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102-444: This town's name originated in 1736. During Qianlong Emperor 's visit, he named this region by combining two inscrpted names, Guguan ( simplified Chinese : 古关 ; traditional Chinese : 古關 ; lit. 'Old Pass') and Beikou ( Chinese : 北口 ; lit. 'North Gate'), into Gubeikou ( Chinese : 古北口 ; lit. 'Old North Gate') that is still being used to this day. So far in 2021, Gubeikou Town

204-454: A pin , they were considered equivalents of convenience rather than actual official ranks. Historically, Chinese noble titles were usually created with a shiyi ( 食邑 ; shíyì ; fief ) each, although the fief could be only nominal. The Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty enfeoffed cadet branch princes and other nobles in different regions of China. The Qing dynasty ended this tradition; with only

306-442: A yunjiwei who received another grant of yunjiwei became a jiduwei . A first-class duke plus yunjiwei was the equivalent of 23 grants of yunjiwei . The Qing dynasty, much like previous dynasties, used an "official rank" system ( 品 ; pǐn ). This system had nine numbered ranks, each subdivided into upper and lower levels, in addition to the lowest "unranked" rank: from upper first pin ( 正一品 ), to lower ninth pin ( 從九品 ), to

408-695: A celebratory hymn was sung in their honour. A Manchu version of the hymn was recorded by the Jesuit Amiot and sent to Paris. The Qing Empire hired Zhao Yi and Jiang Yongzhi at the Military Archives Office, in their capacity as members of the Hanlin Academy , to compile works on the Dzungar campaign, such as Strategy for the pacification of the Dzungars (Pingding Zhunge'er fanglue). Poems glorifying

510-536: A certain "gift". On several occasions he claimed that a painting could be secure from theft or fire only if it was taken into the Forbidden City. The Emperor's massive art collection became an intimate part of his life; he took landscape paintings with him on his travels to compare them with the actual landscapes, or to hang them in special rooms in palaces where he lodged, in order to inscribe them on every visit there. "He also regularly added poetic inscriptions to

612-580: A difficult time facing some enemies: the campaign against the Jinchuan hill peoples took 2 to 3 years—at first the Qing army were mauled, though Yue Zhongqi (a descendant of Yue Fei ) later took control of the situation. The battle with the Dzungars was closely fought, and caused heavy losses on both sides. The Ush rebellion in 1765 by Uyghur Muslims against the Manchus occurred after Uyghur women were gang raped by

714-524: A few days' march from the capital, Inwa . However, the Manchu Bannermen of northern China could not cope with "unfamiliar tropical terrains and lethal endemic diseases", and were driven back with heavy losses. After the close-call, King Hsinbyushin redeployed his armies from Siam to the Chinese front. The fourth and largest invasion got bogged down at the frontier. With the Qing forces completely encircled,

816-833: A few exceptions, no fief was ever named. No Qing prince was enfeoffed with territory. Instead, noble titles were created without a name, or were bestowed a meihao ( 美號 ; meǐhào ; titular name). These names were usually descriptive of the peer's merit, virtue, or the circumstances leading to his ennoblement. The Dukes Yansheng kept their traditional fief in Shandong under Qing rule. Titular names were unique for imperial princes, while non-imperial peers' titular names may overlap. Following Ming dynasty tradition, single-character names were reserved for qinwang s, while junwang s used two-character names. All other peers normally had two-character names, but could receive up to four characters. Since noble titles were primarily awarded for military service,

918-589: A group of 3 or more Muslims all of those Muslims would by sentenced as criminals by the Qing. A new criminal category or act, brawling (dou'ou) was designated by the Qing Manchu court of the Manchu Qianlong emperor in the 1770s especially as an anti-Muslim measure to arrest Muslims leading to even non-Jahriyya Muslims to join with Jahriyya against the Qing and leading the Qing court to be even more anti-Muslim, apprehensive of anti-Qing rebellion by Muslims. This led to

1020-645: A large army into Vietnam to remove the Tây Sơn (rebels who had captured all of Vietnam). The capital, Thăng Long, was conquered in 1788, but a few months later the Qing army was defeated, and the invasion turned into a debacle due to the surprise attack during Tết (Vietnamese New Year) by Nguyễn Huệ , the second and most capable of the three Tây Sơn brothers. The Qing Empire no longer supported Lê Chiêu Thống, and his family were imprisoned in Vietnam. The Qing would not intervene in Vietnam for another 90 years. Despite setbacks in

1122-630: A letter to the Board of Punishments called Covenant to Instruct and Admonish Muslims that he wrote in 1751. Although the Board of Punishment did nothing, the Shaanxi-Gansu Governor-General in 1762 then proceeded to implement his recommendation and had Muslim criminals punished severely more than Han Chinese ones. He also implemented the policy that the criminal deeds of Muslim congregants of Mosques ended up with their Imams being punished and held responsible for them. These anti-Muslim policies by

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1224-618: A long period he contemplated a number of paintings or works of calligraphy which possessed special meaning for him, inscribing each regularly with mostly private notes on the circumstances of enjoying them, using them almost as a diary." In particular, the Qianlong Emperor housed within the Hall of Three Rarities (Sanxitang), a small chamber within the Hall of Mental Cultivation , three calligraphy works: "Timely Clearing After Snowfall" by Wang Xizhi , from

1326-599: A prince, ex. Wang Yuying , Yongxuan 's servant was promoted to secondary consort. Remaining spouses could be promoted to higher positions in special circumstances, ex. lady Wanyan , Yongcheng 's unranked spouse was given a title of secondary consort. If imperial prince ascended the throne, his primary consort was named as empress, secondary consorts were named as noble consorts, consorts or concubines and mistresses were granted titles from first class female attendant to concubine or consort and given honorific names. Princess consorts held titles according to their husbands. If

1428-662: A rebellion against the Qing Empire around the same time as the Dzungars. The Qing army crushed the rebellion and executed Chingünjav and his entire family. Throughout this period there were continued Mongol interventions in Tibet and a reciprocal spread of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia. After the Lhasa riot of 1750 , the Qianlong Emperor sent armies into Tibet and firmly established the Dalai Lama as

1530-627: A substantial part of his collection is in the Percival David Foundation in London. The Victoria and Albert Museum and British Museum also have collections of art from the Qianlong era. One of his grandest projects was to assemble a team of scholars to assemble, edit, and print the largest collection ever made of Chinese philosophy, history, and literature. Known as the Complete Library of

1632-418: A third were chosen for publication. The works not included were either summarised or—in a good many cases—scheduled for destruction." Some 2,300 works were listed for total suppression and another 350 for partial suppression. The aim was to destroy the writings that were anti-Qing or rebellious, that insulted previous "barbarian" dynasties, or that dealt with frontier or defence problems. The full editing of

1734-641: A truce was reached between the field commanders of the two sides in December 1769. The Qing forces kept a heavy military lineup in the border areas of Yunnan for about one decade in an attempt to wage another war while imposing a ban on inter-border trade for two decades. When Burma and China resumed a diplomatic relationship in 1790, the Qing government unilaterally viewed the act as Burmese submission, and claimed victory. The Qianlong Emperor ordered Manchu general Eledeng'e (also spelled E'erdeng'e ( 額爾登額 , or possibly 額爾景額 )) to be sliced to death after his commander Mingrui

1836-465: Is composed of 13 subdivisions, of which 4 are communities and 9 are villages . They are listed as follows: [REDACTED] Media related to Gubeikou at Wikimedia Commons This Beijing location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Qianlong Emperor The Qianlong Emperor (25 September 1711 – 7 February 1799), also known by his temple name Emperor Gaozong of Qing , personal name Hongli ,

1938-535: The Complete Library of the Four Treasuries , the largest collection ever made of Chinese history, while also overseeing extensive literary inquisitions that led to the suppression of some 3,100 works. In 1796, Qianlong abdicated after 60 years on the throne out of respect towards his grandfather, the Kangxi Emperor , who ruled for 61 years, so as to avoid usurping him as the longest-reigning Qing emperor. He

2040-552: The Complete Library of the Four Treasuries was completed in about ten years; during these ten years, 3,100 titles (or works), about 150,000 copies of books were either burnt or banned. Of those volumes that had been categorised into the Complete Library of the Four Treasuries , many were subjected to deletion and modification. Books published during the Ming dynasty suffered the greatest damage. The authority would judge any single character or any single sentence's neutrality; if

2142-559: The Dzungars (or Zunghars), a coalition of Western Mongol tribes. The Qianlong Emperor then ordered the Dzungar genocide . According to the Qing dynasty scholar Wei Yuan , 40% of the 600,000 Dzungars were killed by smallpox , 20% fled to the Russian Empire or Kazakh tribes, and 30% were killed by the Qing army, in what Michael Edmund Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only

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2244-476: The Jin dynasty , "Mid-Autumn" by his son Wang Xianzhi , and "Letter to Boyuan" by Wang Xun . Most of the several thousand jade items in the imperial collection date from his reign. The Emperor was also particularly interested in collecting ancient bronzes, bronze mirrors and seals ," in addition to pottery, [ceramics and applied arts such as enameling , metal work and lacquer work, which flourished during his reign;

2346-711: The Palace of Harmony (Yonghe Palace) into a Tibetan Buddhist temple for Mongols. To explain the practical reasons for supporting the "Yellow Hats" Tibetan Buddhists and to deflect Han Chinese criticism, he had the "Lama Shuo" stele engraved in Tibetan , Mongol , Manchu and Chinese, which said: "By patronizing the Yellow Church, we maintain peace among the Mongols. This being an important task we cannot but protect this (religion). (In doing so) we do not show any bias, nor do we wish to adulate

2448-509: The era name "Qianlong", which means "Lasting Eminence". In 1739, the Prince Hongxi (son of Kangxi's deposed crown prince, Yunreng ) plotted a coup with five other princes to overthrow Qianlong and replace him with Hongxi. They planned to initiate their coup during an imperial hunt on the Mulan hunting grounds. Hongxi was proclaimed Emperor, but the plot was exposed by Prince Hongpu and

2550-477: The 1760s, to the violence between the Qing state and Muslims after the 1760s, was due to progressive Qing involvement in the conflict between the Sufi orders Jahriyya and Khafiyya making it no longer possible for the Qing to keep up with the early rhetoric of Muslim equality. The Manchu court under Qianlong began approving and implementing Chen Hongmou's anti-Muslim laws that targeted Muslims for practicing their religion and

2652-403: The Four Treasuries (or Siku Quanshu ), it was published in 36,000 volumes, containing about 3,450 complete works and employing as many as 15,000 copyists. It preserved numerous books, but was also intended as a way to ferret out and suppress political opponents, requiring the "careful examination of private libraries to assemble a list of around eleven thousand works from the past, of which about

2754-819: The Hui when Hui scholars in Suzhou were converted to Naqshbandiyya by Muhammad Yusuf Khoja . Afaq Khoja , Muhammad Yusuf's son, also further spread Naqshbandi orders among Chinese Muslims like Tibetan Muslims, Salars, Hui and other Muslim ethnicities in Hezhou, Gansu (now Linxia) and Xining in Qinghai and Lanzhou. Ma Laichi was the leader of one of these orders and he personally studied in the Islamic world in Bukhara to learn Sufism, and Yemen and in Mecca where he

2856-725: The Kangxi Emperor's reign, which were simply Chinese texts written in Manchu script. The Qianlong Emperor commissioned the Qin ding Xiyu Tongwen Zhi (欽定西域同文志; "Imperial Western Regions Thesaurus") which was a thesaurus of geographic names in Xinjiang , in Oirat Mongol , Manchu, Chinese, Tibetan, and Turki (Modern Uyghur). The Qianlong Emperor showed a personal belief in Tibetan Buddhism, following

2958-787: The Manchu language among his followers, as he proclaimed that "the keystone for Manchus is language." He commissioned new Manchu dictionaries, and directed the preparation of the Pentaglot Dictionary which gave equivalents for Manchu terms in Mongolian, Tibetan and Turkic, and had the Buddhist canon translated into Manchu, which was considered the "national language". He directed the elimination of loanwords taken from Chinese and replaced them with calque translations which were put into new Manchu dictionaries. Manchu translations of Chinese works during his reign contrasted with supposedly Manchu books of

3060-669: The Old Summer Palace) originally built by his father. He eventually added two new villas, the "Garden of Eternal Spring" and the "Elegant Spring Garden". In time, the Old Summer Palace would encompass 860 acres (350 hectares), five times larger than the Forbidden City . To celebrate the 60th birthday of his mother, Empress Dowager Chongqing , the Qianlong Emperor ordered a lake at the Garden of Clear Ripples (or Qingyiyuan; now known as

3162-405: The Qianlong Emperor used Chinese to write his "Ode to Mukden", ( Shengjing fu/Mukden-i fujurun bithe ), a fu in classical style, as a poem of praise to Mukden, at that point a general term for what was later called Manchuria , describing its beauties and historical values. He describes the mountains and wildlife, using them to justify his belief that the dynasty would endure. A Manchu translation

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3264-544: The Qing Empire. This was made possible not only by Qing military might, but also by the disunity and declining strength of the Inner Asian peoples. Under the Qianlong Emperor's reign, the Dzungar Khanate was incorporated into the Qing Empire's rule and renamed Xinjiang , while to the west, Ili was conquered and garrisoned. The incorporation of Xinjiang into the Qing Empire resulted from the final defeat and destruction of

3366-613: The Qing authorities at the court to resolve them themselves, as the legal authorities who had no idea about Ramadan fasting. The dispute was not solved and continued to go on and was compounded by even more disputes like how to perform dhikr in Sufism, in a jahri (vocal) as taught by Ma Mingxin, another Sufi who learned in the western Islamic lands like Bukhara, or khufi (silent) like what Ma Laichi did. The Zabid Naqshbandiyyas in Yemen taught Ma Mingxin for two decades. They taught vocal dhikr. Ma Mingxin

3468-548: The Qing banned him from there and he continued to have further lawsuits and legal issues with the Khafiyya and Ma Laichi as the Qing backed the Khafiyya. A violent battle where a Qing official and Khafiyya followers were among one hundred slaughtered by a Jahriyya assault headed by Su Forty-three, a supporter of Ma Mingxin in 1781 led to Ma Mingxin declared a rebel and taken to jail in Lanzhou. The Qing executed Ma Mingxin after his release

3570-525: The Qing conquest and genocide of the Dzungar Mongols were written by Zhao, who wrote the Yanpu zaji in "brush-notes" style, where military expenditures of the Qianlong Emperor's reign were recorded. The Qianlong Emperor was praised as being the source of "eighteenth-century peace and prosperity" by Zhao Yi. Khalkha Mongol rebels under Prince Chingünjav had plotted with the Dzungar leader Amursana and led

3672-399: The Qing court received information that Muslims were inherently violent and Muslim bandits were committing crimes as report after report were filed by local officials and Muslim crimes inundated court records. The Qing became even more anti-Muslim after receiving these reports about criminal behavior and started passing even more anti-Muslim laws one of them being that if any weapon was found in

3774-524: The Qing executed Jahriya leader Ma Mingxin . The Qing government under Qianlong then ordered the extermination of the Sufi Jahriya "New Teaching" and banned adoption of non-Muslim children by Muslims, converting non-Muslims to Muslim and banning new mosques from being built. Some Sufi Khafiya "Old Teaching" Muslims still served in Qing forces in fighting against the Jahriya Sufi "New Teaching" Muslims despite

3876-403: The Qing government officially declaring Muslims to be anti-Qing and violent and revivalist Islam coming to China. More than 1000 Hui Muslim children and women from the Sufi Jahriya order in eastern Gansu were massacred by Qing Banner general Li Shiyao during a 1784 uprising by Hui Jahriyya Muslims Zhang Wenqing and Tian Wu, 3 years after an early 1781 rebellion by Salar Sufi Jahriyya members when

3978-643: The Qing military's failure to suppress the White Lotus Rebellion , which started towards the end of the Qianlong Emperor's reign and extended into the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor . The Qianlong Emperor, like his predecessors, took his cultural role seriously. First, he worked to preserve the Manchu heritage, which he saw as the basis of the moral character of the Manchus and thus of the dynasty's power. He ordered

4080-654: The Qing passed a verdict in favor of the quiet dhikr faction, the Silentist Khafiyya of Ma Laichi and gave it the status of orthodoxy while damning as heterodox the Aloudist Jahriyya of Ma Mingxin. Ma Mingxin ignored the order and kept proselytizing in Shaanxi, Ningxia and Xinjiang going to Guangchuan from Hezhou in 1769 after being kicked out and banned from Xunhua district. Turkic Salars in Xunhua followed his orders even after

4182-499: The Qing sending Manchu Grand Secretary Agui on a full scale pacification crackdown campaign against the Jahriyya. The military victory of the Qing against the Jahriyya led to even more Jahriyya anger. Officials went overboard in massacring Muslims deemed as state enemies to impress the Qing court, leading to further growth in Jahriyya membership, leading in turn to the 1784 rebellion by Tian Wu. The Qianlong Emperor asked his minister what

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4284-468: The Qing, and the Ma Datian, the Jahriyya's 3rd leader was exiled to Manchuria in 1818 by the Qing and died. This continual build up of conflict between Muslims and the Qing court led to the 19th century full-scale wars with Muslim rebellions against the Qing in southern and northern China. The change in Manchu attitudes towards Muslims, from tolerating Muslims and regarding them as equal to Han Chinese, before

4386-648: The Sultan of Badakhshan , who was a vassal of Qing China. The Qianlong Emperor responded to the vassal Shan States 's request for military aid against the attacking forces of Burma, but the Sino-Burmese War ended in complete failure. He initially believed that it would be an easy victory against a barbarian tribe, and sent only the Green Standard Army based in Yunnan , which borders Burma. The Qing invasion came as

4488-526: The Summer Palace) dredged, named it Kunming Lake , and renovated a villa on the eastern shore of the lake. Bei Le The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) of China developed a complicated peerage system for royal and noble ranks . In principle, titles were downgraded one grade for each generation of inheritance. Occasionally, a peer could be granted the privilege of shixi wangti ( 世襲罔替 ; shìxí wǎngtì ; "perpetual heritability"), which allowed

4590-772: The Tibetan priests (as it was done during the Yuan dynasty )." Mark Elliott concludes that these actions delivered political benefits but "meshed seamlessly with his personal faith." Qing policy on Muslims and Islam was changed during the reign of the Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong Emperors. While the Kangxi Emperor proclaimed Muslims and Han to be equal, his grandson, the Qianlong Emperor, endorsed Han officials harsh recommendations towards treatment of Muslims. The Kangxi Emperor said that Muslim and Han Chinese were equal when people argued for Muslims to be treated differently. The Yongzheng Emperor held

4692-545: The Uyghur men. Manchu soldiers and Manchu officials regularly having sex with or raping Uyghur women caused massive hatred and anger against Manchu rule among Uyghur Muslims. The invasion by Jahangir Khoja was preceded by another Manchu official, Binjing, who raped a Muslim daughter of the Kokan aqsaqal from 1818 to 1820. The Qing sought to cover up the rape of Uyghur women by Manchus to prevent anger against their rule from spreading among

4794-464: The Uyghurs. At the end of the frontier wars, the Qing army had started to weaken significantly. In addition to a more lenient military system, warlords became satisfied with their lifestyles. Since most of the warring had already taken place, warlords no longer saw any reason to train their armies, resulting in a rapid military decline by the end of the Qianlong Emperor's reign. This was the main reason for

4896-549: The Yongzheng Emperor's reign. Six Tibetan rebel leaders plus Tibetan rebel leader Blo-bzan-bkra-sis were sliced to death. The rest of the Tibetan rebel leaders were strangled and beheaded and their heads were displayed to the Tibetan public on poles. The Qing seized the property of the rebels and exiled other Tibetan rebels. Manchu General Bandi sent a report to the Qing Qianlong emperor on 26 January 1751 on how he carried out

4998-428: The Yongzheng Emperor. Some historians argue that the main reason why the Kangxi Emperor appointed the Yongzheng Emperor as his successor was because Hongli was his favorite grandson. He felt that Hongli's mannerisms were very similar to his own. As a teenager, Hongli was capable in martial arts and possessed literary ability. After his father's enthronement in 1722, Hongli was made a qinwang (first-rank prince) under

5100-581: The Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people." Historian Peter Perdue has argued that the decimation of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of massacre launched by the Qianlong Emperor. The Dzungar genocide has been compared to the Qing extermination of the Jinchuan Tibetan people in 1776 , which also occurred during the Qianlong Emperor's reign. When victorious troops returned to Beijing,

5202-407: The attack on the building by being the first to go to on the staircase to the next floor and setting fire and carrying the straw to fuel the fire besides killing several men on orders from the rebel leader. In 1762 the Qianlong Emperor came close to war with the Afghan Emir Ahmad Shah Durrani because of Qing China's expansions in Central Asia. While Qing and Durrani Empire troops were sent near

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5304-430: The authority had decided these words, or sentence, were derogatory or cynical towards the rulers, then persecution would begin. In the Qianlong Emperor's time, there were 53 cases of Literary Inquisition , resulting in the victims executed by beheading or slow slicing ( lingchi ), or having their corpses mutilated (if they were already dead). In 1743, after his first visit to Mukden (present-day Shenyang , Liaoning ),

5406-426: The cloud cavalry") was originally a military rank created in the Sui dynasty , but it was later turned into a military honour in the Tang dynasty as part of the xun guan ( 勳官 ; xūn guān ) system. The Qing dynasty abolished the separate military honour system and merged it into the nobility rank system, using yunjiwei as the lowest grantable rank of nobility, and the basic unit of rank progression. For example,

5508-399: The compilation of Manchu language genealogies, histories, and ritual handbooks and in 1747 secretly ordered the compilation of the Shamanic Code , published later in the Complete Library of the Four Treasuries . He further solidified the dynasty's cultural and religious claims in Central Asia by ordering a replica of the Tibetan Potala Palace , the Putuo Zongcheng Temple , to be built on

5610-544: The emperor could be posthumously honoured as empress, ex. Lady Niohuru, primary consort of Minning, Prince Zhi of the First Rank was honoured as Empress Xiaomucheng , Lady Sakda, primary consort of Yizhu was honoured as Empress Xiaodexian . The same rule was for primary consort of the imperial prince who died before the marriage, e.g. Lady Nara, primary consort of Yongkui, Prince Li of the First Rank. Palace maids from prince's residence could be promoted in case of princess consort's death or in case when they had children with

5712-470: The execution had their dead bodies beheaded, one died in jail, Lag-mgon-po (La-k'o-kun-pu) and the other killed himself since he was scared of the punishment, Pei-lung-sha-k'o-pa. Bandi sentenced to strangulation several rebel followers and bKra-sis-rab-brtan (Cha-shih-la-pu-tan) a messenger. He ordered the live beheadings of Man-chin Te-shih-nai and rDson-dpon dBan-rgyal (Ts'eng-pen Wang-cha-lo and P'yag-mdsod-pa Lha-skyabs (Shang-cho-t'e-pa La-cha-pu) for leading

5814-429: The execution of Ma Mingxin in 1781 and the rebellion and violence was compounded by lack of Qing intelligence. A Qing official who was tasked with ending the Jahriyya and Khafiyya communal violence mistakenly thought the people he were talking to were Khafiyya when they were in fact Jahriyya, and he told them that the Qing would massacre all Jahriyya adherents. This led to him being murdered by the Jahriyya mob, which led to

5916-451: The fact that those laws forbdding them from spreading their religion applied to them too. Li Shiyao was a member of the Qing Eight Banners and related to the Qing royal family. The persecution of Christians by Yongzheng became even worse during the Qianlong reign. The Qianlong Emperor was an aggressive builder. In the hills northwest of Beijing, he expanded the villa known as the Garden of Perfect Brightness (or Yuanmingyuan; now known as

6018-422: The favorite son of the Yongzheng Emperor; the Yongzheng Emperor had entrusted a number of important ritual tasks to Hongli while the latter was still a prince, and included him in important court discussions of military strategy . In the hope of preventing a succession struggle from occurring, the Yongzheng Emperor wrote the name of his chosen successor on a piece of paper and placed it in a sealed box secured behind

6120-401: The frontier in Central Asia, war did not break out. A year later, Durrani sent an envoy to Beijing gifting four splendid horses to Qianlong, which became the subject of a series of paintings, Four Afghan Steeds . However, the Afghan envoy failed to make a good impression to Qianlong after refusing to perform the kowtow . Qianlong later refused to intervene in the Durrani Empire's killing of

6222-433: The governor general received endorsement from the Qianlong Emperor. Great changes happening to Chinese Muslims, like the introduction of a Sufi order, the Naqshbandiyya to the Hui, causing the Qianlong emperor to adopt this harsh attitude against Muslims in contrast to his grandfather and father. This led to larger connections between the Hui and the broader Islamic world from the west, as the Naqshbandiyya order came east to

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6324-492: The grounds of the imperial summer palace in Chengde . In order to present himself in Buddhist terms for appeasing the Mongols and Tibetan subjects, he commissioned a thangka , or sacred painting, depicting him as Manjushri , the Bodhisattva of Wisdom. He was also a poet and essayist. His collected writings, which he published in a tenfold series between 1749 and 1800, contain more than 40,000 poems and 1,300 prose texts, which if he had composed them all would make him one of

6426-413: The imperial chronicles were commissioned, the historians were ordered to emphasise the role of the emperor in quelling the rebellion and to mention that "Hongxi and others wanted to usurp the throne". The Qianlong Emperor was a successful military leader. Immediately after ascending the throne, he sent armies to suppress the Miao rebellion . His later campaigns greatly expanded the territory controlled by

6528-465: The majority of Burmese forces were deployed in their latest invasion of the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom . Nonetheless, battle-hardened Burmese troops defeated the first two invasions of 1765–66 and 1766–67 at the border. The regional conflict now escalated to a major war that involved military manoeuvres nationwide in both countries. The third invasion (1767–1768) led by the elite Manchu Bannermen nearly succeeded, penetrating deep into central Burma within

6630-423: The most personal and private expression of an emperor's life. He supported the Yellow Church (the Tibetan Buddhist Gelug sect ) to "maintain peace among the Mongols" since the Mongols were followers of the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama of the Yellow Church. He also said it was "merely in pursuance of Our policy of extending Our affection to the weak" which led him to patronize the Yellow Church. In 1744 he turned

6732-624: The most prolific writers of all time. The Qianlong Emperor was a major patron and important "preserver and restorer" of Confucian culture. He had an insatiable appetite for collecting, and acquired much of China's "great private collections" by any means necessary, and "reintegrated their treasures into the imperial collection." He formed a team of cultural advisers to help locate collections of merchant families who needed to sell or whose heirs had lost interest. He sometimes pressured or forced wealthy officials to surrender precious objects by offering to excuse shortcomings in their performance if they made

6834-488: The opinion that "Islam was foolish, but he felt it did not pose a threat" when a judge in Shandong petitioned him to destroy mosques and ban Islam. Yongzheng then fired an official for demanding Muslims be punished more harshly than non-Muslims. This policy changed in the reign of the Qianlong Emperor. Chen Hongmou, a Qing official, said that Muslims needed to be brought to law and order by being punished more harshly and blaming Muslim leaders for criminal behavior of Muslims in

6936-450: The paintings of the imperial collection, following the example of the emperors of the Song dynasty and the literati painters of the Ming dynasty. They were a mark of distinction for the work, and a visible sign of his rightful role as emperor. Most particular to the Qianlong Emperor is another type of inscription, revealing a unique practice of dealing with works of art that he seems to have developed for himself. On certain fixed occasions over

7038-407: The peer was not uncommon. According to their birth (by the chief consort, secondary consort or concubines) and their father's rank, non-heir sons of imperial princes were also entitled to petition for a lower title than the one they would have received had they been the heir. Non-heir sons of other peers were also occasionally granted a lower title. Whether imperial or not, the inheritance or bestowal

7140-433: The prince was demoted, princess consort could be treated appropriately. After the demotion of prince, princess consort returned her regalias to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. If the prince was born in a non-iron cap cadet line, his future title depended on the position of his consort. Nevertheless, they addressed themselves as "qie". On the other hand, princess consort was mainly addressed as "fujin" or "furen" according to

7242-750: The prince. The supervisor of princely manor held lower 4 rank in 9-pin system. The four ranks above were granted solely to direct male-line descendants of the Emperor. These titles below were granted to cadet lines of the imperial clan. The above six ranks are titles that enjoy the "Eight Privileges". The titles below do not enjoy the "Eight Privileges" and have no imperial duties. All of the above titles are chaopin ( 超品 ; chāopǐn ), outranking official ranks. The ranks below are ranked first to fourth pin respectively. The first three jiangjun ranks are each further subdivided into four classes: first class plus yunjiwei , first class , second class , and third class . Regardless of title and rank, an imperial prince

7344-436: The princes were arrested. The rebels were tried; the most prominent conspirators were imprisoned, while lessor offenders were stripped of their titles or demoted. In 1778, the Qianlong Emperor restored the original names to Yunsi , Yuntang , and Hongxi and allowed their descendants to be recorded in the imperial genealogy. However, the emperor did not revoke the decrees depriving those princes of their titles. In 1783, when

7446-537: The princess remained his primary spouse – even after her death. However, if an efu remarried or promoted a consort to be his primary spouse, he lost all rights obtained from his marriage to the princess. The following titles were granted to consorts of imperial princes: If the princess consort divorced a prince or died, the second princess consort held the title of "step consort" (继福晋, pinyin: jì fújìn). Divorced princess consorts were stripped of their privileges and returned to their maiden manors. Dead primary consorts of

7548-491: The rank of beizi and direct imperial clansmen. The "Eight Privileges" entitled the prince to participate in state councils and share the spoils of war. However, the prince was also bound to reside in the capital and render service to the imperial court. In 1816, the princes were forbidden from reporting matters via eunuchs. Thus, most of the princes employed officials as managers of domestic affairs. The range of tasks of those officials included conveyance of memorials on behalf of

7650-452: The ruler of Tibet, with a Qing resident and garrison to preserve Qing presence. Further afield, military campaigns against Nepalese and Gurkhas forced the emperor into stalemate where both parties had to submit. On 23 January 1751, Tibetan rebels who participated in the Lhasa riot of 1750 against the Qing were sliced to death by Qing Manchu general Bandi, similar to what happened to Tibetan rebels on 1 November 1728 during his father,

7752-477: The same time, years of exhaustive campaigns severely weakened the Qing military, which coupled with endemic corruption, wastefulness in his court and a stagnating civil society, ushered the gradual decline and ultimate demise of the Qing empire. Hongli was the fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor and was born to Noble Consort Xi . Hongli was adored by both his grandfather, the Kangxi Emperor , and his father,

7854-407: The servants and son of Manchu official Sucheng. It was said that Ush Muslims had long wanted to sleep on [Sucheng and son's] hides and eat their flesh because of the rape of Uyghur Muslim women for months by the Manchu official Sucheng and his son. The Manchu Qianlong Emperor ordered that the Uyghur rebel town be massacred, the Qing forces enslaved all the Uyghur children and women and slaughtered

7956-482: The slicings and executions of the Tibetan rebels. The Tibetan rebels dBan-rgyas (Wang-chieh), Padma-sku-rje-c'os-a['el (Pa-t'e-ma-ku-erh-chi-ch'un-p'i-lo) and Tarqan Yasor (Ta-erh-han Ya-hsün) were sliced to death for injuring the Manchu ambans with arrows, bows and fowling pieces during the Lhasa riot when they assaulted the building the Manchu ambans (Labdon and Fucin) were in. Tibetan rebel Sacan Hasiha (Ch'e-ch'en-ha-shih-ha)

8058-400: The south and was an able negotiator and enforcer. He was also appointed as the chief regent on occasions when his father was away from the capital. Hongli's accession to the throne was already foreseen before he was officially proclaimed emperor before the assembled imperial court upon the death of the Yongzheng Emperor . The young Hongli was the favorite grandson of the Kangxi Emperor and

8160-507: The south, overall the Qianlong Emperor's military expansion nearly doubled the area of the already vast Qing Empire, and unified many non-Han peoples—such as Uyghurs , Kazakhs , Kyrgyzs , Evenks and Mongols . It was also a very expensive enterprise; the funds in the Imperial Treasury were almost all put into military expeditions. Though the wars were successful, they were not overwhelmingly so. The Qing army declined noticeably and had

8262-418: The tablet over the throne in the Palace of Heavenly Purity (Qianqing Palace). The name in the box was to be revealed to other members of the imperial family in the presence of all senior ministers only upon the death of the emperor. When the Yongzheng Emperor died suddenly in 1735, the will was taken out and read before the entire Qing imperial court, after which Hongli became the new emperor. Hongli adopted

8364-500: The throne in 1735. A highly ambitious military leader, he led a series of campaigns into Inner Asia, Burma, Nepal and Vietnam and suppressed rebellions in Jinchuan and Taiwan. During his lifetime, he was given the deified title Emperor Manjushri by the Qing's Tibetan subjects . Domestically, Qianlong was a major patron of the arts as well as a prolific writer. He sponsored the compilation of

8466-524: The title " Prince Bao of the First Rank " ( 和碩寶親王 ; Héshuò Bǎo Qīnwáng ). Like his many uncles, Hongli entered into a battle of succession with his elder half-brother Hongshi , who had the support of a large faction of officials in the imperial court as well as Yunsi, Prince Lian . For many years, the Yongzheng Emperor did not designate any of his sons as the crown prince, but many officials speculated that he favoured Hongli. Hongli went on inspection trips to

8568-426: The title of her husband. All princess consorts regardless of rank were listed in imperial genealogy (Jade Tables). Princess consorts could wear chaofu befitting imperial consorts on solemn ceremonies, but were prohibited from wearing yellow-grounded robes. The crown of princess consort had peacocks instead of phoenixes and no tiers on the finial. Princess consort wore jifu with roundels of dragons matching patterns on

8670-408: The title to be passed down without downgrading. Throughout the Qing dynasty, there were 12 imperial princely families that had this privilege. They were known as the " iron-cap princes ". The noble titles were inherited through a system of loose primogeniture : The eldest son from the peer's first wife was usually the heir apparent, but inheritance by a younger son, a son of a concubine, or brother of

8772-576: The titular names predominantly described martial virtues, e.g., zhongyong gong ( 忠勇公 ; zhōngyǒng gōng ; "loyal and brave duke"). However, a particularly common titular name was cheng'en gong ( 承恩公 ; chéng'ēn gōng ; "duke who receives grace"), which was frequently granted to the Empress's family members. At the top of the imperial hierarchy, the highest six ranks enjoyed the "Eight Privileges" ( 八分 ; bafen ; jakūn ubu ). These privileges were: Peacock feathers, however, were prohibited for princes above

8874-536: The tradition of Manchu rulers associating with the Bodhisattva Manjushri . He continued their patronage of Tibetan Buddhist art and ordered translations of the Buddhist canon into Manchu. Court records and Tibetan language sources affirm his personal commitment. He learned to read Tibetan and studied Buddhist texts assiduously. His beliefs are reflected in the Tibetan Buddhist imagery of his tomb, perhaps

8976-430: The unranked ( 未入流 ), for a total of 19 ranks. All government personnel, from the highest chancellors to the lowest clerk, held an official rank ex officio , which determined their salary, uniform, privileges and order of precedence. This pin system existed in parallel to the noble ranks detailed in this article. Many higher noble titles ranked above this system ( 超品 ; chāopǐn ). And while some titles corresponded to

9078-667: The violence by the Qing state, the communal violence between Jahriyya and Khafiyya coincided with the Jahriyya's major expansion. Chen Hongmou's policies were implemented as laws in 1762 by the Qing government's Board of Punishments and the Qing Manchu Qianlong emperor leading to severe tensions with Muslims. State authorities were mandated to receive all reports of Muslim criminal behaviour by local officials and all criminal behaviour by Muslims had to be reported by Muslim leaders to Qing authorities under these laws. This led to an inundation of anti-Muslim reports filing in Qing offices as

9180-469: Was "emperor's charioteer". It was usually granted to the spouse of a princess above the rank of zongnü . The efu s were separated into seven ranks corresponding to the rank of the princesses the efu married. Efu s who married gulun gongzhu s and heshuo gongzhu s held ranks equivalent to the beizi s and dukes respectively. The remaining efu s had equivalent official rank from the first to fifth pin . An efu retained his title and privileges as long as

9282-767: Was addressed as " A-ge " ( ᠠᡤᡝ ; age ; 阿哥 ; À-gē ), which means "lord" or "commander" in Manchu. of the First Rank the Second Rank the Third Rank the Fourth Rank Rank's Consort Second Rank's Consort Rank's Consort The following titles were granted to female members of the imperial clan: Comparison of titles for imperial princesses Rank Second Rank Third Rank Fourth Rank Shizi First Rank Zhangzi Second Rank Third Rank Efu ( ᡝᡶᡠ 额驸 ; 額駙 ; éfù ), also known Fuma ( 驸马 ; 駙馬 ; fùmǎ ), translated as "Prince Consort". Its original meaning

9384-596: Was also affected by another series of events in the Middle Eastern Muslim world, revivalist movements among Muslims like the Saudis who allied with Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. This renewal tajdid influenced Ma Mingxin in Yemen. While Ma Mingxin was in Yemen and away from China, all of Muslim Inner Asia was conquered by the "infidel" Qing dynasty giving even more relevance to his situation and views. Ma Laichi and Ma Mingxin again sued each other in court but this second time

9486-653: Was defeated at the Battle of Maymyo in the Sino-Burmese war in 1768 because Eledeng'i was not able to help flank Mingrui when he did not arrive at a rendezvous. The circumstances in Vietnam were not successful either. In 1787, Lê Chiêu Thống , the last ruler of the Vietnamese Lê dynasty , fled from Vietnam and formally requested to be restored to his throne in Thăng Long (present-day Hanoi ). The Qianlong Emperor agreed and sent

9588-450: Was demanded by the armed followers of Su Forty-three. A Jahriyya rebellion all over northwest China ensued after Ma Mingxin was executed. In response, the Manchus in Beijing sent Manchu Grand Secretary Agui with a battalion to slaughter Jahriyya chiefs and exile the adherents of the Sufi order to the border regions. Tian Wu led another Jahriyya rebellion 3 years after that, which was crushed by

9690-450: Was going on as he was puzzled as to how the Muslims from many regions gathered together for revolt. He asked if the investigation of Muslim behavior by Li Shiyao got leaked leading to rebels to incite violence by telling Muslims the government would exterminate them. He then pondered and said none of these could be why and kept asking why. To solve the issue of the 1784 revolt, northwestern China

9792-732: Was never automatic, and had to be approved by the Emperor, the Ministry of Personnel , or the Imperial Clan Court . Imperial princes, upon reaching adulthood at the age of 20, had to pass tests in horse-riding, archery and the Manchu language before they were eligible for titles. Imperial princesses, other than the Emperor's daughters, were usually granted titles upon marriage, regardless of age. Princesses' titles were also usually fixed after they were granted, and were not affected by changes in their fathers' nobility ranks. Yunjiwei ("sub-commander of

9894-543: Was put under military occupation by the Qing for 50 years until the Taiping rebellion of southern China forced the Qing to move them away from northwest China leading to the massive 1860s and 1870s Muslim revolts in the northwest caused by growing violence. The sudden questions about halal in Islam that Mongol Buddhists had in the 18th century was caused by all these things, northwestern China right next to Mongolia getting militarized,

9996-479: Was sliced to death for murder of multiple individuals. Tibetan rebels Ch'ui-mu-cha-t'e and Rab-brtan (A-la-pu-tan) were sliced to death for looting money and setting fire during the attack on the Ambans. Tibetan rebel Blo-bzan-bkra-sis, the mgron-gner was sliced to death for being the overall leader of the rebels who led the attack which looted money and killed the Manchu ambans. Two Tibetan rebels who had already died before

10098-492: Was succeeded by his son, who ascended the throne as the Jiaqing Emperor but ruled only in name as Qianlong held on to power as Emperor Emeritus until his death in 1799 at the age of 87. Qianlong oversaw the High Qing era , which marked the height of the dynasty's power, influence, and prosperity. During his long reign, the empire had the largest population and economy in the world and reached its greatest territorial extent. At

10200-440: Was taught by Mawlana Makhdum. This brought him prestige among Chinese Muslims. In an argument over the breaking of fast during Ramadan Ma Laichi said that before praying in the mosque , fast should be broken, not vice versa and this led to him getting many Naqshbandi converts from Hui and Turkic Salars. It came to court in 1731 when the Muslims arguing over how to break Ramadan fast filed lawsuits. The Muslim plaintiffs were told by

10302-405: Was the sixth emperor of the Qing dynasty and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper . He reigned officially from 1735 until his abdication in 1796, but retained ultimate power subsequently until his death in 1799, making him one of the longest-reigning monarchs in history as well as one of the longest-lived. The fourth and favourite son of the Yongzheng Emperor , Qianlong ascended

10404-449: Was then made. In 1748, he ordered a jubilee printing in both Chinese and Manchu, using some genuine pre- Qin forms and Manchu styles which had to be invented and which could not be read. In his childhood, the Qianlong Emperor was tutored in Manchu , Chinese and Mongolian , arranged to be tutored in Tibetan , and spoke Chagatai (Turki or Modern Uyghur). However, he was even more concerned than his predecessors to preserve and promote

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