaeonic and the latter Ingvaeonic, whereas the High German dialects are all Irminonic; the differences between these languages and standard German are therefore considerable. Also related to German are
7372-435: Is one of the major languages of the world . German is the second-most widely spoken Germanic language , after English, both as a first and as a second language . German is also widely taught as a foreign language , especially in continental Europe (where it is the third most taught foreign language after English and French), and in the United States. Overall, German is the fourth most commonly learned second language, and
7566-587: Is one of the three biggest newspapers in Namibia and the only German-language daily in Africa. An estimated 12,000 people speak German or a German variety as a first language in South Africa, mostly originating from different waves of immigration during the 19th and 20th centuries. One of the largest communities consists of the speakers of "Nataler Deutsch", a variety of Low German concentrated in and around Wartburg . The South African constitution identifies German as
7760-401: Is partly derived from Latin and Greek , along with fewer words borrowed from French and Modern English . English, however, is the main source of more recent loanwords . German is a pluricentric language ; the three standardized variants are German , Austrian , and Swiss Standard German . Standard German is sometimes called High German , which refers to its regional origin. German
7954-607: Is spoken by the plurality in Montenegro. The identity of Serbs is rooted in Eastern Orthodoxy and traditions. In the 19th century, the Serbian national identity was manifested, with awareness of history and tradition, medieval heritage, cultural unity, despite living under different empires. Three elements, together with the legacy of the Nemanjić dynasty , were crucial in forging identity and preservation during foreign domination:
György Klapka - Misplaced Pages Continue
8148-510: Is the Sachsenspiegel , the first book of laws written in Middle Low German ( c. 1220 ). The abundance and especially the secular character of the literature of the MHG period demonstrate the beginnings of a standardized written form of German, as well as the desire of poets and authors to be understood by individuals on supra-dialectal terms. The Middle High German period
8342-750: Is the most spoken native language within the European Union . It is the most widely spoken and official (or co-official) language in Germany , Austria , Switzerland , Liechtenstein , and the Italian autonomous province of South Tyrol . It is also an official language of Luxembourg , Belgium and the Italian autonomous region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia , as well as a recognized national language in Namibia . There are also notable German-speaking communities in France ( Alsace ),
8536-566: Is the only language in this branch which survives in written texts. The West Germanic languages, however, have undergone extensive dialectal subdivision and are now represented in modern languages such as English, German, Dutch , Yiddish , Afrikaans , and others. Within the West Germanic language dialect continuum, the Benrath and Uerdingen lines (running through Düsseldorf - Benrath and Krefeld - Uerdingen , respectively) serve to distinguish
8730-481: Is understood in all areas where German is spoken. Approximate distribution of native German speakers (assuming a rounded total of 95 million) worldwide: As a result of the German diaspora , as well as the popularity of German taught as a foreign language , the geographical distribution of German speakers (or "Germanophones") spans all inhabited continents. However, an exact, global number of native German speakers
8924-439: Is usually regarded their most significant and most solemn feast day . The origin of the ethnonym is unclear. The most prominent theory considers it of Proto-Slavic origin. Hanna Popowska-Taborska argued native Slavic provenance of the ethnonym, claiming that the theory advances a conclusion that the ethnonym has a meaning of a family kinship or alliance, which was also argued by a number of other scholars. According to
9118-493: Is world-famous. Prominent architectural styles in the Middle Ages were Raška architectural school , Morava architectural school and Serbo-Byzantin architectural style . During the same period UNESCO protected Stećak monumental medieval tombstones were built. The Independence of Serbia in the 19th century was soon followed with Serbo-Byzantine Revival in architecture. Baroque and rococo trends in Serbian art emerged in
9312-673: The Ostsiedlung ). With the increasing wealth and geographic spread of the Germanic groups came greater use of German in the courts of nobles as the standard language of official proceedings and literature. A clear example of this is the mittelhochdeutsche Dichtersprache employed in the Hohenstaufen court in Swabia as a standardized supra-dialectal written language. While these efforts were still regionally bound, German began to be used in place of Latin for certain official purposes, leading to
9506-627: The Alamanni , Bavarian, and Thuringian groups, all belonging to the Elbe Germanic group ( Irminones ), which had settled in what is now southern-central Germany and Austria between the second and sixth centuries, during the great migration. In general, the surviving texts of Old High German (OHG) show a wide range of dialectal diversity with very little written uniformity. The early written tradition of OHG survived mostly through monasteries and scriptoria as local translations of Latin originals; as
9700-687: The Allies until 1943, when Allied support shifted to the Communist Yugoslav Partisans , a multi-ethnic force, formed in 1941, which also had a large majority of Serbs in its ranks in the first two years of war. Over the entirety of the war, the ethnic composition of the Partisans was 53 percent Serb. During the entire course of the WWII in Yugoslavia, 64.1% of all Bosnian Partisans were Serbs. Later, after
9894-595: The Apollo spaceship . Physicist and physical chemist Mihajlo Pupin is best known for his landmark theory of modern electrical filters as well as for his numerous patents, while Milutin Milanković is best known for his theory of long-term climate change caused by changes in the position of the Earth in comparison to the Sun, now known as Milankovitch cycles . Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic is
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#173308511187910088-658: The Balšić family , Raška, Kosovo and northern Macedonia held by the Branković family and Lazar Hrebeljanović holding today's Central Serbia and a portion of Kosovo. Hrebeljanović was subsequently accepted as the titular leader of the Serbs because he was married to a member of the Nemanjić dynasty. In 1389, the Serbs faced the Ottomans at the Battle of Kosovo on the plain of Kosovo Polje , near
10282-562: The Battle of Isaszeg from 6 April, the first decisive battle of the Spring Campaign, after initial successes, Klapka's I Corps were pushed back by Jelačić's superior forces, which made Klapka waver, and to think seriously to retreat from the battlefield, letting Damjanich's III Corps alone, but the arrival of Görgei, and his order to resist at all costs, then the arrival of the II Corps led by Lajos Aulich , convinced him to remain and fight. At
10476-557: The Czech Republic ( North Bohemia ), Poland ( Upper Silesia ), Slovakia ( Košice Region , Spiš , and Hauerland ), Denmark ( North Schleswig ), Romania and Hungary ( Sopron ). Overseas, sizeable communities of German-speakers are found in Brazil ( Blumenau and Pomerode ), South Africa ( Kroondal ), Namibia , among others, some communities have decidedly Austrian German or Swiss German characters (e.g. Pozuzo , Peru). German
10670-522: The Early Middle Ages . German is an inflected language , with four cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative); three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and two numbers (singular, plural). It has strong and weak verbs . The majority of its vocabulary derives from the ancient Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, while a smaller share
10864-417: The European Union 's population, spoke German as their mother tongue, making it the second most widely spoken language on the continent after Russian and the second biggest language in terms of overall speakers (after English), as well as the most spoken native language. The area in central Europe where the majority of the population speaks German as a first language and has German as a (co-)official language
11058-455: The German states . While these states were still part of the Holy Roman Empire , and far from any form of unification, the desire for a cohesive written language that would be understandable across the many German-speaking principalities and kingdoms was stronger than ever. As a spoken language German remained highly fractured throughout this period, with a vast number of often mutually incomprehensible regional dialects being spoken throughout
11252-554: The Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I , and the other being Meißner Deutsch , used in the Electorate of Saxony in the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg . Alongside these courtly written standards, the invention of the printing press led to the development of a number of printers' languages ( Druckersprachen ) aimed at making printed material readable and understandable across as many diverse dialects of German as possible. The greater ease of production and increased availability of written texts brought about increased standardisation in
11446-489: The Nobel Prize in Literature in 1961. Danilo Kiš , another popular Serbian writer, was known for writing A Tomb for Boris Davidovich , as well as several acclaimed novels. Amongst contemporary Serbian writers, Milorad Pavić stands out as being the most critically acclaimed, with his novels Dictionary of the Khazars , Landscape Painted with Tea and The Inner Side of the Wind bringing him international recognition. Highly revered in Europe and in South America , Pavić
11640-439: The Old High German language in several Elder Futhark inscriptions from as early as the sixth century AD (such as the Pforzen buckle ), the Old High German period is generally seen as beginning with the Abrogans (written c. 765–775 ), a Latin-German glossary supplying over 3,000 Old High German words with their Latin equivalents. After the Abrogans , the first coherent works written in Old High German appear in
11834-547: The Palme d'Or twice at the Cannes Film Festival , numerous other prizes, and is a UNICEF National Ambassador for Serbia. Several Americans of Serb origin have been featured prominently in Hollywood . The most notable of these are Academy Award winners Karl Malden , Steve Tesich , Peter Bogdanovich , Tony -winning theatre director Darko Tresnjak , Emmy -winning director Marina Zenovich and actors Iván Petrovich , Brad Dexter , Lolita Davidovich , Milla Jovovich and Stana Katic . Most literature written by early Serbs
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#173308511187912028-404: The Republika Srpska ), where they are one of the three constituent ethnic groups . Serbs in Croatia , Montenegro and North Macedonia also have recognized collective rights, and number some 186,000, 178,000 and 39,000 people, respectively, while another estimated 96,000 live in the disputed area of Kosovo . Smaller minorities exist in Slovenia , some 36,000 people, respectively. Outside of
12222-433: The Russian Empire , where they occupied high positions in the military circles. The Serbian Revolution for independence from the Ottoman Empire lasted eleven years, from 1804 until 1815. The revolution comprised two separate uprisings which gained autonomy from the Ottoman Empire that eventually evolved towards full independence (1835–1867). During the First Serbian Uprising , led by Duke Karađorđe Petrović , Serbia
12416-436: The Serbian Orthodox Church in the year 1219, and became known as Saint Sava after his death. Parts of modern-day Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina , and central Serbia would come under the control of Nemanjić. Over the next 140 years, Serbia expanded its borders, from numerous smaller principalities, reaching to a unified Serbian Empire . Its cultural model remained Byzantine, despite political ambitions directed against
12610-416: The Serbian Orthodox Church , the Serbian language , and the Kosovo Myth . When the Principality of Serbia gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, Orthodoxy became crucial in defining the national identity , instead of language which was shared by other South Slavs ( Croats and Bosniaks ). The tradition of slava , the family saint feast day, is an important ethnic marker of Serb identity, and
12804-596: The Serbian Orthodox Church , was established in 1219, as an Archbishopric, and raised to the Patriarchate in 1346. It is led by the Serbian Patriarch , and consists of three archbishoprics, six metropolitanates and thirty-one eparchies , having around 10 million adherents. Followers of the church form the largest religious group in Serbia and Montenegro, and the second-largest in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia . The church has an archbishopric in North Macedonia and dioceses in Western Europe, North America, South America and Australia. The identity of ethnic Serbs
12998-482: The Shtokavian dialect . Serbian is an official language in Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina and is a recognized minority language in Montenegro (although spoken by a plurality of population), Croatia, North Macedonia, Romania, Hungary, Czech Republic and Slovakia. Older forms of literary Serbian are Church Slavonic of the Serbian recension, which is still used for ecclesiastical purposes, and Slavonic-Serbian —a mixture of Serbian, Church Slavonic and Russian used from
13192-427: The Sprachraum in Europe. German is used in a wide variety of spheres throughout the country, especially in business, tourism, and public signage, as well as in education, churches (most notably the German-speaking Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (GELK) ), other cultural spheres such as music, and media (such as German language radio programs by the Namibian Broadcasting Corporation ). The Allgemeine Zeitung
13386-422: The Standard German language in its written form, and the Duden Handbook was declared its standard definition. Punctuation and compound spelling (joined or isolated compounds) were not standardized in the process. The Deutsche Bühnensprache ( lit. ' German stage language ' ) by Theodor Siebs had established conventions for German pronunciation in theatres , three years earlier; however, this
13580-451: The Székely border guard units could be sent to Hungary. On 13 June he was appointed as a captain to the 16 Hungarian Battalion in Veszprém . Starting with August he joined the Hungarian military operations in Bácska (Southern Hungary) against the Serbian insurgents. On 25 September he was sent to be the temporary director of the Komárom fortress , called the Gibraltar of the Danube . During that time he prevented Wilhelm Mertz,
13774-444: The Tisza river from North-West, menacing, together with Klapka's corps, to encircle and destroy Schlik's army. Understanding the importance of this chance, Klapka tried to convince Dembiński, to attack from the South Schlik's corps, but the latter refused, ordering Klapka to retreat. This wrong decision of the main commander enabled Schlik to escape the danger, and to retreat. Klapka defeated him again on 8 February at Hidasnémeti , but
13968-805: The United States , Canada , Australia , South America and Southern Africa . The existence of a large diaspora is mainly a consequence of either economic or political ( coercion or expulsions) reasons. There were several waves of Serb emigration: Serbs speak Serbian , a member of the South Slavic group of languages, specifically the Southwestern group. Standard Serbian is a standardized variety of Serbo-Croatian , and therefore mutually intelligible with Standard Croatian , Standard Montenegrin , and Standard Bosnian (see Comparison of standard Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian ), which are all based on
14162-503: The Upper German dialects spoken in the southern German-speaking countries , such as Swiss German ( Alemannic dialects ) and the various Germanic dialects spoken in the French region of Grand Est , such as Alsatian (mainly Alemannic, but also Central–and Upper Franconian dialects) and Lorraine Franconian (Central Franconian). After these High German dialects, standard German
14356-462: The pagan Germanic tradition. Of particular interest to scholars, however, has been the Hildebrandslied , a secular epic poem telling the tale of an estranged father and son unknowingly meeting each other in battle. Linguistically, this text is highly interesting due to the mixed use of Old Saxon and Old High German dialects in its composition. The written works of this period stem mainly from
14550-949: The sociology of law and sociological jurisprudence. There are several different layers of Serbian names. Serbian given names largely originate from Slavic roots : e.g., Vuk , Bojan , Goran , Zoran , Dragan , Milan , Miroslav , Vladimir , Slobodan , Dušan , Milica , Nevena , Vesna , Radmila . Other names are of Christian origin, originating from the Bible ( Hebrew , through Greek ), such as Lazar , Mihailo , Ivan , Jovan , Ilija , Marija , Ana , Ivana . Along similar lines of non-Slavic Christian names are Greek ones such as: Stefan , Nikola , Aleksandar , Filip , Đorđe , Andrej , Jelena , Katarina , Vasilije , Todor , while those of Latin origin include: Marko , Antonije , Srđan , Marina , Petar , Pavle , Natalija , Igor (through Russian). Most Serbian surnames are paternal, maternal, occupational or derived from personal traits. It
14744-506: The "countries" of Paganija , Zahumlje , Travunija . With the decline of the Serbian state of Duklja in the late 11th century, Raška separated from it and replaced it as the most powerful Serbian state. Prince Stefan Nemanja (r. 1169–96) conquered the neighbouring territories of Kosovo , Duklja and Zachlumia . The Nemanjić dynasty ruled over Serbia until the 14th century. Nemanja's older son, Stefan Nemanjić , became Serbia's first recognized king, while his younger son, Rastko, founded
14938-456: The 1350s, a major conflict ensued between them and the Serbs, the first major battle was the Battle of Maritsa (1371), in which the Serbs were defeated. With the death of two important Serb leaders in the battle, and with the death of Stephen Uroš that same year, the Serbian Empire broke up into several small Serbian domains. These states were ruled by feudal lords, with Zeta controlled by
15132-518: The 18th century and are mostly represented in icon painting and portraits. Most of the Baroque authors were from the territory of Austrian Empire , such as Nikola Nešković , Teodor Kračun , Teodor Ilić Češljar , Zaharije Orfelin and Jakov Orfelin . Serbian painting showed the influence of Biedermeier and Neoclassicism as seen in works by Konstantin Danil and Pavel Đurković . Many painters followed
15326-663: The 19th century) Serbs also have a noteworthy classical music and works of philosophy. Notable philosophers include Svetozar Marković , Branislav Petronijević , Ksenija Atanasijević , Radomir Konstantinović , Nikola Milošević , Mihailo Marković , Justin Popović and Mihailo Đurić . During the 12th and 13th centuries, many icons, wall paintings and manuscript miniatures came into existence, as many Serbian Orthodox monasteries and churches such as Hilandar , Žiča , Studenica , Sopoćani , Mileševa , Gračanica and Visoki Dečani were built. The architecture of some of these monasteries
15520-624: The 19th century, and the writings of Njegoš and Branko Radičević . The first prominent representative of Serbian literature in the 20th century was Jovan Skerlić , who wrote in pre–World War I Belgrade and helped introduce Serbian writers to literary modernism. The most important Serbian writer in the inter-war period was Miloš Crnjanski . The first Serb authors who appeared after World War II were Mihailo Lalić and Dobrica Ćosić . Other notable post-war Yugoslav authors such as Ivo Andrić and Meša Selimović were assimilated to Serbian culture, and both identified as Serbs. Andrić went on to win
15714-554: The 2nd Class Hungarian Military Decoration. At 30 April 1849 he was named deputy War Minister substituting Görgei, who was leading the Siege of Buda (04-21 May 1849). Quite in the first day in his office in Debrecen Klapka had a conflict with Sándor Petőfi , the Hungarian national poet, then a major in the Army of Transylvania under the command of Lieutenant General Józef Bem . The cause of
15908-514: The Austrian army, received passport to leave the country; - Those who did not wanted to leave could return home, without being prosecuted; - Those Hungarian officers who prior to the war were not in the Austrian army could return home, they were free to work in any profession, start businesses, but they were prohibited to be conscripted in the army again; - The former soldiers of the Habsburg armies received total amnesty; - Those who wanted to leave
16102-414: The Austrian corps led by Ladislaus von Wrbna at Egerfarmos . At 3 March he was one of the leaders of the revolt at Tiszafüred of the Hungarian officers dissatisfied with Dembiński's leadership, and forced him to resign, supporting Görgei's election to the main command. For his victories against Schlik he received on 13 March the 3d Class Hungarian Military Decoration. At 28 March, only 29, he received
16296-420: The Austrian general was able to retreat towards West, joining the main imperial troops led by Windisch-Grätz. Klapka participated during 26–27 February in the Battle of Kápolna , commanding the right wing of the Hungarian army at Verpelét . The battle was lost because of Dembiński's poor army leading and indecision. After Dembiński's order of retreat, at 1 March Klapka fought successful rearguard actions against
16490-617: The Battles of Zsigárd, Ihász and Győr . When Görgei took over the main command, in the Battle of Pered from 20 to 21 June 1849, Klapka had the mission to attack with the VIII corps the Austrians in the Csallóköz , but his troops were forced to retreat in the first day of the Battle of Alsónyárasd . Nevertheless, at the end of the battle Klapka's troops secured the retreat of the Hungarian army, by securing
16684-663: The Empire. Its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Prague (German: Prag ) and Budapest ( Buda , German: Ofen ), to name two examples, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain; others, like Pressburg ( Pozsony , now Bratislava), were originally settled during the Habsburg period and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest, Bratislava, and cities like Zagreb (German: Agram ) or Ljubljana (German: Laibach ), contained significant German minorities. In
16878-718: The Frisian languages— North Frisian (spoken in Nordfriesland ), Saterland Frisian (spoken in Saterland ), and West Frisian (spoken in Friesland )—as well as the Anglic languages of English and Scots. These Anglo-Frisian dialects did not take part in the High German consonant shift, and the Anglic languages also adopted much vocabulary from both Old Norse and the Norman language . The history of
17072-524: The German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the Migration Period , which separated Old High German dialects from Old Saxon . This sound shift involved a drastic change in the pronunciation of both voiced and voiceless stop consonants ( b , d , g , and p , t , k , respectively). The primary effects of the shift were the following below. While there is written evidence of
17266-447: The German states; the invention of the printing press c. 1440 and the publication of Luther's vernacular translation of the Bible in 1534, however, had an immense effect on standardizing German as a supra-dialectal written language. The ENHG period saw the rise of several important cross-regional forms of chancery German, one being gemeine tiutsch , used in the court of
17460-675: The Germanic dialects that were affected by the High German consonant shift (south of Benrath) from those that were not (north of Uerdingen). The various regional dialects spoken south of these lines are grouped as High German dialects, while those spoken to the north comprise the Low German and Low Franconian dialects. As members of the West Germanic language family, High German, Low German, and Low Franconian have been proposed to be further distinguished historically as Irminonic , Ingvaeonic , and Istvaeonic , respectively. This classification indicates their historical descent from dialects spoken by
17654-663: The Habsburg army took Belgrade and entered the territory of present-day Central Serbia . Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden called Serbian Patriarch Arsenije III Čarnojević to raise arms against the Turks; the Patriarch accepted and returned to the liberated Peć. As Serbia fell under Habsburg control, Leopold I granted Arsenije nobility and the title of duke. In early November, Arsenije III met with Habsburg commander-in-chief, General Enea Silvio Piccolomini in Prizren ; after this talk he sent
17848-508: The Hungarian armies. As the captain of the encircled fortress, cut off from the other Hungarian armies, Klapka decided to make a heroic stand against the superior enemy, to resist until nothing more could be done, and if he would be forced to leave Komárom, he would do it only with honour. He wrote this in July: I say it already from now: no matter what will be the situation, we can leave this place only with honor, or we will be buried together under
18042-592: The Hungarian defensive line along the Tisza river, and won precious time for the Hungarian commandment to organize the counter-attack against Windisch-Grätz imperial troops. From 29 January 1849 he was under the command of Lieutenant-General Henryk Dembiński the main commander of the Hungarian armies. After their victory at 5 February 1849 in the Battle of Branyiszkó , the Upper Danube Corps led by Artúr Görgei approached to
18236-562: The Hungarian military council of Komárom decided to resume the talks with the Austrians. Some of the officers were against this and conjured against Klapka, but they were caught and put to jail. Klapka sent a demand to the besiegers demanding the Austrians to give total amnesty for all people from Hungary, who participated in the revolution and in the War of Independence, and to liberate the war prisoners. Probably Klapka knew that these conditions could not be accepted, but he wanted to win time, hoping for
18430-532: The Hungarian troops started to evacuate one by one the fortifications and different buildings of the fortress and the town. The soldiers formed lines before the Starfort (Csillagerőd), while the military orchestra played the Klapka March . Then came Klapka, who rode before their lines, then he stopped on the middle and said goodbye to them. Then the soldiers put their weapons in stacks and took farewell to each other. In
18624-543: The Hungarian troops to the right bank of the Danube, attacking the Austrian blockade around the fortress, crushing the imperial forces led by Lieutenant Field Marshal Anton Csorich in the Fourth Battle of Komárom , causing them 1,500 casualties, capturing 30 cannons, many thousands of rifles, ammunition and an entire herd of oxen. This was the last important battle won by the Hungarians in the Hungarian War of Independence. After
18818-516: The Hungarian troops. The Hungarians tried to break the Austrian blockade from the West against Komárom, but, because of the inactivity of two of the corps commanders, the battle was lost. Klapka led this battle without much determination because he did not understand the reason for attacking the Austrian army, when after the battle, no matter what its outcome would be, the bulk of the Hungarian army had to retreat towards Szeged. In this battle, Klapka's main goal
19012-512: The I. corps to return to Komárom, as a result of which Görgei retracted his decision, remaining the commander of the army. On 11 July, because Görgei was still unable to lead the army, Klapka commanded the Hungarian forces in the Third Battle of Komárom . He had to carry out Kossuth's plan, supported also by Görgei, to break the Austrian blockade on Komárom, then retreat with three corps towards Southern Hungary, where Kossuth intended to concentrate
19206-714: The Indian princes, but hearing the news about the revolution from Paris from February 1848 he decided to remain in Hungary. After the victory, on 15 March, of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 , Klapka volunteered in the Hungarian army, and he was conscripted as captain . In May 1848 he was appointed by Batthyány Government with two Hungarian officers to go to Kolozsvár and in the Székely Land to find out if Transylvania wanted to reunite with Hungary, and to measure how many from
19400-646: The Irminones (also known as the Elbe group), Ingvaeones (or North Sea Germanic group), and Istvaeones (or Weser–Rhine group). Standard German is based on a combination of Thuringian - Upper Saxon and Upper Franconian dialects, which are Central German and Upper German dialects belonging to the High German dialect group. German is therefore closely related to the other languages based on High German dialects, such as Luxembourgish (based on Central Franconian dialects ) and Yiddish . Also closely related to Standard German are
19594-507: The MHG period. Significantly, these texts include a number of impressive secular works, such as the Nibelungenlied , an epic poem telling the story of the dragon -slayer Siegfried ( c. thirteenth century ), and the Iwein , an Arthurian verse poem by Hartmann von Aue ( c. 1203 ), lyric poems , and courtly romances such as Parzival and Tristan . Also noteworthy
19788-475: The Ottoman Empire in 1686 during the Great Turkish War , Serbs from Pannonian Plain (present-day Hungary , Slavonia region in present-day Croatia , Bačka and Banat regions in present-day Serbia ) joined the troops of the Habsburg monarchy as separate units known as Serbian Militia . Serbs, as volunteers, massively joined the Austrian side. Many Serbs were recruited during the devshirme system,
19982-436: The Ottoman Empire. Christian villagers brought urban vocabulary from their travels to Islamic culture cities. Many Turkish loanwords are no longer considered loanwords. There is considerable usage of French words as well, especially in military related terms. One Serbian word that is used in many of the world's languages is " vampire " ( vampir ). Literature , icon painting, music, dance and medieval architecture are
20176-678: The Russians could intervene. As a result of these reactions and the start of the Russian intervention on 15 June 1849, Klapka's operation plan was not carried out. In June, when Görgei took over his duties in the War Ministry, Klapka substituted him in the command of the Army of the Upper Danube , being entrusted, together with the chief of the general staff Colonel József Bayer, to attack the imperial forces led by Field-Marshal Julius Jacob von Haynau in
20370-504: The Russians numbered 12,000 soldiers and 56 cannons. The Austrians then the Russians too demanded the surrender of the fortress but Klapka and the Hungarian military council refused. Thanks to the intervention in the negotiations of the Habsburg Minister of Defense Ferenc Gyulay , himself a Hungarian, on 21 August a 14-day armistice was signed, which allowed Klapka to send four commissioners to travel across all Hungary to ascertain about
20564-698: The Serb . Composer and musicologist Stevan Stojanović Mokranjac is considered one of the most important founders of modern Serbian music. Other noted classical composers include Kornelije Stanković , Stanislav Binički , Petar Konjović , Miloje Milojević , Stevan Hristić , Josif Marinković , Luigi von Kunits , Ljubica Marić and Vasilije Mokranjac . Well-known musicians include Zdravko Čolić , Arsen Dedić , Predrag Gojković-Cune , Toma Zdravković , Milan Mladenović , Radomir Mihailović Točak , Bora Đorđević , Momčilo Bajagić Bajaga , Đorđe Balašević , Ceca and others. Serbia has produced many talented filmmakers,
20758-587: The Serbian ruler Stefan Nemanja II was crowned by Pope Honorius III of the Roman Catholic Church. However in 1219, Nemanja II was crowned once again by the newly independent Serbian Orthodox Church. This shift solidified the Christian Orthodox religion in Serbia. With the arrival of the Ottoman Empire , some Serbs converted to Islam . This was particularly, but not wholly, the case in Bosnia . Since
20952-495: The Serbs (1896). Painter Uroš Predić was also prominent in the field of Serbian art, painting the Kosovo Maiden and Happy Brothers . While Jovanović and Predić were both realist painters, artist Nadežda Petrović was an impressionist and fauvist and Sava Šumanović was an accomplished Cubist . Painters Petar Lubarda , Vladimir Veličković and Ljubomir Popović were famous for their surrealism . Marina Abramović
21146-416: The artistic forms for which Serbia is best known. Traditional Serbian visual art (specifically frescoes , and to some extent icons ), as well as ecclesiastical architecture, are highly reflective of Byzantine traditions, with some Mediterranean and Western influence. Many Serbian monuments and works of art have been lost forever due to various wars and peacetime marginalizations. In modern times (since
21340-456: The artistic trends set in the 19th century Romanticism, notably Đura Jakšić , Stevan Todorović , Katarina Ivanović and Novak Radonić . Since the mid-1800s, Serbia has produced a number of famous painters who are representative of general European artistic trends. One of the most prominent of these was Paja Jovanović , who painted massive canvases on historical themes such as the Migration of
21534-464: The battle Klapka's troops advanced to the west and occupied the city of Győr , liberating a huge territory from North Transdanubia , cutting the connection and supply lines between Vienna and the troops led by Haynau in Central Hungary. Hearing the news of this victory the citizens of Székesfehérvár revolted against the occupying Austrian forces and chased them away. Klapka started recruitment from
21728-494: The battle of Isaszeg Damjanich criticized Klapka of being too timorous and sensible to the complaints of his soldiers, instead of being resolute and determined. Luckily the main commander of Army of the Upper Danube (Feldunai Hadsereg) was Görgei, who was the most able Hungarian general to carry out Klapka's plans, led the army in the best way, being able to take quickly the correct decisions after short thinking, being very determined in his decisions, showing no hesitation even before
21922-556: The battle – which could have become a serious defeat for the Hungarians – into a victory, made the Austrian Field-Marshal suspicious, that the main Hungarian attack could come from other directions, and not from where he expected that. However Jelačić's vain report to Windisch-Grätz that his troops won the battle of Tápióbicske, deceived him, to think that the Croatian general was attacked only by minor Hungarian forces, so he still
22116-728: The biggest casualty rate in World War I . Following the victory in WWI, Serbs subsequently formed the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes with other South Slavic peoples . The country was later renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , and was led from 1921 to 1934 by King Alexander I of the Serbian Karađorđević dynasty . During World War II , Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers in April 1941. The country
22310-516: The bridge from Aszódpuszta. During the Second Battle of Komárom of 2 July, Klapka commanded the left wing of the Hungarian army, retreating initially from Ószőny , but at the end of the battle, after fierce fighting, recaptured the important locality from the Austrian IV corps led by General Ludwig von Benedek . At the end of this battle Görgei was heavily wounded, and once again, Klapka took over
22504-410: The command from him, until he was again able to lead the army. During this period under the lead of Klapka, the Hungarian officers decided to oppose the decisions of the Hungarian government, which demanded the immediate retreat of the army from Komárom, and the deposition of Görgei from the commandment of the Army of the Upper Danube . Klapka and the officers refused to fulfill both these orders, forcing
22698-446: The conflict was the article written by Petőfi in the newspaper Honvéd , in which he published a letter of Bem against general Károly Vécsey , accusing the latter of high treason, cowardice and incapacity, because he did not help Bem in his failed attempt to capture the fortress of Temesvár . Hearing about this Klapka and other Hungarian generals, who were on Vécsey's side, accused Petőfi of being undisciplined, dressing not accordingly to
22892-491: The constable of the fortress, from delivering it in the hands of the Habsburgs, and played a role in forcing Mertz and the officers loyal to the Habsburgs, to leave Komárom, securing this very important stronghold for Hungary. From 16 October Klapka supervised also the fortification works from Pozsony . During that time, as the commander of the concentrated Hungarian national guards concentrated at Nagyszombat , he participated in
23086-399: The country, had to ask for passports in 30 days; - The officers received payment for 30 days, while the simple soldiers for 10 days in Austrian banknotes (equivalent to 500 000 Forint 's); - The vouchers used as money by the soldiers and the people of Komárom during the siege, would be redeemed in Austrian banknotes; - The crippled, the sick and the wounded people and soldiers who were in
23280-497: The crumbling ruins of this [fortress]. Long live the Fatherland, and its heroic army! Until 23 July this task was fulfilled with success, forcing 28,000 imperial soldiers to secure the fortress, but then half of these troops were sent to Pest. On 25 July a Hungarian raiding unit captured a stagecoach in which they found documents containing the list of the imperial troops around Komárom, from which Klapka understood that his troops in
23474-430: The development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area. With Luther's rendering of the Bible in the vernacular, German asserted itself against the dominance of Latin as a legitimate language for courtly, literary, and now ecclesiastical subject-matter. His Bible was ubiquitous in the German states: nearly every household possessed a copy. Nevertheless, even with
23668-452: The dialect so as to make the work as natural and accessible to German speakers as possible. Copies of Luther's Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region, translating words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Luther said the following concerning his translation method: One who would talk German does not ask the Latin how he shall do it; he must ask the mother in
23862-507: The eastern provinces of Banat , Bukovina , and Transylvania (German: Banat, Buchenland, Siebenbürgen ), German was the predominant language not only in the larger towns—like Temeschburg ( Timișoara ), Hermannstadt ( Sibiu ), and Kronstadt ( Brașov )—but also in many smaller localities in the surrounding areas. In 1901, the Second Orthographic Conference ended with a (nearly) complete standardization of
24056-461: The empire. The medieval power and influence of Serbia culminated in the reign of Stefan Dušan , who ruled the state from 1331 until his death in 1355. Ruling as Emperor from 1346, his territory included Macedonia , northern Greece, Montenegro, and almost all of modern Albania . When Dušan died, his son Stephen Uroš V became Emperor. With Turkish invaders beginning their conquest of the Balkans in
24250-524: The end of December 1848 he worked in the general staff section of the Hungarian Ministry of Defence . When in December 1848 the main Austrian imperial troops led by Field Marshal Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz attacked Hungary, he was appointed as major in the Hungarian army, by 9 January 1849 he was already a colonel . Together with his chief Antal Vetter he elaborated the plan of retreating
24444-520: The end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. Jasenovac camp was notorious for the barbaric practices which occurred in it. Sisak and Jastrebarsko concentration camp were specially formed for children . Serbs in the NDH suffered among the highest casualty rates in Europe during the World War II, while the NDH was one of the most lethal regimes in the 20th century. Diana Budisavljević ,
24638-428: The end of the battle Klapka's I corps charge chased the enemy from Isaszeg and brought the victory for the Hungarians. The fluctuating behavior of Klapka during the battle showed that despite being a good strategist, creating good operation plans , which, in the Spring Campaign, enabled him to defeat the superior imperial troops (55,000 Austrians against 47,500 Hungarians), he could be hesitating in their execution. During
24832-443: The end, all of them received Geleitscheins (safe conduct papers), which assured them their total freedom and immunity. At the end, Klapka declared: We had done what the human capacity can achieve, and we can stand before God's and the world's court without shame. Indeed, in the history of the 1848-1849 European revolutions, only Komárom and Venice put their weapons down with such favorable conditions. The capitulation of Komárom
25026-470: The enemy troops, furthermore the Hungarian Hussars executed successful sorties against the besieging army. For example, on 5 September 300 hussars, led personally by Klapka, routed a Russian Cossack unit in the Battle of Hetény . Seeing that they had no success in their attempts to take the fortress by force, the Austrians tried distraction , attempting to diminish the morale, fighting spirit and
25220-447: The failed attack of Klapka's I corps against the Austrian I Corps led by Josip Jelačić in the first phase of the Battle of Tápióbicske (he sent his troops in the city without scouting before that, to see if any enemy troops were in there, thus his troops were ambushed by enemy infantry and a cavalry brigade ), forced the III corps led by János Damjanich to intervene, and to turn the tide of
25414-803: The fall of Italy in September 1943, other ethnic groups joined Partisans in larger numbers. At the end of the war, the Partisans, led by Josip Broz Tito , emerged victorious. Yugoslavia subsequently became a Communist state. Tito died in 1980, and his death saw Yugoslavia plunge into economic turmoil. Yugoslavia disintegrated in the early 1990s, and a series of wars resulted in the creation of five new states. The heaviest fighting occurred in Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , whose Serb populations rebelled and declared independence. The war in Croatia ended in August 1995, with
25608-531: The field of science and technology. There are more Serbian scientists and scholars working abroad than in the Balkans. At least 7000 Serbs who have a PhD are working abroad. Serbian American mechanical and electrical engineer Nikola Tesla is regarded as one of the most important inventors in history. He is renowned for his contributions to the discipline of electricity and magnetism in the late 19th and early 20th century. Seven Serbian American engineers and scientists known as Serbo 7 took part in construction of
25802-562: The fighting that ensued, Serbia was invaded by Austria-Hungary . Despite being outnumbered, the Serbs defeated the Austro-Hungarians at the Battle of Cer , which marked the first Allied victory over the Central Powers in the war. Further victories at the battles of Kolubara and the Drina meant that Serbia remained unconquered as the war entered its second year. However, an invasion by
25996-506: The first prototypes of an analog computer. Roger Joseph Boscovich was a Ragusan physicist, astronomer, mathematician and polymath of paternal Serbian origin (although there are competing claims for Bošković's nationality) who produced a precursor of atomic theory and made many contributions to astronomy and also discovered the absence of atmosphere on the Moon . Jovan Cvijić founded modern geography in Serbia and made pioneering research on
26190-484: The flank the main Austrian troops stationed at Gödöllő . But Klapka was the one who, unwillingly revealed the plan to the enemy, which could cause a catastrophe for the Hungarian army. Initially, the victory of the Hungarian VII Corps led by András Gáspár against Schlik in the Battle of Hatvan at 2 April, deceived Windisch-Grätz to think that the attack of the Hungarian forces would come from that direction but
26384-603: The forces of Germany , Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria overwhelmed the Serbs in the winter of 1915, and a subsequent withdrawal by the Serbian Army through Albania took the lives of more than 240,000 Serbs. Serb forces spent the remaining years of the war fighting on the Salonika front in Greece, before liberating Serbia from Austro-Hungarian occupation in November 1918. Serbia suffered
26578-672: The former Yugoslavia, but within their historical and migratory areal, Serbs are officially recognized as national minority in Albania , Romania (18,000), Hungary (7,000), as well as in the Czech Republic and Slovakia . There are over 2 million Serbs in diaspora throughout the world; some sources put that figure as high as 4 million. There is a large diaspora in Western Europe, particularly in Germany , Austria , Switzerland , France , Italy , Sweden and United Kingdom . Outside Europe, there are significant Serb communities in
26772-522: The fortress to Haynau, with this ending the Hungarian War of Independence. Before the fortress was handed over on 2–4 October, Klapka bid farewell to his soldiers which ended with these lines: You have bowed before the iron stick of the events - this circumstance and the honor [of our nation] you have saved should be a comfort to you all! Accept the warmest thanks of the country for your manly and determined struggles! Accept also my most heartfelt and most intimate farewell. God bless you all! On 2 October
26966-440: The fortress were more numerous than the besiegers, and as the imperial troops were divided, being on both banks of the Danube, which prevented them from helping each other when attacked, he had the opportunity to defeat the enemy in detail. In the night of 29–30 June Klapka sent troops on the left bank of the Danube, chasing away the Austrian troops from the North-West of Komárom. In the night of 3 August 1849, Klapka personally led
27160-572: The fortresses of Gyulafehérvár and Déva , then to attack towards West, taking the Titel Plateau , liberating Pétervárad , then advancing to the Adriatic Sea, or to the Western front. Although it was accepted by the Ministry Council on 20 May, this operation plan was met with harsh criticism from Görgei and Bem, who accused it of no concern for the imminent Russian intervention which menaced from North and from East, and that Lieutenant General Bem and General Mór Perczel had been designated to carry out military actions which exceeded their capacities, while
27354-409: The geography of the Balkan Peninsula , Dinaric race and karst . Josif Pančić made contributions to botany and discovered a number of new floral species including the Serbian spruce . Biologist and physiologist Ivan Đaja performed research in the role of the adrenal glands in thermoregulation , as well as pioneering work in hypothermia . Valtazar Bogišić is considered to be a pioneer in
27548-412: The government to accept their decision to remain for several days in Komárom, and to keep Görgei as their commander. On 7 July, on the order from Kossuth, Klapka sent the I. corps led by General Nagysándor towards Szeged, but when Görgei took notice of this, he resigned from the leadership of the Army of the Upper Danube, to protest this decision taken without his knowledge. Hearing about this Klapka ordered
27742-435: The home, the children on the streets, the common man in the market-place and note carefully how they talk, then translate accordingly. They will then understand what is said to them because it is German. When Christ says ' ex abundantia cordis os loquitur ,' I would translate, if I followed the papists, aus dem Überflusz des Herzens redet der Mund . But tell me is this talking German? What German understands such stuff? No,
27936-514: The hospitals of Komárom would receive medical attendance; - Everybody would retain their personalities and realties. The amnesty given by the Austrians regarded only the soldiers but Klapka knew that the civilian population, intellectuals or politicians, who lived or retreated in Komárom, who participated in the Hungarian revolution and politics could be prosecuted by the Austrians after the surrender of Komárom. So he gave to all of them military certificates. Between 2–5 October 1849 Klapka surrendered
28130-417: The influence of Luther's Bible as an unofficial written standard, a widely accepted standard for written German did not appear until the middle of the eighteenth century. German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire , which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe . Until the mid-nineteenth century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of
28324-651: The largest concentrations of German speakers are in the states of Rio Grande do Sul (where Riograndenser Hunsrückisch developed), Santa Catarina , and Espírito Santo . Serbians Overseas The Serbs ( Serbian Cyrillic : Срби , romanized : Srbi , pronounced [sr̩̂bi] ) are a South Slavic ethnic group native to Southeastern Europe who share a common Serbian ancestry , culture , history , and language . They primarily live in Serbia , Kosovo , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Croatia , Montenegro as well as in North Macedonia , Slovenia , Germany and Austria . They also constitute
28518-405: The leadership of the besieging forces and ordered general attack against the fortress, but it was easily repulsed by the Hungarian artillery and a Hussar squadron. This was the last military engagement of the Hungarian War of Independence of 1848–1849. Haynau understood that taking Komárom would be a very hard and long task that would cause thousands of deaths among his troops, so he decided to seek
28712-434: The liberated territories, which added 5,000-6,000 new recruits to his troops, and planned to attack the Austrian province of Styria . However on 11 August he received news of the disastrous situation on the other fronts, and halted his operations. He understood that his victory came a little too late to change the fate of the Hungarian war of independence. Two days after this, at 13 August 1849, 10 days after Klapka's victory,
28906-399: The main Hungarian army led by Artúr Görgei surrendered in front of the Russian troops at the Szöllős Meadow near the village of Világos . Klapka, together with his 25,000 soldiers, retreated on 15 August to Komárom. On 19 August the Austrian and Russian troops arrived to the fortress and began to encircle it; on 14 September the number of Austrians reached 44,000 soldiers and 154 cannons, and
29100-562: The main Hungarian troops behind the Tisza river, and became commander of the Upper Tisza Corps (Felső-tiszai hadtest). Before this the Upper Tisza Corps was led by the Minister of War General Lázár Mészáros , who was defeated by the Austrian troops led by Lieutenant-General Franz Schlik in the Battle of Kassa . Klapka took over these beaten troops in January 1849, reorganized them, and beat Schlik in three consecutive battles at Tarcal (20 January), Bodrogkeresztúr (23 January), and Tokaj (31 January). Thanks to these victories Klapka held
29294-485: The main square of Komárom. The Austrians even paid a hitman to assassinate Klapka, named Fehérhegyi, allegedly he was born in New York state . He was caught before he could assassinate Klapka. Found on him was a letter of credence from the Austrian officer Lieutenant-Colonel Hoyos, which demonstrated that he worked for the Austrians. Fehérhegyi was sentenced to death by court martial and executed. The Austrians continued to send demands to surrender, and on 19 September
29488-430: The mid-18th century to the first decades of the 19th century. Serbian has active digraphia , using both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets. Serbian Cyrillic was devised in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić , who created the alphabet on phonemic principles. Serbian Latin was created by Ljudevit Gaj and published in 1830. His alphabet mapped completely on Serbian Cyrillic which had been standardized by Vuk Karadžić
29682-448: The middle of May 1849, the news about the upcoming Russian intervention spread throughout Hungary, and the need to take measures against this grave danger became imminent. The enemy had a huge numerical advantage against the Hungarian army: the attacking Russian and Austrian armies had 358 000 soldiers (plus another 75 000 soldiers in Galicia and Walachia in reserve) and 770 cannons against 150 000 Hungarian soldiers with 440 cannons. In
29876-426: The military operations against the Austrian troops led by Balthasar von Simunich which broke into Hungary from Moravia. On 13 November he was appointed chief of general staff of the Bánság army corps, and together with general Antal Vetter , he elaborated a plan to crush the Serbian insurgency, but this plan failed because of its weak execution by the main commander of the military operations: general Ernő Kiss . In
30070-496: The military situation in the country, and to be sure that the Hungarian army had lost the Independence War. After the commissioners turned back with the news of the surrender of the Hungarian armies and the majority of the fortresses, instead of deciding to surrender as well, like the Austrians and the Russians hoped, the defenders of Komárom became more combative and wanted even more than before, to continue their fight. Klapka ordered new battalions and one division to be formed, and
30264-422: The morning of 10 April, and did not arrive on the battlefield, but luckily Damjanich again was able to resolve the problem, and defeat the enemy alone. But in the other battles of this phase of the Spring campaign Klapka distinguished himself. In the Battle of Nagysalló (19 April), he played a leading role in that victory, in the same way as in the relief of Komárom (26 April). In the middle of April he received
30458-411: The most famous of whom are Slavko Vorkapić , Dušan Makavejev , Živojin Pavlović , Slobodan Šijan , Goran Marković , Goran Paskaljević , Emir Kusturica , Želimir Žilnik , Srđan Dragojević , Srdan Golubović and Mila Turajlić . Žilnik and Stefan Arsenijević won the Golden Bear award at Berlinale , while Mila Turajlić won the main award at IDFA . Kusturica became world-renowned after winning
30652-415: The most unexpected situations, and thanks to this the Hungarian army emerged victorious in the Spring Campaign. The second phase of the campaign was elaborated not by Klapka but by the chief of the general staff, József Bayer. The second phase of the Spring Campaign started not very well Klapka, whose soldiers were sent to encircle the enemy in the First Battle of Vác , got lost in the rainy-foggy weather in
30846-402: The mother in the home and the plain man would say, Wesz das Herz voll ist, des gehet der Mund über . Luther's translation of the Bible into High German was also decisive for the German language and its evolution from Early New High German to modern Standard German. The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy in early modern Germany , and promoted
31040-423: The ninth century, chief among them being the Muspilli , Merseburg charms , and Hildebrandslied , and other religious texts (the Georgslied , Ludwigslied , Evangelienbuch , and translated hymns and prayers). The Muspilli is a Christian poem written in a Bavarian dialect offering an account of the soul after the Last Judgment , and the Merseburg charms are transcriptions of spells and charms from
31234-419: The other Hungarian corps were condemned to almost complete inactivity. Bem declared that he would not carry out the military actions entailed on him by the operation's plan, and would remain in Transylvania to defend it from the imminent Russian attack, while Görgei said that the only correct thing to do was to immediately attack with all forces on the Western front towards Vienna, to crush the Austrian army before
31428-462: The pronunciation of the ending -ig as [ɪk] instead of [ɪç]. In Northern Germany, High German was a foreign language to most inhabitants, whose native dialects were subsets of Low German. It was usually encountered only in writing or formal speech; in fact, most of High German was a written language, not identical to any spoken dialect, throughout the German-speaking area until well into the 19th century. However, wider standardization of pronunciation
31622-448: The rank of General. Klapka elaborated the plan of the Spring Campaign of the Hungarian army, which in the end of May, after a series of victories, brought the liberation of almost all Hungary from the Austrian armies. The plan's main purpose was to distract the attention of the Austrian commanders with the attack from the North of the VII Corps, while the other three corps (I, II, III) had to march undetected from South and to attack from
31816-447: The recent Yugoslav Wars (1991–1999). According to most recent census conducted in Serbia, Croatia and Montenegro, there are nearly 7 million Serbs living in their native homelands, within the geographical borders of former Yugoslavia . In Serbia itself, around 5.5 million people identify themselves as ethnic Serbs, and constitute about 83% of the population. More than a million live in Bosnia and Herzegovina (predominantly in
32010-440: The region of the Vág river, and push them towards Pozsony and Vienna , but on 16 June they were defeated by the Austrians in the Battle of Zsigárd . Among the causes of the defeat was that Klapka did not tolerate that the head of the Central Operations Bureau, Colonel József Bayer, should have the authority over him. Their disagreements and contradictory orders affected the Hungarian troops' already weak chances of success during
32204-471: The reign of Joseph II (1780–1790) his grandfather founding military pharmacies during the Austro-Turkish War of 1787–1791. In the following decades the families prestige grew, and György Klapka's father, József Klapka, became the mayor of Temesvár for nearly 15 years, being elected for two times deputy in the Hungarian Diet , being later ennobled by the king. His mother was Júlia Kehrer. He had five brothers and sisters. He lost his mother at an early age. As
32398-413: The school, then Hungarian in Kecskemét. His parents wanted to make him a priest, but he was attracted to a career as a military officer. After graduating from the military school in Karánsebes , he joined the Imperial-Royal Army in 1837. No sooner had I put on the uniform than the oath I was to take was read out in front of me. As soon as I said the words, my bosom tightened, for I felt that from now on I
32592-414: The second half of the 19th century, a small number of Serbs converted to Protestantism, while historically some Serbs were Roman Catholics (especially in Bay of Kotor and Dalmatia ; e.g. Serb-Catholic movement in Dubrovnik ). In a personal correspondence with author and critic dr. Milan Šević in 1932, Marko Murat complained that Orthodox Serbs are not acknowledging the Roman Catholic Serb community on
32786-419: The second part of May, Klapka was designated to elaborate the united operation plan of all the armies from Hungary. According to this operation plan the main army under Görgei had to defend the Western border, while the army of Transylvania under Józef Bem had to defend mountain passes in the Eastern Carpathians , but in the same time he had to crush also the Romanian revolt from the Western Carpathians , to take
32980-492: The states of North Dakota and South Dakota , German is the most common language spoken at home after English. As a legacy of significant German immigration to the country , German geographical names can be found throughout the Midwest region , such as New Ulm and Bismarck (North Dakota's state capital), plus many other regions. A number of German varieties have developed in the country and are still spoken today, such as Pennsylvania Dutch and Texas German . In Brazil,
33174-447: The tallest in the world, with an average male height of 1.82 metres (6 ft 0 in). Early Slavs , especially Sclaveni and Antae , including the White Serbs , invaded and settled Southeastern Europe in the 6th and 7th century. Up until the late 560s, their activity was raiding, crossing from the Danube, though with limited Slavic settlement mainly through Byzantine foederati colonies. The Danube and Sava frontier
33368-449: The third most commonly learned second language in the United States in K-12 education. The language has been influential in the fields of philosophy, theology, science, and technology. It is the second most commonly used language in science and the third most widely used language on websites . The German-speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of annual publication of new books, with one-tenth of all books (including e-books) in
33562-602: The town of Priština . Both Lazar and Sultan Murad I were killed in the fighting. The battle most likely ended in a stalemate, and afterwards Serbia enjoyed a short period of prosperity under despot Stefan Lazarević and resisted falling to the Turks until 1459. The Serbs had taken an active part in the wars fought in the Balkans against the Ottoman Empire, and also organized uprisings; because of this, they suffered persecution and their territories were devastated – major migrations from Serbia into Habsburg territory ensued. After allied Christian forces had captured Buda from
33756-399: The trenches around the fortress to be strengthened. He even founded a personal guards unit made up of grenadiers . During the Austro-Russian siege the Hungarian composer Béni Egressy who was in the besieged Komárom, wrote the Klapka March , in honor of the general. This military march is played often today during military parades in Hungary. The march's lyrics, entitled Fel, fel vitézek
33950-447: The unity of the defenders. They sent in the fortress different leaflets, fake reports, orders, which tried to persuade the defenders to treachery, to revolt, to refuse to fulfil orders, or to desert, promising them amnesty in exchange. This method had a certain success, because the number of the desertions increased, and Klapka was forced to take more drastic measures against them. As a result, 15 Hungarian deserters were executed publicly in
34144-411: The war office seeking permission to go to the freshly liberated Pest , to bury his father. At the end of the quarrel, seeing that Klapka would not allow him to go, Petőfi promptly resigned his military title and quit the army. After this, thinking himself free from military discipline, Petőfi wrote a letter to Klapka, declaring that he cannot bear offenses from Klapka, which offended his dignity, and wrote
34338-438: The world being published in German. German is most closely related to other West Germanic languages, namely Afrikaans , Dutch , English , the Frisian languages , and Scots . It also contains close similarities in vocabulary to some languages in the North Germanic group , such as Danish , Norwegian , and Swedish . Modern German gradually developed from Old High German , which in turn developed from Proto-Germanic during
34532-415: The written form of German. One of the central events in the development of ENHG was the publication of Luther's translation of the Bible into High German (the New Testament was published in 1522; the Old Testament was published in parts and completed in 1534). Luther based his translation primarily on the Meißner Deutsch of Saxony , spending much time among the population of Saxony researching
34726-429: Was a "neutral" language as there were virtually no English native speakers in Namibia at that time. German, Afrikaans, and several indigenous languages thus became "national languages" by law, identifying them as elements of the cultural heritage of the nation and ensuring that the state acknowledged and supported their presence in the country. Today, Namibia is considered to be the only German-speaking country outside of
34920-446: Was about religious themes. The founders of the Serbian Orthodox Church wrote various gospels , psalters , menologies , hagiographies , along with essays and sermons. At the end of the 12th century, two of the most important pieces of Serbian medieval literature were created– the Miroslav Gospels and the Vukan Gospels , which combined handwritten Biblical texts with painted initials and small pictures. The Crnojević printing house
35114-407: Was an artificial standard that did not correspond to any traditional spoken dialect. Rather, it was based on the pronunciation of German in Northern Germany, although it was subsequently regarded often as a general prescriptive norm, despite differing pronunciation traditions especially in the Upper-German-speaking regions that still characterise the dialect of the area today – especially
35308-427: Was established on the basis of public speaking in theatres and the media during the 20th century and documented in pronouncing dictionaries. Official revisions of some of the rules from 1901 were not issued until the controversial German orthography reform of 1996 was made the official standard by governments of all German-speaking countries. Media and written works are now almost all produced in Standard German which
35502-399: Was historically largely based on Orthodox Christianity and on the Serbian Church in particular. The conversion of the South Slavs from paganism to Christianity took place before the Great Schism of 1054 . During the time of the Great Schism, Serbian rulers including Mihailo Vojislavljević and Stefan Nemanja were Roman Catholics, with the former being a vassal of the Papal States . In 1217,
35696-413: Was independent for almost a decade before the Ottoman army was able to reoccupy the country. Shortly after this, the Second Serbian Uprising began. Led by Miloš Obrenović , it ended in 1815 with a compromise between Serbian revolutionaries and Ottoman authorities. Likewise, Serbia was one of the first nations in the Balkans to abolish feudalism . Serbs are among the first ethnic groups in Europe to form
35890-410: Was no longer a free man, but a slave: that I was no longer ruled by my own will, but by the will of others. But these shackles were of my free will, and such shackles must be worn, and so I endured them with patience. Very soon I got used to the strict iron discipline of my position, saw the necessity of it, and adapted to it he wrote in his memoirs about the beginning of his military career. He served as
36084-421: Was not recognized internationally until the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Serbia fought in the Balkan Wars of 1912–13, which forced the Ottomans out of the Balkans and doubled the territory and population of the Kingdom of Serbia . In 1914, a young Bosnian Serb student named Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , which directly contributed to the outbreak of World War I . In
36278-443: Was not sure from where to expect the enemy's attack. Furthermore, Windisch-Grätz was informed about the attack of a Hungarian detachment, on 24 March against Losonc , which took prisoner half of the 500-600 strong Austrian detachment, making him to think that important Hungarian troops will attack also from the North-East. But Klapka's attack made Windisch-Grätz aware of a danger coming from South, which may be considered his error. In
36472-599: Was overwhelmed by large-scale Slavic settlement in the late 6th and early 7th century. What is today central Serbia was an important geo-strategical province, through which the Via Militaris crossed. This area was frequently intruded by barbarians in the 5th and 6th centuries. The numerous Slavs mixed with and assimilated the descendants of the indigenous population (Illyrians, Thracians, Dacians, Romans, Celts). White Serbs from White Serbia came to an area near Thessaloniki and then they settled area between Dinaric Alps and Adriatic coast. The region of "Rascia" ( Raška )
36666-433: Was subsequently divided into many pieces, with Serbia being directly occupied by the Germans. Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) were targeted for extermination as part of genocide by the Croatian ultra-nationalist, fascist Ustaše . The Ustaše view of national and racial identity, as well as the theory of Serbs as an inferior race , was under the influence of Croatian nationalists and intellectuals from
36860-536: Was the center of Serb settlement and Serb tribes also occupied parts of modern-day Herzegovina and Montenegro . Prior to their arrival to the Balkans, early Slavs were predominantly involved in agriculture, which is why they settled in areas which were cultivated even during Roman times. The first Serb states, Serbia (780–960) and Duklja (825–1120), were formed chiefly under the Vlastimirović and Vojislavljević dynasties respectively. The other Serb-inhabited lands, or principalities, that were mentioned included
37054-553: Was the first printing house in Southeastern Europe and is considered an important part of Serbian cultural history. Notable Baroque -influenced authors were Andrija Zmajević , Gavril Stefanović Venclović , Jovan Rajić , Zaharije Orfelin and others. Dositej Obradović was the most prominent figure of the Age of Enlightenment , while the most notable Classicist writer was Jovan Sterija Popović , although his works also contained elements of Romanticism. Modern Serbian literature began with Vuk Karadžić 's collections of folk songs in
37248-445: Was the last event from the Hungarian Revolution and War of Independence, and it was the last place in the European revolutions of 1848-1849 , which ended the resistance against the united forces of the monarchies. German language German (German: Deutsch , pronounced [dɔʏtʃ] ) is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family , mainly spoken in Western and Central Europe . It
37442-406: Was to avoid the loss of too many Hungarian soldiers. On 12–13 July, when, under Görgei's command, the Army of the Upper Danube retreated from Komárom to the East, Klapka remained with the II and VIII corps (around 18,300 soldiers) in Komárom, having the duty to defend with at all costs the fortress and to "bind" as many enemy troops around it, preventing them to participate in the campaign against
37636-401: Was transferred from Vienna to Pancsova , to the 12th Border Guard Infantry Regiment of the German- Banat border guards. He was here when he retired from the army in 1847 with the rank of artillery Lieutenant . Here he was sent as lieutenant to the Border Region Division, but soon he disarmed. In 1847 he thought to go to north India , in Lahore and to become an officer in the army of one of
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