Swayne & Hoyt was an American steamship company based in San Francisco, California , and in operation from the 1890s to 1940.
125-781: During its tenure, the company witnessed the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 and the massive shipbuilding program of World War I orchestrated by the United States Shipping Board which peaked in 1918 and 1919. In 1850 the ship brokerage firm of Hughes and Hunter was established in San Francisco. In 1865 it became Hughes & McDaniel and, in 1871, Hughes, McDaniel and Edson . In 1873 McDaniel dropped out, in 1879 Hughes dropped out. The company continued as C. A. Edson & Co . Robert H. Swayne and John C. Hoyt, former employees, took over business in 1887. Swayne & Hoyt
250-764: A canal across the isthmus, with some favoring a canal across Nicaragua and others advocating the purchase of the French interests in Panama. Bunau-Varilla , who was seeking American involvement, asked for $ 100 million, but accepted $ 40 million in the face of the Nicaraguan option. In June 1902, the US Senate voted in favor of the Spooner Act , to pursue the Panamanian option, provided the necessary rights could be obtained. On 22 January 1903,
375-688: A canal. Numerous canals were built in other countries in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The success of the Erie Canal through central New York in the United States in the 1820s and the collapse of the Spanish Empire in Latin America resulted in growing American interest in building an inter-oceanic canal. Beginning in 1826, US officials began negotiations with Gran Colombia (present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama), hoping to gain
500-416: A cargo of consisting mostly of jute and gunny sacks in addition to 1,000 tons of rubber, and was subsequently put into drydock of Moore Shipbuilding Company for reconditioning. At the same time USSB also decided to rename all of the big liners in honor of the United States presidents, with Wolverine State becoming President Harrison . The rebuilding work was finalized by June and President Harrison
625-523: A concession to build a canal. Jealous of their newly gained independence and fearing domination by the more powerful United States, president Simón Bolívar and New Granada officials declined American offers. After the collapse of Gran Colombia, New Granada remained unstable under constant government intrigue. Great Britain attempted to develop a canal in 1843. According to the New-York Daily Tribune , 24 August 1843, Barings Bank of London and
750-497: A different vessel and continue their journey. The ships were to call at Honolulu, Kobe , Shanghai , Hong Kong , Manila, Singapore, Penang , Colombo , Suez , Alexandria , Naples , Genoa , Marseille and from there proceed directly to Boston and finish their trip in New York. The cost of such a trip from San Francisco to New York would range from $ 1,000 to $ 1,440 depending on the service and type of accommodations. From New York
875-579: A high worker mortality rate . The US took over the project in 1904 and opened the canal in 1914. The US continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for its handover to Panama in 1977. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, the Panamanian government took control in 1999. It is now managed and operated by the Panamanian government-owned Panama Canal Authority . The original locks are 33.5 meters (110 ft) wide and allow
1000-613: A journey to cross the country, visit Alaska Territory, travel south along the West Coast, then go by ship from San Diego through the Panama Canal to Puerto Rico . President Harrison was selected initially to serve as a vessel by which the President would undertake such travel. The ship's accommodations were to be refurbished and rebuilt in anticipation of important passenger, and all passenger reservations were preemptively cancelled to ensure
1125-424: A large shipbuilding program was undertaken to restore and enhance shipping capabilities both of the United States and their Allies. As part of this program, EFC placed orders with nation's shipyards for a large number of vessels of standard designs. Design 1095 ship was originally conceived as a fast troop transport, subsequently modified into passenger and cargo vessel of approximately 13,000 deadweight tonnage after
1250-533: A mud bank. Three were killed when a lifeboat was cut in half by her propellers during the abandoning of the ship. The crew and troops, 156 in total, were sent to prisoner of war camps. They were some of the first US POWs of World War II. In the POW camp, 12 of the ship's crew died; three were shot dead exiting the ship. Some of the crew were sent to coal mine forced labor camps in Hokkaido, Japan . Japan salvaged and repaired
1375-535: A reservoir for the canal. The layout of the canal as seen by a ship passing from the Atlantic to the Pacific is: Thus, the total length of the canal is 80 km (50 mi). In 2017 it took ships an average of 11.38 hours to pass between the canal's two outer locks. SS President Harrison Wolverine State was a steam passenger-cargo ship built in 1919–1920 by New York Shipbuilding Company of Camden for
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#17328756833711500-611: A sea-level canal (like the Suez), but he visited the site only a few times, during the dry season which lasts only four months of the year. His men were unprepared for the rainy season, during which the Chagres River , where the canal started, became a raging torrent, rising up to 10 m (33 ft). The dense jungle was alive with venomous snakes, insects, and spiders, but the worst challenges were yellow fever , malaria , and other tropical diseases, which killed thousands of workers; by 1884,
1625-572: A sea-level canal, as had been attempted by the French and temporarily abandoned by them in 1887 for a ten locks system designed by Philippe Bunau-Varilla, and definitively in 1898 for a lock-and-lake canal designed by the Comité Technique of the Compagnie Nouvelle de Canal de Panama as conceptualized by Adolphe Godin de Lépinay in 1879. But in 1906 Stevens, who had seen the Chagres in full flood,
1750-691: A self-educated engineer who had built the Great Northern Railroad . Stevens was not a member of the ICC; he increasingly viewed its bureaucracy as a serious hindrance, bypassing the commission and sending requests and demands directly to the Roosevelt administration in Washington, DC. One of Stevens' first achievements in Panama was in building and rebuilding the housing, cafeterias, hotels, water systems, repair shops, warehouses, and other infrastructure needed by
1875-583: A settlement began and resulted in the Torrijos–Carter Treaties . On 7 September 1977, the treaty was signed by President of the United States Jimmy Carter and Omar Torrijos , de facto leader of Panama. This mobilized the process of granting the Panamanians free control of the canal so long as Panama signed a treaty guaranteeing the permanent neutrality of the canal. The treaty led to full Panamanian control effective at noon on 31 December 1999, and
2000-642: A smoking room and a social hall were built and made available for passenger entertainment. The vessel was built on the transverse system of framing and had her hull subdivided into fourteen watertight compartments. She also possessed all the modern machinery for quick loading and unloading of cargo from nine main hatches, including thirty two 6-ton and one 30-ton booms and twenty steam winches . She also had two of her storage chambers totaling approximately 1,300 tons equipped with refrigerating machinery for transportation of perishable goods such as meat, fruits and vegetables. The ship had electric lights in cabins and along
2125-420: A steel hull with double bottom throughout, and two sets of four-cylinder vertical inverted triple expansion steam engines , with cylinders of 24-inch (61 cm), 40 + 1 ⁄ 2 -inch (103 cm), 54-inch (140 cm) and 54-inch (140 cm) diameter with a 45-inch (110 cm) stroke , that drove two screw propellers and moved the ship at up to 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). The steam for
2250-543: A suitable replacement steamer. President Harrison departed Honolulu on November 4 with passengers and cargo consisting of typical Hawaiian exports, such as bananas and pineapples. The Shipping Board then extended her lease with the Los Angeles Steamship Co. for four trips, and then for one extra trip in January 1923, before finally allocating the steamer to Swayne & Hoyt in early February. President Harrison
2375-581: A treaty, in the name of the Société civile internationale du Canal interocéanique par l'isthme du Darien headed by general Étienne Türr, with the Colombian government, known as the Wyse concession, to build an interoceanic canal through Panama. The first attempt to construct a canal through what was then Colombia's province of Panama began on 1 January 1881. The project was inspired by the diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps , who
2500-649: Is an artificial 82-kilometer (51-mile) waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean , cutting across the Isthmus of Panama , and is a conduit for maritime trade. Locks at each end lift ships up to Gatun Lake , an artificial fresh water lake 26 meters (85 ft) above sea level , created by damming up the Chagres River and Lake Alajuela to reduce the amount of excavation work required for
2625-402: Is sometimes misinterpreted as the "99-year lease" because of misleading wording included in article 22 of the agreement. Almost immediately, the treaty was condemned by many Panamanians as an infringement on their country's new national sovereignty. This would later become a contentious diplomatic issue among Colombia, Panama, and the United States. President Roosevelt famously stated, "I took
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#17328756833712750-708: The Albion River Railroad from the Albion River Lumber Co. for $ 67,500. The goal was a transport service from Bonneville to Albion and from thereon by ship to San Francisco. Established in 1920 , first announced in May, to be on a monthly schedule, through the Magellan Strait and return through the Panama Canal or this route in reverse. Initially four newly launched ships, the Pallas and Rotarian by Todd Tacoma ,
2875-540: The Culebra Cut , valued at about $ 1.00 per cubic yard. The United States also paid the new country of Panama $ 10 million and a $ 250,000 payment each following year. In 1921, Colombia and the United States entered into the Thomson–Urrutia Treaty , in which the United States agreed to pay Colombia $ 25 million: $ 5 million upon ratification, and four $ 5 million annual payments, and grant Colombia special privileges in
3000-752: The Hay–Herrán Treaty was signed by United States Secretary of State John M. Hay and Colombian Chargé Tomás Herrán . For $ 10 million and an annual payment, it would have granted the United States a renewable lease in perpetuity from Colombia on the land proposed for the canal. The treaty was ratified by the US Senate on 14 March 1903, but the Senate of Colombia unanimously rejected the treaty since it had become significantly unpopular in Bogotá due to concerns over insufficient compensation, threat to sovereignty, and perpetuity. Roosevelt changed tactics, based in part on
3125-508: The Hippodrome . During her third voyage, the ship was reported to be in distress while travelling in the Mediterranean, however, that soon turned out to be a mix-up and the vessel safely arrived at Boston in late February 1925. On her next voyage, President Harrison carried home the body of Pancho Villa after he suddenly died during the operation. In October 1926 while the ship was off
3250-593: The Illinois Central Railroad , as chief engineer of the Panama Canal Project. Overwhelmed by the disease-plagued country and forced to use often dilapidated French infrastructure and equipment, as well as being frustrated by the overly bureaucratic ICC, Wallace resigned abruptly in June 1905. The ICC brought on a new chairman, Theodore P. Shonts , and a new chief engineer was appointed, John Frank Stevens ,
3375-589: The Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty of 1846, and actively supported the separation of Panama from Colombia . Shortly after recognizing Panama, he signed a treaty with the new Panamanian government under terms similar to the Hay–Herrán Treaty. On 2 November 1903, US warships blocked sea lanes against possible Colombian troop movements en route to put down the Panama rebellion. Panama declared independence on 3 November 1903. The United States quickly recognized
3500-523: The Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty , negotiated between the US and New Granada, granted the United States transit rights and the right to intervene militarily in the isthmus. In 1848, the discovery of gold in California , on the West Coast of the United States, generated renewed interest in a canal crossing between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. William Henry Aspinwall , who had won the federal subsidy to build and operate
3625-435: The Panama Canal on January 31 and arrived at Los Angeles on February 11 after largely an uneventful journey, successfully completing her maiden voyage. She then continued to San Francisco and after loading about 920 tons of freight and embarking ten passengers departed for Honolulu on February 25. After encountering stormy weather on her way to Hawaii, Wolverine State reached her destination on March 4. She sailed out on
3750-533: The Panama Canal Authority (ACP) assumed command of the waterway. The Panama Canal remains one of the chief revenue sources for Panama. Before this handover, the government of Panama held an international bid to negotiate a 25-year contract for operation of the container shipping ports located at the canal's Atlantic and Pacific outlets. The contract was not affiliated with the ACP or Panama Canal operations and
3875-525: The Republic of New Granada entered into a contract for the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Darien (Isthmus of Panama). They referred to it as the Atlantic and Pacific Canal, and it was a wholly British endeavor. Projected for completion in five years, the plan was never carried out. At nearly the same time, other ideas were floated, including a canal (and/or a railroad) across Mexico's Isthmus of Tehuantepec . That did not develop, either. In 1846,
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4000-677: The United States Shipping Board (USSB) as part of the wartime shipbuilding program of the Emergency Fleet Corporation (EFC) to restore the nation's Merchant Marine. The ship was initially employed on the United States to India route until its cancellation in Spring 1922. After remodeling the vessel was briefly used by the Los Angeles Steamship Company on a run between Los Angeles and Honolulu as an emergency replacement for one of their burned out steamers. In April 1922
4125-676: The West Notus and West Norranus by Southwestern Shipbuilding in San Pedro, all owned by the USSB, all going on their maiden voyage for the Line. Seattle - San Francisco - San Pedro - Magellan Strait - Buenos Aires - Montevideo - Santos - Panama Canal - San Pedro - San Francisco - Seattle Swayne & Hoyt was classified as a Class 8 manager and/or operator (25,000 to 49,999 dwt) by the USSB in 1920, with 32,600dwt (2 * 7,500 + 2 * 8,800 = 32,600). Barber SS Lines
4250-480: The cargo ship SS Ancon . The opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 caused a severe drop in traffic along Chilean ports due to shifts in maritime trade routes, despite the closure of the canal for nearly seven months after a landslide in the Culebra Cut on 18 September 1915. The burgeoning sheep farming business in southern Patagonia suffered a significant setback by the change in trade routes, as did
4375-776: The 30 million cu yd (23 million m ) excavated by the French. As quickly as possible, the Americans replaced or upgraded the old, unusable French equipment with new construction equipment that was designed for a much larger and faster scale of work. 102 large, railroad-mounted steam shovels were purchased, 77 from Bucyrus-Erie , and 25 from the Marion Power Shovel Company . These were joined by enormous steam-powered cranes, giant hydraulic rock crushers , concrete mixers , dredges , and pneumatic power drills, nearly all of which were manufactured by new, extensive machine-building technology developed and built in
4500-702: The Americas in order to ease the voyage for ships traveling between Spain and Peru. The Spanish were seeking to gain a military advantage over the Portuguese. In 1668, the English physician and philosopher Sir Thomas Browne speculated in his encyclopedic work, Pseudodoxia Epidemica , that "some Isthmus have been eaten through by the Sea, and others cut by the spade: And if the policy would permit, that of Panama in America were most worthy
4625-620: The Baja California coast, one of the passengers aboard the vessel fell seriously ill, prompting US Navy destroyer Decatur to rush a surgeon team from San Diego to perform an operation on board the liner. The operation was successful and the passenger was transferred to a hospital upon arrival in Los Angeles where she stayed to recover. In the early morning hours on 6 November 1926 while proceeding from Shanghai to Hong Kong in foggy weather, President Harrison ran aground on Bonham Island, off
4750-520: The Canal Zone. In return, Colombia recognized Panama as an independent nation. The US formally took control of the canal property on 4 May 1904, inheriting from the French a depleted workforce and a vast jumble of buildings, infrastructure, and equipment, much of it in poor condition. A US government commission, the Isthmian Canal Commission (ICC), was established to oversee construction; it
4875-485: The Chagres River above Gatun Lake. Completed in 1935, the dam created Madden Lake (later Alajuela Lake), which provides additional water storage for the canal. In 1939, construction began on a further major improvement: a new set of locks large enough to carry the larger warships that the United States was building at the time and planned to continue building. The work proceeded for several years, and significant excavation
5000-586: The Colombians being unable to put down the Panamanian rebellion and expel the United States troops occupying what today is the independent nation of Panama. On 6 November 1903, Philippe Bunau-Varilla, as Panama's ambassador to the United States, signed the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty , granting rights to the United States to build and indefinitely administer the Panama Canal Zone and its defenses. This
5125-646: The Department of Commerce or the Shipping Board (SB). Las Vegas ( Los Angeles SB ), Vinita ( Long Beach SB ), West Cahokia ( Western P&S ), West Islip ( Ames ), Hollywood ( Southwestern ), all owned by the USSB. For the Calmar Line in Seattle, Portland, Oakland, San Francisco, Los Angeles, from at least Jan 1931 to at least Dec 1933. Panama Canal The Panama Canal (Spanish: Canal de Panamá )
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5250-785: The Downey-built ships. The reason given by The Log was lack of freight on the line. In February 1940 the Point Bonita , Point Arena , Point Judith (then located in the Gulf) and Point Clear , Point Ancha , Point Lobos (then on the West Coast) were sold to the Greek steamship operator A. G. Pappadakis. was incorporated May 31, 1902 by Robert H. Swayne, who also incorporated the Albion & Southeastern Railroad on May 8, 1902, and had bought on April 1, 1902,
5375-479: The French manager of the New Panama Canal Company, eventually managed to persuade Lesseps that a lock-and-lake canal was more realistic than a sea-level canal. The Comité Technique, a high level technical committee, was formed by the Compagnie Nouvelle to review the studies and work—that already finished and that still ongoing—and come up with the best plan for completing the canal. The committee arrived on
5500-730: The Gulf-Pacific Line with 7 ships merged with stocks on ships exchanged on a tonnage basis. Gulf Pacific was operating 9 ships (presumably this refers to the Point San Pablo and Point San Pedro ) at the time on the line. The transfer was applied to ships sailing from Puget Sound, after November 1. The Point Ancha , sailing September 20, 1932 marked the beginning of a new passenger and freight service between Pacific Coast ports and Baranquillo , Kingston , Tampico (definite), Cartagena , Curaçao (Dutch West Indies), Vera Cruz, Port-au-Prince and Manzanillo (probable). Agreements approved by
5625-534: The Isthmus in February 1896 and went immediately, quietly and efficiently about their work of devising the best possible canal plan, which they presented on 16 November 1898. Many aspects of the plan were similar in principle to the canal that was finally built by the Americans in 1914. It was a lock canal with two high level lakes to lift ships up and over the Continental Divide. Double locks would be 738 feet long and about 30 feet deep (225 m × 9 m); one chamber of each pair would be 82 feet (25 m) wide,
5750-407: The Isthmus, started the canal and then left Congress not to debate the canal, but to debate me." Several parties in the United States called this an act of war on Colombia: The New York Times described the support given by the United States to Bunau-Varilla as an "act of sordid conquest". The New York Evening Post called it a "vulgar and mercenary venture". The US maneuvers are often cited as
5875-412: The Japan to Taiwan route, but soon after was requisitioned by the Imperial Japanese Army . Under IJA control the ship sailed between Japan, Singapore and the Philippines carrying troops and military supplies. She was torpedoed and sunk on 12 September 1944 on one of her regular trips, while carrying 950 Allied prisoners of war of which 431 were killed. After the United States entry into World War I ,
6000-422: The Japanese she was run aground on 8 December on Shaweishan Island at 16 knots to rip her bottom out and deny her use to the Japanese. President Harrison struck the edge of the island on her port side and then rolled off. The impact ripped a hole 90 feet long, but didn't reach the engine room spaces. The ship almost turned over, but righted herself. Strong currents then carried her off the rocks and she settled on
6125-457: The Pacific mail steamships at around the same time, benefited from the gold discovery. Aspinwall's route included steamship legs from New York City to Panama, and from Panama to California, with an overland portage through Panama. This route with an overland leg in Panama was soon frequently traveled, as it provided one of the fastest connections between San Francisco, California, and the East Coast cities, about 40 days' transit in total. Nearly all
6250-414: The Pacific side is about a third of a degree east of the Colón end on the Atlantic side. Still, in formal nautical communications, the simplified directions "southbound" and "northbound" are used. The canal consists of artificial lakes , several improved and artificial channels, and three sets of locks . An additional artificial lake, Alajuela Lake (known during the American era as Madden Lake), acts as
6375-419: The Panama Railway) to cross the isthmus; it opened in 1855. This overland link became a vital piece of Western Hemisphere infrastructure, greatly facilitating trade. The later canal route was constructed parallel to it, as it had helped clear dense forests. An all-water route between the oceans was still the goal. In 1855, William Kennish , a Manx -born engineer working for the United States government, surveyed
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#17328756833716500-449: The President would not be disturbed on his voyage. The company even went as far as switch the captains at sea to ensure the most experienced master was navigating the vessel. However, about a month later this arrangement was cancelled and President Harrison instead went back to her usual duties, leaving on her second trip to South America in early August. While President Harrison was on her voyage, Dollar Steamship Company approached
6625-399: The S&H warehouse was the scene of the "biggest opium seizure in California" ($ 200,000 of Chinese opium). In 1926, the company was operating the American-Australian-Orient Line which sailed to Australia, New Zealand, and Asian ports. Also in the mid-1920s, Swayne & Hoyt was engaged in trade between Pacific ports and the east coast of South America. By the late 1930s, Swayne & Hoyt
6750-462: The Shipping Board about acquiring seven steamers to serve on their proposed round-the-world passenger service to be run between San Francisco and New York via East Asia and the Mediterranean . The deal was struck in early September 1923 and President Harrison together with six of her sister ships were purchased by the Dollar Steamship Co. for $ 550,000 each. President Harrison returned to California on 21 October 1923 and after unloading her cargo
6875-430: The Shipping Board officially announced the removal of all three vessels from the route, although the Pacific Mail managed to retain two of the withdrawn steamers for a shorter route to Honolulu and the Philippines . The Shipping Board also agreed to recondition and rebuilt both vessels to increase the number of steerage passengers to approximately 220. The steamer arrived home from her last trip to India in mid-April with
7000-457: The Shipping Board representatives the next day. Upon delivery to her owners, Wolverine State was immediately allocated to the Pacific Mail Steamship Company to operate on their route between the West Coast of the United States and East Asia . The vessel then proceeded to Baltimore where she took on board a token load of general cargo and 71 passengers before sailing out on 22 January 1921 bound for San Francisco . The ship passed through
7125-641: The Shipping Board was going to discontinue the service to India as unprofitable. Wolverine State returned home from her second trip in early September via Hawaii where she loaded part cargo of pineapples , hides and tallow . Upon arrival, several members of her crew were arrested for an attempted smuggling of 48 quart bottles of whiskey. Regardless of the rumors, Wolverine State departed for her third trip to India in mid-October, carrying among other cargo approximately 100,000 feet of cedar lumber, ordered by Japanese to make pencils, but believed by many to be used in production of airplanes. On her return trip, one of
7250-400: The US army troops that were supporting the Panamanian rebels. The reason an army of conscripts was sent was that it was the best response the Colombians could muster, as Colombia still was recovering from a civil war between Liberals and Conservatives from October 1899, to November 1902, known as the " Thousand Days War ". The US was fully aware of these conditions and even incorporated them into
7375-483: The United States to hand over the canal to Panama increased after the Suez Crisis in 1956, when the United States used financial and diplomatic pressure to force France and the UK to abandon their attempt to retake control of the Suez Canal , previously nationalized by the Nasser regime in Egypt. Panamanian unrest culminated in riots on Martyr's Day , 9 January 1964, when about 20 Panamanians and 3–5 US soldiers were killed. A decade later, in 1974, negotiations toward
7500-496: The United States. The railroad also had to be comprehensively upgraded with heavy-duty, double-tracked rails over most of the line to accommodate new rolling stock . In many places, the new Gatun Lake flooded over the original rail line, and a new line had to be constructed above Gatun Lake's waterline. Between 1912 and 1914 there was a controversy about the tolls for the canal . In 1907, Stevens resigned as chief engineer. His replacement, appointed by President Theodore Roosevelt,
7625-404: The White House to the operator on President Harrison , and the steamer left her berth to the cheers of nearly 5,000 spectators and notable guests, including mayor of San Francisco James Rolph Jr. , John Philip Sousa and Admiral Edward R. Simpson, to inaugurate the service. The ship arrived at Boston on 25 March 1924 after 79 days long voyage, one day behind the schedule, to successfully complete
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#17328756833717750-454: The afternoon of 21 August 1929 President Harrison spotted a lifeboat carrying 13 survivors from old German steamer SS Quimistan near Sable Island . The second lifeboat with 13 more survivors, including the captain, was found an hour and a half later. Quimistan was on her last voyage from Norfolk to Genoa to be scrapped there, when she suddenly developed a leak in the afternoon of August 18. After several hours of trying unsuccessfully to stop
7875-457: The attempt: it being but few miles over, and would open a shorter cut unto the East Indies and China". Given the strategic location of Panama, and the potential of its narrow isthmus separating two great oceans, other trade links in the area were attempted over the years. One early example of this was ill-fated Darien scheme , launched by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to set up an overland trade route. Generally inhospitable conditions thwarted
8000-429: The cabins as well as addition of the covered promenade deck . The contract for remodeling was awarded to the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company and the work on President Harrison commenced soon after her arrival from her regular round-the-world trip. It took more than two months to finish the upgrades, and President Harrison sailed out from Newport News on 29 April 1929 to resume her regular service. In
8125-404: The canal was completed in 1914, 401 years after Panama was first crossed overland by the Europeans in Vasco Núñez de Balboa 's party of conquistadores . The United States spent almost $ 500 million (roughly equivalent to $ 15.2 billion in 2023) to finish the project. This was by far the largest American engineering project to date. The canal was formally opened on 15 August 1914, with the passage of
8250-401: The canal. In 2017, it took ships an average of 11.38 hours to pass between the canal's two outer locks. The American Society of Civil Engineers has ranked the Panama Canal one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World . The earliest record regarding a canal across the Isthmus of Panama was in 1534, when Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, ordered a survey for a route through
8375-406: The canal. Locks then lower the ships at the other end. An average of 200,000,000 L (52,000,000 US gal) of fresh water is used in a single passing of a ship. The canal is threatened by low water levels during droughts. The Panama Canal shortcut greatly reduces the time for ships to travel between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, enabling them to avoid the lengthy, hazardous route around
8500-489: The classic example of US gunboat diplomacy in Latin America, and the best illustration of what Roosevelt meant by the old African adage, "Speak softly and carry a big stick [and] you will go far." After the revolution in 1903, the Republic of Panama became a US protectorate until 1939. In 1904, the United States purchased the French equipment and excavations, including the Panama Railroad , for US$ 40 million, of which $ 30 million related to excavations completed, primarily in
8625-470: The construction of tunnels and locks. A second Isthmian exploratory visit began on 6 December 1877, where two routes were explored in Panama, the San Blas route and a route from Bahía Limón to Panama City, the current Canal route. The French had achieved success in building the Suez Canal in the Middle East. While it was a lengthy project, they were encouraged to plan for a canal to cross the Panamanian isthmus. Wyse went to Bogotá and on 20 March 1878, signed
8750-441: The continental divide to connect Gatun Lake to the Pacific Panama Canal locks . On 10 October 1913, President Woodrow Wilson sent a signal from the White House by telegraph which triggered the explosion that destroyed the Gamboa Dike. This flooded the Culebra Cut, thereby joining the Atlantic and Pacific oceans via the Panama Canal. Alexandre La Valley (a floating crane built by Lobnitz & Company and launched in 1887)
8875-446: The cylinders on her engines cracked and exploded, forcing the ship to reduce her speed significantly. After an 18-hour long struggle to repair the blown cylinder in super-heated environment, the crew managed to fix the problem Wolverine State managed to catch up on her lost time and reached her destination only three hours behind her scheduled arrival time on January 10, 1922. After Wolverine State departed for her last voyage to India,
9000-575: The date of the last traditional annual company dinner party. Final employment figures were 500 seagoing personnel and 220 in the home and branch offices. The referenced recollection of Lloyd Swayne is not accurate. In December 1939 five ships were sold to the Ocean Dominion Steamship Corporation of New York (aka the Aluminum Line): Point Brava , Point Caleta , Point Chico , Point Palmas , Point Salinas , i.e. all
9125-459: The death rate was over 200 per month. Public health measures were ineffective because the role of the mosquito as a disease vector was then unknown. Conditions were downplayed in France to avoid recruitment problems, but the high mortality rate made it difficult to maintain an experienced workforce. Workers had to continually widen the main cut through the mountain at Culebra and reduce the angles of
9250-408: The decks, had submarine signal system installed and was equipped with wireless apparatus. As built, the ship was 502.1 feet (153.0 m) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 62.2 feet (19.0 m) abeam , and had a depth of 28.3 feet (8.6 m). Wolverine State was originally assessed at 10,533 GRT and 6,195 NRT and had deadweight tonnage of approximately 13,000. The vessel had
9375-571: The economy of the Falkland Islands . Throughout this time, Ernest "Red" Hallen was hired by the Isthmian Canal Commission to document the progress of the work. In 1914, steam shovels from the Panama Canal were purchased and put to use in Chuquicamata copper mine of northern Chile. By the 1930s, water supply became an issue for the canal, prompting construction of the Madden Dam across
9500-577: The effort, and it was abandoned in April 1700. In 1788, Americans suggested that the Spanish should build the canal, since they controlled the colonies where it would be built. They said that this would be a less treacherous route for ships than going around the southern tip of South America, and that tropical ocean currents would naturally widen the canal after construction. During an expedition from 1788 to 1793, Alessandro Malaspina outlined plans for construction of
9625-681: The end of hostilities. Wolverine State was part of initial order for seven vessels placed by the USSB on 1 July 1918 with the New York Shipbuilding Corp. The ship was laid down at the shipbuilder's yard on 13 May 1919 (yard number 248) and launched on 16 September 1920, with Mrs. Edith W. Tweedale, wife of Alonzo Tweedale, controller for the USSB, being the sponsor. While the vessel was primarily designed for cargo transportation, she also possessed first-class accommodations for 78 passengers. Wolverine State had three decks and also had weather decks constructed on top amidships. A dining hall,
9750-502: The engineering and excavation work into three divisions: Atlantic, Central, and Pacific. The Atlantic Division, under Major William L. Sibert , was responsible for construction of the massive breakwater at the entrance to Bahía Limón , the Gatun locks , and their 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 -mile (5.6 km) approach channel, and the immense Gatun Dam. The Pacific Division, under Sydney B. Williamson (the only civilian member of this high-level team),
9875-467: The engines was supplied by six single-ended Scotch marine boilers fitted for oil fuel. The sea trials were held on 5 January 1921 in the Delaware Bay, off Cape Henlopen . The ship was able to achieve an average speed of 15 knots (28 km/h) over the measured mile, and top speed of 16.5 knots, exceeding her contract requirements. After successful completion of sea trials, the ship was turned over to
10000-412: The ensuing scandal, known as the Panama affair , some of those deemed responsible were prosecuted, including Gustave Eiffel . Lesseps and his son Charles were found guilty of misappropriation of funds and sentenced to five years' imprisonment. This sentence was later overturned, and the father, at age 88, was never imprisoned. In 1894, a second French company, the Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama,
10125-422: The first leg of her inaugural trip. President Harrison returned to California at the end of April, successfully completing her first round-the world voyage in approximately 110 days. The vessel continued serving roughly the same route until the start of World War II . On her second trip President Harrison picked up a group of Siamese dancers and performers at Singapore and brought them to New York to perform at
10250-400: The funnel. The steamer had to stop and after an investigation it was discovered that large number of 2x4 planks were left in the air space separating the inner and out linings of the funnel. It took approximately five to six hours to clear out the chimney, but the ship suffered no damage and was able to proceed on her journey. While the vessel was still on her trip, rumors started appearing that
10375-476: The gold that was shipped out of California went by the fast Panama route. Several new and larger paddle steamers were soon plying this new route, including private steamship lines owned by American entrepreneur Cornelius Vanderbilt that made use of an overland route through Nicaragua, and the unfortunate SS Central America . In 1850, the United States began construction of the Panama Railroad (now called
10500-538: The isthmus and issued a report on a route for a proposed Panama Canal. His report was published as a book entitled The Practicability and Importance of a Ship Canal to Connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans . In 1876, Lucien Napoléon Bonaparte Wyse and his chief assistant Armand Réclus, both officers and engineers of the French Navy , explored several routes in the Darien-Atrato regions and made proposals including
10625-697: The line was first announced on July 13, 1920, by Charles Brown of S&H. First ship was to be the Eldorado sailing from New Orleans in August, followed by the Alvarado in September. The Iris was added to serve the route on September 11, after finishing repairs in Long Beach. The Colombian ports of Cartagena and Barranquilla were also served on a regular basis, Cuba and other West Indian ports were considered opportunities from
10750-578: The mouth of the Yangtze River . As a result of grounding, she sustained considerable damage to her bottom prompting passenger evacuation. The steamer was refloated next day and was able to proceed to Shanghai under her own power where she entered the drydock for repairs. The grounding forced the Dollar Lines to adjust their schedules as it was learned the work on President Harrison would take several months to finalize. It took almost two months to complete
10875-456: The new nation. This happened so quickly that by the time the Colombian government in Bogotá launched a response to the Panamanian uprising US troops had already entered the rebelling province. The Colombian troops dispatched to Panama were hastily assembled conscripts with little training. While these conscripts may have been able to defeat the Panamanian rebels, they would not have been able to defeat
11000-515: The other 59 ft (18 m). There would be eight sets of locks, two at Bohio Soldado and two at Obispo on the Atlantic side; one at Paraiso, two at Pedro Miguel, and one at Miraflores on the Pacific. Artificial lakes would be formed by damming the Chagres River at Bohio and Alhajuela, providing both flood control and electric power. At this time, US President Theodore Roosevelt and the United States Senate were interested in establishing
11125-493: The passage of Panamax ships. A third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded waterway began commercial operation on 26 June 2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, Neopanamax ships. Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, when the canal opened, to 14,702 vessels in 2008, for a total of 333.7 million Panama Canal/Universal Measurement System (PC/UMS) tons . By 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through
11250-486: The planning of the Panama intervention as the US acted as an arbitrator between the two sides. The peace treaty that ended the "Thousand Days War" was signed on the USS Wisconsin on 21 November 1902. While in port, the US also brought engineering teams to Panama with the peace delegation to begin planning the canal's construction before the US had even gained the rights to build the canal. All these factors would result in
11375-563: The project. After two years of extensive work, the mosquito-spread diseases were nearly eliminated . Despite the monumental effort, about 5,600 workers died from disease and accidents during the US construction phase of the canal. Besides healthier and far better living conditions for the workers, another benefit given to American citizens working on the Canal was a medal for two years of service. Additional bars were added for each two-year period after that. Designed by Victor D. Brenner and featuring
11500-455: The railway, which was to prove crucial in transporting millions of tons of soil from the cut through the mountains to the dam across the Chagres River. Colonel William C. Gorgas had been appointed chief sanitation officer of the canal construction project in 1904. Gorgas implemented a range of measures to minimize the spread of deadly diseases, particularly yellow fever and malaria , which had recently been shown to be mosquito-borne following
11625-413: The rainy climate. In France, Lesseps kept the investment and supply of workers flowing long after it was obvious that the targets were not being met, but eventually the money ran out. The French effort went bankrupt in 1889 after reportedly spending US$ 287,000,000; an estimated 22,000 men died from disease and accidents, and the savings of 800,000 investors were lost. Work was suspended on May 15, and in
11750-477: The repairs and the liner was finally able to leave Shanghai at the end of January 1927. In early January 1929 it was announced that the Dollar Steamship Company decided to upgrade and remodel several of their liners, including President Harrison at a total cost of approximately $ 2,000,000 . It was planned to increase the number of available accommodations to about 150 and make general improvements to
11875-434: The same day bound for Calcutta and reached it on April 3 via Manila and Saigon . The vessel departed Calcutta three weeks later with over 7,000 tons of oriental goods as well as exotic birds and monkeys, and reached San Francisco on May 28, successfully concluding her first trip in the Pacific. She immediately sailed out on her second voyage. During the first night out from San Francisco, flames were observed coming out of
12000-409: The schedule. The ship left Los Angeles on the first trip on her new route on October 23 and reached Hawaii about a week later. In the meantime, USSB assigned President Harrison to Swayne & Hoyt to operate between the West Coast of the United States and ports on the east coast of South America. The transfer was delayed for several months to give Los Angeles Steamship Co. a chance to find and refit
12125-463: The ship, renaming her Kakko Maru and later Kachidoki Maru . The troopship was part of convoy HI-72, transporting some 950 Australian and British prisoners of war (POWs) and 1,095 Japanese from Singapore to Formosa (Taiwan). Another ship in the convoy was SS Rakuyō Maru with 1,317 Allied POWs on board. On the morning of 12 September 1944, the convoy was attacked in the Luzon Strait by
12250-406: The ships would sail to Havana and then through the Panama Canal return to San Francisco to complete their round-the-world journeys. President Harrison was to be the first ship to sail on this route, and was officially transferred to her new owners in a special ceremony held on 24 December 1923, with many local dignitaries present. On 5 January 1924, President Coolidge sent a wireless signal from
12375-501: The slopes to minimize landslides into the canal. Steam shovels were used in the construction of the canal, purchased from Bay City Industrial Works, a business owned by William L. Clements in Bay City, Michigan . Bucket chain excavators manufactured by both Alphonse Couvreux and Wehyer & Richemond and Buette were also used. Other mechanical and electrical equipment was limited in capabilities, and steel equipment rusted rapidly in
12500-655: The southernmost tip of South America via the Drake Passage , the Strait of Magellan or the Beagle Channel . It is one of the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken. Colombia , France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. France began work on the canal in 1881, but stopped because of lack of investors' confidence due to engineering problems and
12625-536: The start, if the business conditions allowed. Round-trip time was on the order of two and a half months. A perennial advertisement in Traffic World started appearing in August 1920, listing (updated) approximate departure dates of named ships. The J.H.W. Steele Company (630 Common Street, New Orleans, La.) acted as agents in Gulf ports. The Alvarado was delayed due to lack of freight. The New Orleans Chamber of Commerce
12750-505: The steamer was renamed President Harrison . In 1923 she conducted several trips between California and the east coast of South America, before being sold together with several other ships of her class to the Dollar Steamship Company. The vessel was captured in 1941 by the Japanese after she was deliberately run aground to avoid the capture. After repairs, the ship was renamed Kachidoki Maru (勝鬨丸), put under control of NYK Line and entered
12875-406: The then-current president they were popularly known as The Roosevelt Medal. A total of 7189 were ultimately issued, with a few people receiving as many as four bars. Certificates are available today. In 1905, a US engineering panel was commissioned to review the canal design, which had not been finalized. In January 1906 the panel, in a majority of eight to five, recommended to President Roosevelt
13000-492: The thousands of incoming workers. Stevens began the recruitment effort to entice thousands of workers from the United States and other areas to come to the Canal Zone to work. Workers from the Caribbean—called " Afro-Panamanians "—came in large numbers and many settled permanently. Stevens tried to provide accommodation in which the workers could work and live in reasonable safety and comfort. He also re-established and enlarged
13125-588: The water from the lake. Gatun Lake would connect to the Pacific through the mountains at the Gaillard (Culebra) Cut. Unlike Godin de Lépinay with the Congrès International d'Etudes du Canal Interocéanique, Stevens successfully convinced Roosevelt of the necessity and feasibility of this alternative scheme. The construction of a canal with locks required the excavation of more than 17 million cu yd (13 million m ) of material over and above
13250-398: The water, the crew was forced to abandon the ship in sinking condition in the early morning hours of August 19. Quimistan was spotted drifting and burning by steamer SS Yuma who reported her as a menace to navigation. The entire crew was safely landed in New York on August 24, while Quimistan was never located and was presumed to sink soon after the crew left her. President Harrison
13375-496: The work of Cuban epidemiologist, Carlos Finlay and American pathologist, Walter Reed . Investment was made in extensive sanitation projects, including city water systems, fumigation of buildings, spraying of insect-breeding areas with oil and larvicide, installation of mosquito netting and window screens, and elimination of stagnant water. Despite opposition from the commission (one member said his ideas were barmy), Gorgas persisted, and when Stevens arrived, he threw his weight behind
13500-596: Was chartered by the United States Navy 27–28 November 1941 to evacuate the 4th Marines from Shanghai (and also the crates with the remains of the now lost Peking Man ), returning to Olongapo, Philippines on 3 December. She was then dispatched to Qinhuangdao (near Beijing) to pick up about 300 Marines of the Beijing and Tianjin Legation Guards and some 1400 tons of equipment and return to Manila. Under pursuit by
13625-455: Was US Army Major George Washington Goethals of the US Army Corps of Engineers . Soon to be promoted to lieutenant colonel and later to general, he was a strong, West Point -trained leader and civil engineer with experience in canals (unlike Stevens). Goethals directed the work in Panama to a successful conclusion in 1914, two years ahead of the target date of 10 June 1916. Goethals divided
13750-586: Was able to raise considerable funds in France as a result of the huge profits generated by his successful construction of the Suez Canal . Although the Panama Canal needed to be only 40 percent as long as the Suez Canal, it was much more of an engineering challenge because of the combination of tropical rain forests, debilitating climate, the need for canal locks, and the lack of any ancient route to follow. Lesseps wanted
13875-495: Was carried out on the new approach channels, but the project was canceled after World War II. After World War II, US control of the canal and the Canal Zone surrounding it became contentious; relations between Panama and the United States became increasingly tense. Many Panamanians felt that the Zone rightfully belonged to Panama; student protests were met by the fencing-in of the zone and an increased military presence there. Demands for
14000-536: Was created to take over the project. A minimal workforce of a few thousand people was employed primarily to comply with the terms of the Colombian Panama Canal concession, to run the Panama Railroad , and to maintain the existing excavation and equipment in salable condition. The company sought a buyer for these assets, with an asking price of US$ 109,000,000. In the meantime, they continued with enough activity to maintain their franchise. Phillipe Bunau-Varilla ,
14125-478: Was dismissed on the ground that Section 16 of the Shipping Act of 1916 forbids preferential treatment of any kind and that the arrangement violates unrestricted competition and furthers the establishment of a monopoly. The court conceded though that the arrangement had benefits to both the suing shipowners and their clients. Robert H. Swayne died 8 August 1936. The business closed officially on April 30, 1940, also
14250-553: Was engaged in intercoastal shipping between U.S. ports on the Gulf of Mexico and on ports on the Pacific coast via the Panama Canal . Swayne & Hoyt v. United States challenged the legality of an order of the Secretary of Commerce to cease offering 6-month contracts to clients at a reduced rate if the clients only use the same shipping company for all their shipping during that period. The case
14375-486: Was engaged in trade with Japan by 1896, when the company was recorded as protesting duties assessed on ceramic goods it had imported in February 1896. Swayne & Hoyt was incorporated in August 1896 as a warehouse, commission and mercantile business in the state of California with principal area of business in San Francisco, with a capital stock of $ 100,000 of which $ 25,000 had been actually subscribed. On February 27, 1897,
14500-412: Was given control of the Panama Canal Zone, over which the United States exercised sovereignty. The commission reported directly to Secretary of War William Howard Taft and was directed to avoid the inefficiency and corruption that had plagued the French 15 years earlier. On 6 May 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt appointed John Findley Wallace , formerly chief engineer and finally general manager of
14625-513: Was immediately put into service as part of the Pacific Argentine Brazil Line , and departed from Seattle and other Puget Sound ports laden with lumber, apples and other general merchandise on 25 February 1923 bound for South America. She took aboard more passengers and cargo at San Francisco and San Pedro and safely reached Rio de Janeiro on April 7 after a 41 day long passage. In early June 1923, President Harding set out on
14750-468: Was scheduled to depart for Manila and Hong Kong, when USSB abruptly cancelled the route again citing lack of profitability. The steamer was berthed in San Francisco and remained laid up until mid-October, when the Los Angeles Steamship Co. made an emergency request to the Shipping Board to provide them with a temporary replacement for the burned steamer City of Honolulu in order to maintain
14875-572: Was similarly responsible for the Pacific 3-mile (4.8 km) breakwater in Panama Bay , the approach channel to the locks, and the Miraflores and Pedro Miguel locks and their associated dams and reservoirs. The Central Division, under Major David du Bose Gaillard of the United States Army Corps of Engineers , was assigned one of the most difficult parts: excavating the Culebra Cut through
15000-501: Was summoned to Washington; he declared a sea-level approach to be "an entirely untenable proposition". He argued in favor of a canal using a lock system to raise and lower ships from a large reservoir 85 ft (26 m) above sea level. This would create both the largest dam (Gatun Dam) and the largest human-made lake (Gatun Lake) in the world at that time. The water to refill the locks would be taken from Gatun Lake by opening and closing enormous gates and valves and letting gravity propel
15125-415: Was the first self-propelled vessel to transit the canal from ocean to ocean. This vessel crossed the canal from the Atlantic in stages during construction, finally reaching the Pacific on 7 January 1914. SS Cristobal (a cargo and passenger ship built by Maryland Steel , and launched in 1902 as SS Tremont ) on 3 August 1914, was the first ship to transit the canal from ocean to ocean. The construction of
15250-510: Was the largest at that time, Class No. 2 with 344,187dwt and there was a total of 42 Class 8 operators managing 1,437,336dwt worth of USSB-owned ships. At the end of 1922 the composition of the ships was changed, three combined Passenger / Cargo liners with refrigerated cargo holds were allocated by the USSB: President Hayes , President Harrison and Susquehanna , which were to operate alongside 2 cargo ships. Establishment of
15375-464: Was transferred to her new owners. The ship remained berthed in the harbor until mid-December when she was put into drydock to apply finishing touches before her inaugural trip, scheduled for early January 1924. The round-the-world service announced by the Dollar Steamship Co. envisioned biweekly departures by all seven vessels, allowing the passengers to leave one ship at any port and reboard
15500-577: Was urging shippers to make use of the new service. Alvarado departed New Orleans on October 13 for Cartagena and crossed the Panama Canal on October 28. Swayne & Hoyt announced in November that despite rumors the new service would be made permanent. The successor to the Pacific-Caribbean-Gulf Line, effective September 1, 1926. Effective November 1, 1930 the Redwood Line with 6 ships and
15625-491: Was won by the firm Hutchison Whampoa , a Hong Kong–based shipping interest owned by Li Ka-shing . While globally the Atlantic Ocean is east of the isthmus and the Pacific is west, the general direction of the canal passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific is from northwest to southeast, because of the shape of the isthmus at the point the canal occupies. The Bridge of the Americas ( Spanish : Puente de las Américas ) at
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