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89-505: Gumnaam ( translation : Anonymous ) is a 1965 Indian Hindi -language mystery film directed by Raja Nawathe and produced by N. N. Sippy . The film was released in India on 24 December 1965 and stars an ensemble cast of Manoj Kumar , Nanda , Mehmood , Pran , Helen , Madan Puri , Tarun Bose , Dhumal and Manmohan . The film is a loosely inspired adaptation of Agatha Christie 's 1939 mystery novel And Then There Were None and

178-405: A bilingual document is the 1274 BCE Treaty of Kadesh between the ancient Egyptian and Hittie empires . The Babylonians were the first to establish translation as a profession. The first translations of Greek and Coptic texts into Arabic, possibly indirectly from Syriac translations, seem to have been undertaken as early as the late seventh century CE. The second Abbasid Caliph funded

267-422: A gun , discovers that Dr. Acharya has brought a bottle of poison and Dharamdas a fearsome-looking dagger . While Rakesh and Kitty fall in love and Anand begins flirting with Asha, the butler's suspicious actions indicate the presence of an unknown person in the mansion. The next day passes uneventfully, but at night, Anand and Asha are shocked to find Kishan stabbed to death with a half-smoked cigar and

356-400: A letter listing all of these people except Anand. Moreover, everyone discovers that the butler has a diary which, besides containing an account of daily expense , also contains a message addressed to the entire group, accusing each of these people of having conspired to kill Seth Sohanlal and passing a death sentence on them. That night, Anand, who himself has mysteriously brought with him

445-421: A terminological distinction (which does not exist in every language) between translating (a written text) and interpreting (oral or signed communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community. A translator always risks inadvertently introducing source-language words, grammar , or syntax into

534-430: A " measure word " to say "one blossom-of roseness." Chinese verbs are tense -less: there are several ways to specify when something happened or will happen, but verb tense is not one of them. For poets, this creates the great advantage of ambiguity . According to Link, Weinberger's insight about subjectlessness—that it produces an effect "both universal and immediate"—applies to timelessness as well. Link proposes

623-618: A common etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the cognate French actuel ("present", "current"), the Polish aktualny ("present", "current," "topical", "timely", "feasible"), the Swedish aktuell ("topical", "presently of importance"), the Russian актуальный ("urgent", "topical") or

712-497: A fully adequate guide in translating. The Scottish historian Alexander Tytler , in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790), emphasized that assiduous reading is a more comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but also including listening to the spoken language , had earlier, in 1783, been made by the Polish poet and grammarian Onufry Kopczyński . The translator's special role in society

801-651: A kind of uncertainty principle that may be applicable not only to translation from the Chinese language, but to all translation: Dilemmas about translation do not have definitive right answers (although there can be unambiguously wrong ones if misreadings of the original are involved). Any translation (except machine translation, a different case) must pass through the mind of a translator, and that mind inevitably contains its own store of perceptions, memories, and values. Weinberger [...] pushes this insight further when he writes that "every reading of every poem, regardless of language,

890-421: A letter addressed to the group next to Kishan's dead body . The letter states that Kishan was the driver of the car that ran down Seth Sohanlal, and that is why he has now been killed. The group deduces that Dharamdas killed Kishan, but he pleads innocence and Anand and Asha also later find him strangled to death. Rakesh accuses Dr. Acharya of actually having poisoned Dharamdas and it becomes clear that everyone

979-490: A letter gets from the sender to the recipient: This process, depending on how far the sender is from the recipient, can take anywhere from a day to 3–4 weeks. International mail is sent via trains and airplanes to other countries. In 2008, Janet Barrett in the UK received an RSVP to a party invitation addressed to 'Percy Bateman', from 'Buffy', allegedly originally posted on 29 November 1919. It had taken 89 years to be delivered by

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1068-404: A number of people. Despite email's widespread use, letters are still popular, particularly in business and for official communications. At the same time, many "letters" are sent in electronic form. The following advantages of paper letters over e-mails and text messages are put forward: The following advantages are put forward for e-mails and text messages over traditional letters: Here is how

1157-565: A poem like [the one that Eliot Weinberger discusses in 19 Ways of Looking at Wang Wei (with More Ways) ], another untranslatable feature is that the written result, hung on a wall, presents a rectangle. Translators into languages whose word lengths vary can reproduce such an effect only at the risk of fatal awkwardness.... Another imponderable is how to imitate the 1-2, 1-2-3 rhythm in which five- syllable lines in classical Chinese poems normally are read. Chinese characters are pronounced in one syllable apiece, so producing such rhythms in Chinese

1246-477: A really important pastime for some. Women were among these people to write letters and express themselves. A lot of female friendships were formed from women being encouraged to write letters. In fact, the most popular character who wrote in this period was named Clarissa Harlowe . This was also a chance for women to express their intelligence. They used letters also to separate themselves from their husbands and have their own voice to enter more into society. Even when

1335-427: A routine form of communication. For example, the development of the telegraph drastically shortened the time taken to send a communication, by sending it between distant points as an electrical signal. At the telegraph office closest to the destination, the signal was converted back into writing on paper and delivered to the recipient. The next step was the telex which avoided the need for local delivery. Then followed

1424-433: A secret room and helps her regain consciousness. At this point, Asha is shocked to learn that the killer is none other than Sharma, who reveals that he is alive and that he had only employed the butler to make the necessary arrangements on the island. Posing as one of the castaways, he killed Kishan and Dharamdas and then convinced Dr. Acharya to falsely declare him dead, on the pretext that it would help him secretly track down

1513-492: A separate envelope and thus how to fold the letter and where on the leaf to put the addresses. Business encyclopedias and textbooks of the 19th and 20th centuries show that businesspeople of those eras sometimes took the standardization of the forms of business letters to extremes. Typists were required to follow dozens or hundreds of rules about element placement and sizing, some of them with rather arbitrary and even counterproductive (wastefully expensive) strictness. However,

1602-491: A subject is inserted, a "controlling individual mind of the poet" enters and destroys the effect of the Chinese line. Without a subject, he writes, "the experience becomes both universal and immediate to the reader." Another approach to the subjectlessness is to use the target language's passive voice ; but this again particularizes the experience too much. Nouns have no number in Chinese. "If," writes Link, "you want to talk in Chinese about one rose, you may, but then you use

1691-440: A text's source language are adjusted to the syntactic requirements of the target language. When a target language has lacked terms that are found in a source language, translators have borrowed those terms, thereby enriching the target language. Thanks in great measure to the exchange of calques and loanwords between languages, and to their importation from other languages, there are few concepts that are " untranslatable " among

1780-454: A translation bureau in Baghdad in the eighth century. Bayt al-Hikma, the famous library in Baghdad, was generously endowed and the collection included books in many languages, and it became a leading centre for the translation of works from antiquity into Arabic, with its own Translation Department. Translations into European languages from Arabic versions of lost Greek and Roman texts began in

1869-794: Is "a carrying across" or "a bringing across"—in this case, of a text from one language to another. Some Slavic languages and the Germanic languages (other than Dutch and Afrikaans ) have calqued their words for the concept of "translation" on translatio , substituting their respective Slavic or Germanic root words for the Latin roots. The remaining Slavic languages instead calqued their words for "translation" from an alternative Latin word, trāductiō , itself derived from trādūcō ("to lead across" or "to bring across")—from trans ("across") + dūcō , ("to lead" or "to bring"). The West and East Slavic languages (except for Russian ) adopted

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1958-531: Is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the translator with a musician or actor goes back at least to Samuel Johnson 's remark about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet , while Homer himself used a bassoon . In the 13th century, Roger Bacon wrote that if a translation is to be true, the translator must know both languages , as well as the science that he is to translate; and finding that few translators did, he wanted to do away with translation and translators altogether. The translator of

2047-581: Is a wealth of letters and instructional materials (for example, manuals , as in the medieval ars dictaminis ) on letter writing throughout history. The study of letter writing usually involves both the study of rhetoric and grammar . Historians of the medieval period often study family letter collections, which gather the personal and business correspondence of a group of related people and shed light on their daily life. The Paston Letters (1425 – 1520 CE) are widely studied for insight into life in Britain during

2136-736: Is an act of translation: translation into the reader's intellectual and emotional life." Then he goes still further: because a reader's mental life shifts over time, there is a sense in which "the same poem cannot be read twice." Translation of material into Arabic expanded after the creation of Arabic script in the 5th century, and gained great importance with the rise of Islam and Islamic empires. Arab translation initially focused primarily on politics, rendering Persian, Greek, even Chinese and Indic diplomatic materials into Arabic. It later focused on translating classical Greek and Persian works, as well as some Chinese and Indian texts, into Arabic for scholarly study at major Islamic learning centers, such as

2225-545: Is announced at a nightclub that the seven winners (six men and two girls) of a "lucky draw" have won a free fortnight -long trip to an unspecified destination abroad and will be going in a chartered airplane . These fortunate people are Barrister Rakesh ( Pran ), Dharamdas ( Dhumal ), Kishan ( Manmohan ), Kitty Kelly ( Helen ), Dr. Acharya ( Madan Puri ), Madhusudan Sharma ( Tarun Bose ), and finally, Asha, who now seems more composed. Soon, these seven winners are in their chartered airplane, off of their vacation abroad, when

2314-662: Is characterized by loose adaptation, rather than the closer translation more commonly found in Europe; and Chinese translation theory identifies various criteria and limitations in translation. In the East Asian sphere of Chinese cultural influence, more important than translation per se has been the use and reading of Chinese texts, which also had substantial influence on the Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese languages, with substantial borrowings of Chinese vocabulary and writing system. Notable

2403-542: Is described in a posthumous 1803 essay by "Poland's La Fontaine ", the Roman Catholic Primate of Poland , poet, encyclopedist , author of the first Polish novel, and translator from French and Greek, Ignacy Krasicki : [T]ranslation... is in fact an art both estimable and very difficult, and therefore is not the labor and portion of common minds; [it] should be [practiced] by those who are themselves capable of being actors, when they see greater use in translating

2492-457: Is not hard and the results are unobtrusive; but any imitation in a Western language is almost inevitably stilted and distracting. Even less translatable are the patterns of tone arrangement in classical Chinese poetry. Each syllable (character) belongs to one of two categories determined by the pitch contour in which it is read; in a classical Chinese poem the patterns of alternation of the two categories exhibit parallelism and mirroring. Once

2581-485: Is one of Shankar–Jaikishan 's best albums." Lyrics by Shailendra & Hasrat Jaipuri It was the 8th highest-grossing film in India in 1965, grossing ₹ 2.6 crore . This was equivalent to $ 5.46 million in 1965. Won Nominated Translation Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The English language draws

2670-529: Is the Japanese kanbun , a system for glossing Chinese texts for Japanese speakers. Though Indianized states in Southeast Asia often translated Sanskrit material into the local languages, the literate elites and scribes more commonly used Sanskrit as their primary language of culture and government. Some special aspects of translating from Chinese are illustrated in Perry Link 's discussion of translating

2759-520: Is the norm in classical Chinese poetry , and common even in modern Chinese prose, to omit subjects; the reader or listener infers a subject. The grammars of some Western languages, however, require that a subject be stated (although this is often avoided by using a passive or impersonal construction). Most of the translators cited in Eliot Weinberger's 19 Ways of Looking at Wang Wei supply a subject. Weinberger points out, however, that when an "I" as

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2848-705: The translātiō pattern, whereas Russian and the South Slavic languages adopted the trāductiō pattern. The Romance languages , deriving directly from Latin, did not need to calque their equivalent words for "translation"; instead, they simply adapted the second of the two alternative Latin words, trāductiō . The Ancient Greek term for "translation", μετάφρασις ( metaphrasis , "a speaking across"), has supplied English with " metaphrase " (a " literal ", or "word-for-word", translation)—as contrasted with " paraphrase " ("a saying in other words", from παράφρασις , paraphrasis ). "Metaphrase" corresponds, in one of

2937-517: The Al-Karaouine ( Fes , Morocco ), Al-Azhar ( Cairo , Egypt ), and the Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad . In terms of theory, Arabic translation drew heavily on earlier Near Eastern traditions as well as more contemporary Greek and Persian traditions. Arabic translation efforts and techniques are important to Western translation traditions due to centuries of close contacts and exchanges. Especially after

3026-520: The Bible into German, Martin Luther (1483–1546), is credited with being the first European to posit that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language. L.G. Kelly states that since Johann Gottfried Herder in the 18th century, "it has been axiomatic" that one translates only toward his own language. Compounding the demands on the translator is the fact that no dictionary or thesaurus can ever be

3115-539: The Middle East 's Islamic clerics and copyists had conceded defeat in their centuries-old battle to contain the corrupting effects of the printing press , [an] explosion in publishing ... ensued. Along with expanding secular education, printing transformed an overwhelmingly illiterate society into a partly literate one. Letter (message) Historically, letters have existed from ancient India , ancient Egypt and Sumer , through Rome , Greece and China , up to

3204-522: The Renaissance , Europeans began more intensive study of Arabic and Persian translations of classical works as well as scientific and philosophical works of Arab and oriental origins. Arabic, and to a lesser degree Persian, became important sources of material and perhaps of techniques for revitalized Western traditions, which in time would overtake the Islamic and oriental traditions. In the 19th century, after

3293-578: The Wars of the Roses . Other major medieval family letter collections include the Stonor Letters (1420 – 1483 CE), Plumpton letters (1416 – 1552 CE), and Cely Letters (1472-1488 CE). Letters were a chief form of communication, in both personal and business communications, for many centuries before telegraphy , telephony , and Internet communications reduced their primacy. Even in times and places where literacy

3382-520: The context itself by reproducing the original order of sememes , and hence word order —when necessary, reinterpreting the actual grammatical structure, for example, by shifting from active to passive voice , or vice versa . The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order" languages (e.g. English, French , German ) and "free-word-order" languages (e.g., Greek , Latin , Polish , Russian ) have been no impediment in this regard. The particular syntax (sentence-structure) characteristics of

3471-478: The crime scene and begins pursuing him, but loses his trail. In a fit of rage and grief, Rakesh returns to the mansion and attempts to rape Asha in the middle of the night. Asha escapes from Rakesh, but runs into him again as Rakesh collapses dead with two daggers in his back . All the lights in the mansion go out, which indicates that the killer has arrived and that Asha is next. The killer approaches Asha and she falls unconscious in fear, before he carries her to

3560-424: The pilot announces to them and the only flight attendant who is on board, Anand ( Manoj Kumar ), that the airplane is forced to make an emergency landing at an anonymous remote island due to some technical problems. However, as soon as Anand and the seven passengers alight from the airplane, the pilot shockingly dumps all their baggage out and the airplane takes off without them, leaving them all stranded on

3649-432: The "right place"; and to a lawyer , whom he tells that the will will reach him the next morning and after that it is his job. Later, Khanna calls Seth Sohanlal's niece, Asha ( Nanda ), and breaks the news of her uncle's death. As Asha screams in anguish, she hears some gunshots at the other end of the line as an unseen intruder in a long coat and hat has entered Khanna's room and shot him to death. A few days later, it

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3738-427: The 12th inst. " meant "your letter of the 12th of this month"; "do" meant " ditto "; and forms like "Yr Obdt Srvt" for "Your Obedient Servant" were common. There are a number of different types of letter: Cryptography (secret writing) sometimes played a role in letters in centuries past, as correspondents would use previously agreed code to try to shield the plaintext from the comprehension of prying eyes during

3827-406: The 18th-century was a rough process that required a lot of materials, many of which were difficult or expensive to get. Researchers interested in the links and connections between migrants, settlers, and refugees have increasingly concentrated on letters and their purposes. Surprisingly, academics only began examining letters as artifacts in the late twentieth century; most studies continue to focus on

3916-456: The Chinese tradition. Traditions of translating material among the languages of ancient Egypt , Mesopotamia , Assyria ( Syriac language ), Anatolia , and Israel ( Hebrew language ) go back several millennia. There exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh ( c.  2000 BCE ) into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE. An early example of

4005-518: The Dutch actueel ("current"). The translator's role as a bridge for "carrying across" values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence , the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translator's role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an artist . The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as Cicero . Dryden observed that "Translation

4094-469: The Royal Mail. However, Royal Mail denied this, saying that it would be impossible for a letter to have remained in their system for so long, as checks are carried out regularly. Instead, the letter dated 1919 may have "been a collector's item which was being sent in another envelope and somehow came free of the outer packaging". The forms (conformations) of letters have usually followed traditional norms of

4183-689: The actual practice of translation has hardly changed since antiquity. Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the early Christian period and the Middle Ages , and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking equivalents —"literal" where possible, paraphrastic where necessary—for the original meaning and other crucial "values" (e.g., style , verse form , concordance with musical accompaniment or, in films, with speech articulatory movements) as determined from context. In general, translators have sought to preserve

4272-753: The books of the Bible. Archives of correspondence, whether for personal, diplomatic, or business reasons, serve as primary sources for historians. At certain times, the writing of letters was thought to be an art form and a genre of literature, for instance in Byzantine epistolography . In the ancient world letters might be written on various different materials, including metal, lead, wax-coated wooden tablets, pottery fragments, animal skin, and papyrus. From Ovid , we learn that Acontius used an apple for his letter to Cydippe . More recently, letters have mainly been written on paper: handwritten and more recently typed. There

4361-573: The center is the letter-versus-spirit dilemma . At the literalist extreme, efforts are made to dissect every conceivable detail about the language of the original Chinese poem. "The dissection, though," writes Link, "normally does to the art of a poem approximately what the scalpel of an anatomy instructor does to the life of a frog." Chinese characters, in avoiding grammatical specificity, offer advantages to poets (and, simultaneously, challenges to poetry translators) that are associated primarily with absences of subject , number , and tense . It

4450-402: The centuries to enable the sending and receiving of letters whereby it would be evident to the recipient if anyone else had opened the letter before they received it. The principal class of these methods was sealing wax . Another method was to apply a small thin disc of adhesive material known as a wafer. A more elaborate class was letterlocking , including a type called spiral locking , which

4539-475: The effort to standardize (on where to put the information and how to represent it) did have various valid motivations, as in some respects it presaged the concept of data normalization , helping with the extensive manual indexing, cataloguing, and filing that characterized the clerking duties of the era. Over the centuries, a lexicon of abbreviations, metonymic short forms, and conventional valedictions developed for frequent use in letters. For example, "yours of

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4628-666: The epistolary novel lost its popularity, people did not stop writing letters. It gave everyone a voice when they did not think they had one and it is incredibly important to people to have that, especially the women of this time. Alexander Pope was the first English writer to publish from his own letters during his lifetime, putting out a new example for authors and other important people's epistolary works. Pope recognized that writings may reflect both personal religious devotion and cleverness. Pope's works are lacking in formality and informality. He had written his letters all about his life and what he did. Pope also wrote about his friends and

4717-471: The extremes in the spectrum of possible approaches to translation. Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity and show remarkable continuities. The ancient Greeks distinguished between metaphrase (literal translation) and paraphrase . This distinction was adopted by English poet and translator John Dryden (1631–1700), who described translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in

4806-474: The fact of who paid for the posting (sender or recipient) —placed constraints on the forms of letters that varied from negligible in some times and places to crucial in others. These factors of cost drove norms on whether to write on both sides of the leaf, whether to cross the leaf with lines written in both directions (horizontally and vertically), whether to allow margins and how big or small to make them, how much to abbreviate to save space, and whether to have

4895-563: The fax (facsimile) machine: a letter could be transferred from the sender to the receiver through the telephone network as an image. These technologies did not displace physical letters as the primary route for communication; however today, the Internet, by means of email, plays the main role in written communications, together with text messages; however, these email communications are not generally referred to as letters but rather as e-mail (or email) messages, messages or simply emails or e-mails, with

4984-429: The first time. Just as social media streams now allow modern celebrities to present versions of their intimate lives for the public to see and read all about, so did early modern and 18th-century figures carefully build themselves in their letters for audiences to be excited to read these works of literature. In the 18th century, readers frequently associated personal letters with the ideals of honesty and truth. Writing in

5073-523: The format of letters. The novel also debuted in the 17th century with Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister . Letter writers used this to communicate and explore their identity and daily life at the time. As a medium of writing that lies ambiguously between the public and private worlds, letters provide an appealing peek into other people's thoughts, feelings, and lives. During this historical period, publishing these "private" letters so they could build and preserve literary prominence became common for

5162-475: The group next to Sharma's dead body, stating that Sharma has been killed because he was Khanna's co-conspirator in Seth Sohanlal's murder. Now only three men - Anand, Rakesh and Dr. Acharya - and two girls - Asha and Kitty - are left alive and terrified on the island along with the butler. That night, Dr. Acharya catches the butler acting suspiciously and learns his secret before a scuffle ensues between them. In

5251-464: The health and work of them. "All the pleasure of using familiar letters is to give us the assurance of a friend's welfare," Pope said. He had also taken to describing himself as "a mortal enemy and despiser of what they call fine letters." There was a letter addressed to Pope's father that ended up being used as writing paper for the Iliad . When Alexander Pope's letters were published, they were widely read by

5340-521: The human translator . More recently, the rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated " language localisation ". The English word "translation" derives from the Latin word translatio , which comes from trans , "across" + ferre , "to carry" or "to bring" ( -latio in turn coming from latus , the past participle of ferre ). Thus translatio

5429-406: The island and Madanlal is arrested for his crimes. At the same time, the " ghost " girl singing the ominous song turns out to be the butler's mentally ill sister (Naina). The film ends with Anand, Asha, the butler and his sister leaving the ill-fated island on the airplane. Critic Shahid Khan rated the soundtrack 9 out of 10 stating, "Gumnaam is sometimes unfairly overlooked but I believe that it

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5518-487: The island. At the same time, a mysterious girl begins singing an eerie song on the island without the girl ever being visible. The eight people follow the girl's voice and finally come across at a vast and spooky mansion , which seems to be unoccupied except for a comical lungi -clad butler ( Mehmood ), who is in charge of the mansion and has been shockingly expecting the arrival of the castaways . The butler also knows each of these people by name and has been provided with

5607-429: The killer, and later killed Dr. Acharya as well along with Kitty and Rakesh. Just then, Anand appears at the scene and reveals that he is actually an undercover police inspector on the mission to capture Sharma, an escaped convict whose real name is Madanlal. Madanlal confesses to Anand and Asha that both Khanna and Seth Sohanlal were his partners in smuggling , but he was betrayed by them after being arrested by

5696-426: The letter's transit. This could be done in business letters to lessen spying by competitors on prices and methods and in personal letters to try to evade postal censorship (either of wartime censors or of peacetime authoritarian censors ) or the gossip of townsfolk. It could be in either cryptic form (for example, "AEDFX GHSTR HTFXV") or in deceptively readable form (for example, "the dog will run at sunset unless

5785-837: The middle of the eleventh century, when the benefits to be gained from the Arabs’ knowledge of the classical texts were recognised by European scholars, particularly after the establishment of the Escuela de Traductores de Toledo in Spain. William Caxton ’s Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophres (Sayings of the Philosophers, 1477) was a translation into English of an eleventh-century Egyptian text which reached English via translation into Latin and then French. The translation of foreign works for publishing in Arabic

5874-527: The modern European languages. A greater problem, however, is translating terms relating to cultural concepts that have no equivalent in the target language. For full comprehension, such situations require the provision of a gloss . Generally, the greater the contact and exchange that have existed between two languages, or between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase that may be used in translating among them. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words,

5963-479: The more recent terminologies, to " formal equivalence "; and "paraphrase", to " dynamic equivalence ". Strictly speaking, the concept of metaphrase—of "word-for-word translation"—is an imperfect concept, because a given word in a given language often carries more than one meaning; and because a similar given meaning may often be represented in a given language by more than one word. Nevertheless, "metaphrase" and "paraphrase" may be useful as ideal concepts that mark

6052-438: The national course of epistolary novels. Letters also offer information on changing conceptions of privacy, secrecy, and trust during a period of widespread censorship, especially in war. Lastly, study on letter writing and mail services culture exposes the economic and technical roots of letter writing, as well as how links required resources ranging from writing tables and ink to postal employees and ships to carry letters over

6141-406: The police. Khanna and Seth Sohanlal also raped Madanlal's sister, which led her to commit suicide, and murdered Madanlal's brother as well after he informed Madanlal about their crime in prison . Khanna also had Seth Sohanlal killed to usurp the share of his money, but Madanlal escaped from prison and murdered Khanna. He then ensured that his targets "won" the lucky draw held at the nightclub and took

6230-503: The presence of Asha and Kitty, a stabbed Dr. Acharya enters the dining room , utters Anand's name and breathes his last. Anand and Rakesh accuse each other of Dr. Acharya's murder, while Asha begins questioning her faith in Anand. The next day, Kitty goes for a walk by herself and is strangled to death by a rope . Rakesh and Asha, searching for Kitty, are shocked to find her dead body and Anand's hat next to it. Rakesh witnesses Anand escaping from

6319-403: The present day. During the 17th and 18th centuries, letters were used to self-educate. The main purposes of letters were to send information, news and greetings. For some, letters were a way to practice critical reading, self-expressive writing, polemical writing and also exchange ideas with like-minded others. For some people, letters were seen as a written performance. Letters make up several of

6408-462: The rains come"). By the standards of modern digital applied cryptography, the security was often not especially high (that is, the codebreaking was not necessarily difficult), but it was usually high enough to meet the demands of the context (that is, the degree of risk, the likelihood or stakes of any codebreaking efforts, and the state of the codebreaking art in each era). Various forms or precursors of tamper-evident technology were developed over

6497-527: The sense. Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of "imitation", i.e., of adapted translation: "When a painter copies from the life... he has no privilege to alter features and lineaments..." This general formulation of the central concept of translation— equivalence —is as adequate as any that has been proposed since Cicero and Horace , who, in 1st-century-BCE Rome , famously and literally cautioned against translating "word for word" ( verbum pro verbo ). Despite occasional theoretical diversity,

6586-412: The spot. A room overlooking the hotel is occupied by Khanna ( Hiralal ), Seth Sohanlal's murderer, who gives a bundle of banknotes to the unseen driver of the car arriving shortly after. Khanna then makes a series of telephone calls to unseen people: to a doctor , whom he tells that a medical certificate needs to be created; to a mysterious young girl, whom he tells that the will needs to be sent to

6675-474: The target language, "counterparts," or equivalents , for the expressions used in the source language: When [words] appear... literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed. But since... what is beautiful in one [language] is often barbarous, nay sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his author's words: 'tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate

6764-491: The target-language rendering. On the other hand, such "spill-overs" have sometimes imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched target languages. Translators, including early translators of sacred texts , have helped shape the very languages into which they have translated. Because of the laboriousness of the translation process, since the 1940s efforts have been made, with varying degrees of success, to automate translation or to mechanically aid

6853-422: The term security envelope refers to security bags . Diplomatic mail pouch systems are special, small, closed postal systems run by each country's ministry of foreign affairs or department of state. A general theme of the diplomatic mail pouch is that outsiders never have physical access to it during the entire chain of custody; it never gets sent off out of sight of authorized persons, which would otherwise be

6942-412: The term "letter" generally being reserved for communications on paper. Due to the timelessness and universality of letter writing, extant letters from earlier eras constitute an important category of source material in historiography (the methodology of historians). During the 18th century, called the "Great Age of Letter Writing," the epistolary novel became a hugely popular genre and came from

7031-430: The times and places where correspondence took place. Aspects such as where to place the elements ( salutation , body of letter, valediction /closing, sender's address, recipient's address, date, and so on) were somewhat standardized albeit also usually flexible in practice. The form often varied by kind of letter . For any kind, though, factors of cost—such as that each sheet/leaf of paper cost money to buy and to post, and

7120-452: The trip in order to murder Khanna's remaining five assistants too. Madanlal then ties up both Anand and Asha and plays a game of Russian Roulette with them. However, the butler secretly arrives and unties Anand, who attacks Madanlal as he is about to shoot Asha with the only bullet . In the ensuing scuffle, Madanlal escapes from the mansion and runs towards the shore , but an airplane full of police (acting upon Anand's information) lands on

7209-418: The untranslatables have been set aside, the problems for a translator, especially of Chinese poetry, are two: What does the translator think the poetic line says? And once he thinks he understands it, how can he render it into the target language? Most of the difficulties, according to Link, arise in addressing the second problem, "where the impossibility of perfect answers spawns endless debate." Almost always at

7298-504: The work of the Tang dynasty poet Wang Wei (699–759 CE). Some of the art of classical Chinese poetry [writes Link] must simply be set aside as untranslatable . The internal structure of Chinese characters has a beauty of its own, and the calligraphy in which classical poems were written is another important but untranslatable dimension. Since Chinese characters do not vary in length, and because there are exactly five characters per line in

7387-926: The works of others than in their own works, and hold higher than their own glory the service that they render their country. Due to Western colonialism and cultural dominance in recent centuries, Western translation traditions have largely replaced other traditions. The Western traditions draw on both ancient and medieval traditions, and on more recent European innovations. Though earlier approaches to translation are less commonly used today, they retain importance when dealing with their products, as when historians view ancient or medieval records to piece together events which took place in non-Western or pre-Western environments. Also, though heavily influenced by Western traditions and practiced by translators taught in Western-style educational systems, Chinese and related translation traditions retain some theories and philosophies unique to

7476-433: The world. A lot of letters that were written in this time also showed up in a popular magazine called The Gentleman's Magazine . People were also charged for postage during this time. They either had to pay before or during transit. Writers took great caution in their number of pages so they did not have to pay so much. These writers were considered very clever in their way to avoid the overcharge. Letter writing also became

7565-414: Was connected to Seth Sohanlal: Kitty was Seth Sohanlal's private secretary who sent his will to Rakesh on Khanna's instructions; while Rakesh wrote Seth Sohanlal's will on Khanna's orders, though neither was aware about the other. The next day, Anand notices Rakesh hiding an axe before Dr. Acharya appears informing that Sharma has been murdered with an axe. The murderer has left another letter addressed to

7654-476: Was especially relevant to government ministers, royal courts, judicial courts, and legislators. Envelopes are available in plain types as well as types with somewhat higher privacy protection in which a pattern of ink is printed on the inner side, making it more difficult for anyone trying to candle a sealed letter (that is, examine it translucently via backlight ). Such envelopes are usually called privacy envelopes or security envelopes. Another sense of

7743-417: Was lower, illiterate people could pay literate ones to write letters to, and to read letters from, distant correspondents. Even in the era of telegrams and telephones, letters remained quite important until fax and email further eroded their primacy, especially since the turn of the 21st century. As communication technology has developed in recent history, posted letters on paper have become less important as

7832-465: Was remade in Tamil as Naalai Unathu Naal (1984). In the film, eight people (six men and two women) find themselves stranded on a remote island after winning a contest. As soon as they settle down in an eerie mansion with a strange butler, the guests begin to get murdered one after the other. On a dark night, wealthy Seth Sohanlal, stepping drunkenly out of a hotel, is run down by a speeding car and dies on

7921-607: Was revived by the establishment of the Madrasat al-Alsun (School of Tongues) in Egypt in 1813. There is a separate tradition of translation in South , Southeast and East Asia (primarily of texts from the Indian and Chinese civilizations), connected especially with the rendering of religious, particularly Buddhist , texts and with the governance of the Chinese empire. Classical Indian translation

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