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62-734: The peaks are composed of well-layered dolomites of the Dolomia Principale (Hauptdolomit) formation, Carnian to Rhaetian in age, as are many other groups in the Dolomites (e.g., the Tofane , the Pelmo or the Cinque Torri ). Until 1919 the peaks formed part of the border between Italy and Austria-Hungary . Now they lie on the border between the Italian provinces of South Tyrol and Belluno and still are

124-500: A filming location for: Dolomite (rock) Dolomite (also known as dolomite rock , dolostone or dolomitic rock ) is a sedimentary carbonate rock that contains a high percentage of the mineral dolomite , CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 . It occurs widely, often in association with limestone and evaporites , though it is less abundant than limestone and rare in Cenozoic rock beds (beds less than about 66 million years in age). One of

186-434: A drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is dropped on it. This distinguishes dolomite from limestone, which is also soft but reacts vigorously with dilute hydrochloric acid. Dolomite usually weathers to a characteristic dull yellow-brown color due to the presence of ferrous iron. This is released and oxidized as the dolomite weathers. Dolomite is usually granular in appearance, with a texture resembling grains of sugar . Under

248-592: A four-day horse trek to Mount Cook. The first surviving releases were made in the Aoraki / Mount Cook region and these animals gradually spread over much of the South Island . In New Zealand, chamois hunting is unrestricted and even encouraged by the Department of Conservation to limit the animal's impact on New Zealand's native alpine flora . New Zealand chamois tend to weigh about 20% less than European individuals of

310-405: A high percentage of CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 in which natural caves or solution tubes have formed. Both calcium and magnesium go into solution when dolomite rock is dissolved. The speleothem precipitation sequence is: calcite , Mg-calcite, aragonite , huntite and hydromagnesite . Hence, the most common speleothem (secondary deposit) in caves within dolomite rock karst , is calcium carbonate in

372-544: A high-calcium limestone, such as manufacture of sodium carbonate . Dolomite is used for production of magnesium chemicals, such as Epsom salt , and is used as a magnesium supplement. It is also used in the manufacture of refractory materials . As with limestone caves , natural caves and solution tubes typically form in dolomite rock as a result of the dissolution by weak carbonic acid. Caves can also, less commonly, form through dissolution of rock by sulfuric acid . Calcium carbonate speleothems (secondary deposits) in

434-632: A hunter stalking chamois from above is less likely to be observed and more likely to be successful. The tuft of hair from the back of the neck, the gamsbart (chamois "beard"), is traditionally worn as a decoration on hats throughout the alpine countries. Chamois leather, traditionally made from the hide of the chamois, is very smooth and absorbent and is favoured in cleaning, buffing, and polishing because it produces no scratching. Modern chamois leather may still be made from chamois hides, but hides of deer or domestic goats or sheep are much more commonly used. An artificial fabric known as "chamois"

496-619: A part of the linguistic boundary between German-speaking and Italian-speaking majorities. The Cima Grande has an elevation of 2,999 metres (9,839 ft). It stands between the Cima Piccola, at 2,857 metres (9,373 ft), and the Cima Ovest, at 2,973 metres (9,754 ft). The Three Peaks rise on the southern edge of the extensive pinnacle plateau with the Langen Alm (La Grava Longa), an alpine plateau at around 2200 m to 2400 m, which here forms

558-566: A result, attempts to precipitate dolomite from seawater precipitate high-magnesium calcite instead. This substance, which has an excess of calcium over magnesium and lacks calcium-magnesium ordering, is sometimes called protodolomite . Raising the temperature makes it easier for magnesium to shed its hydration shell, and dolomite can be precipitated from seawater at temperatures in excess of 60 °C (140 °F). Protodolomite also rapidly converts to dolomite at temperatures of 250 °C (482 °F) or higher. The high temperatures necessary for

620-660: A side valley of the Piave valley. To the south lies the Cadini group. Cortina d'Ampezzo , 17 kilometers southwest, is the largest city in the area. Other larger towns are Toblach 13 kilometers northwest and Innichen 12 kilometers north. The most easily accessible support point around Drei Zinnen is Rifugio Auronzo (Auronzo hut, 2320 m). The cottage, which belongs to the Club Alpino Italiano (the Italian Alpine Club, CAI),

682-453: A very high ratio of calcium to magnesium. Dolomite is used for many of the same purposes as limestone, including as construction aggregate ; in agriculture to neutralize soil acidity and supply calcium and magnesium; as a source of carbon dioxide ; as dimension stone ; as a filler in fertilizers and other products; as a flux in metallurgy ; and in glass manufacturing . It cannot substitute for limestone in chemical processes that require

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744-582: A wide hiking trail. Other access options are from Sexten through Fischleinboden from the east, and also from Sexten from the north through the Innerfeldtal and through the Rienztal from Höhlenstein (Landro) in the Höhlensteintal (Valle di Landro). From the southeast, the cabin can be reached from Lange Alm. The Sexten Dolomites are surrounded by other mountain ranges on all sides, and this sheltered location in

806-950: Is a species of goat-antelope native to the mountains in Southern Europe , from the Pyrenees , the Alps , the Apennines , the Dinarides , the Tatra to the Carpathian Mountains , the Balkan Mountains , the Rila – Rhodope massif, Pindus , the northeastern mountains of Turkey , and the Caucasus . It has also been introduced to the South Island of New Zealand . Some subspecies of chamois are strictly protected in

868-467: Is characterized by its nearly ideal 1:1 stoichiometric ratio of magnesium to calcium. It is distinct from high-magnesium limestone in that the magnesium and calcium form ordered layers within the individual dolomite mineral grains, rather than being arranged at random, as they are in high-magnesium calcite grains. In natural dolomite, magnesium is typically between 44 and 50 percent of total magnesium plus calcium, indicating some substitution of calcium into

930-592: Is dominated by the raibl layer's alpine mats. The plateau around Lange Alm is one of the few areas with grazing land in the nature park. Alpines are strikingly flowery; examples of plants that thrive here are beard bell, edelweiss and Gentiana clusii. The alpine marmot is a numerous mammal; there are also hares and chamois . On the other hand, there are no ibex in the Sexten Dolomites. Of birds there are Rock ptarmigan , ravens and golden eagles, and also hubriscan often be found hunting at this altitude. Vipers, especially

992-471: Is known as dolomitization and any intermediate product is known as dolomitic limestone . The "dolomite problem" refers to the vast worldwide depositions of dolomite in the past geologic record in contrast to the limited amounts of dolomite formed in modern times. Recent research has revealed sulfate-reducing bacteria living in anoxic conditions precipitate dolomite which indicates that some past dolomite deposits may be due to microbial activity. Dolomite

1054-469: Is located immediately south of the massif above Forcella di Longeres, and has good road connections to the tourist resort of Misurina (toll road). The cabin can be reached on foot from Lavaredodalen in the southeast. About one kilometer east of Rifugio Auronzo and from there via a wide hiking trail lies the privately run Rifugio di Lavaredo (2325 m) at the southeast foot of the Kleine Zinne. Northwest of

1116-626: Is no consistent trend in its abundance with age, but most dolomite appears to have formed at high stands of sea level. Little dolomite is found in Cenozoic beds (beds less than 65 million years old), which has been a time of generally low sea levels. Times of high sea level also tend to be times of a greenhouse Earth , and it is possible that greenhouse conditions are the trigger for dolomite formation. Many dolomites show clear textural indications that they are secondary dolomites, formed by replacement of limestone. However, although much research has gone into understanding this process of dolomitization ,

1178-423: Is not seen to precipitate in the oceans. Likewise, geologists have not been successful at precipitating dolomite from seawater at normal temperatures and pressures in laboratory experiments. This is likely due to a very high activation energy for nucleating crystals of dolomite. The magnesium ion is a relatively small ion, and it acquires a tightly bound hydration shell when dissolved in water. In other words,

1240-419: Is resistant to erosion and can either contain bedded layers or be unbedded. It is less soluble than limestone in weakly acidic groundwater , but it can still develop solution features ( karst ) over time. Dolomite rock can act as an oil and natural gas reservoir. Dolomite takes its name from the 18th-century French mineralogist Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu (1750–1801), who was one of the first to describe

1302-416: Is secondary, formed by replacement of calcium by magnesium in limestone. The preservation of the original limestone texture can range from almost perfectly preserved to completely destroyed. Under a microscope, dolomite rhombs are sometimes seen to replace oolites or skeletal particles of the original limestone. There is sometimes selective replacement of fossils, with the fossil remaining mostly calcite and

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1364-538: Is stained by Alizarin Red S while dolomite grains are not. Dolomite rock consisting of well-formed grains with planar surfaces is described as planar or idiotopic dolomite, while dolomite consisting of poorly-formed grains with irregular surfaces is described as nonplanar or xenotopic dolomite. The latter likely forms by recrystallization of existing dolomite at elevated temperature (over 50 to 100 °C (122 to 212 °F)). The texture of dolomite often shows that it

1426-543: Is subject to high rates of evaporation. This results in precipitation of gypsum and aragonite , raising the magnesium to calcium ratio of the remaining brine. The brine is also dense, so it sinks into the pore space of any underlying limestone ( seepage refluxion ), flushing out the existing pore fluid and causing dolomitization. The Permian Basin of North America has been put forward as an example of an environment in which this process took place. A variant of this model has been proposed for sabkha environments in which brine

1488-630: Is sucked up into the dolomitizing limestone by evaporation of capillary fluids, a process called evaporative pumping . Another model is the mixing-zone or Dorag model, in which meteoric water mixes with seawater already present in the pore space, increasing the chemical activity of magnesium relative to calcium and causing dolomitization. The formation of Pleistocene dolomite reefs in Jamaica has been attributed to this process. However, this model has been heavily criticized, with one 2004 review paper describing it bluntly as "a myth". A 2021 paper argued that

1550-476: Is thermodynamically favorable, with a Gibbs free energy of about -2.2 kcal/mol. In theory, ordinary seawater contains sufficient dissolved magnesium to cause dolomitization. However, because of the very slow rate of diffusion of ions in solid mineral grains at ordinary temperatures, the process can occur only by simultaneous dissolution of calcite and crystallization of dolomite. This in turn requires that large volumes of magnesium-bearing fluids are flushed through

1612-697: The Zoological Society's Gardens , Regent's Park, London, accepted an invitation from the New Zealand Government to deliver a consignment of chamois (two bucks and six does) to the colony. They arrived in Wellington, New Zealand, on 23 January 1907, on board SS Turakina . From Wellington the chamois were transhipped to the Manaroa and conveyed to Lyttelton, then by rail to Fairlie in South Canterbury and

1674-508: The alpine hut Auronzo at 2,333 m (7,654 ft), over Paternsattel (Patern Pass) to the Locatelli alpine hut (Dreizinnenhütte) at 2,405 m (7,890 ft), and then to the peaks. There are a number of other routes as well. Nearby communities include Auronzo di Cadore (in the province of Belluno , region of Veneto ), Toblach /Dobbiaco, Sexten /Sesto, and the Puster Valley (in

1736-581: The great north faces of the Alps . Tre Cime Natural Park is named after the famous peaks. The visitor centre provides information concerning the trails, natural and man-made landscapes of the Sexten Dolomites and it is located at the former Grand Hotel in Dobbiaco. Numerous well-marked routes lead from the surrounding communities to and around the peaks. The most common route is from Paternkofel /Monte Paterno to

1798-471: The Cima Grande (Große Zinne) was on 21 August 1869 by Paul Grohmann with guides Franz Innerkofler and Peter Salcher . The Cima Ovest (Westliche Zinne) was first climbed exactly ten years later, on 21 August 1879, by Michel Innerkofler with G. Ploner, a tourist. The Cima Piccola (Kleine Zinne) was first climbed on 25 July 1881 by Michel and Hans Innerkofler . The routes of these three first ascents are still

1860-533: The EU under the European Habitats Directive . The chamois is a very small bovid. A fully grown chamois reaches a height of 70–80 cm (28–31 in) and measures 107–137 cm (42–54 in). Males, which weigh 30–60 kg (66–132 lb), are slightly larger than females, which weigh 25–45 kg (55–99 lb). Both males and females have short, straightish horns which are hooked backwards near

1922-836: The Zinnenkuppe (Col di Mezzo, 2254 m) and on to the 2252 m high Katzenleiterkopf (Croda d'Arghena). To the southwest of the Drei Zinnen, the Forcella Col di Mezzo is followed by the Plano di Longeres plateau above the Valle di Rinbianco, a side valley of the Rienz Valley. Immediately south of the western pinnacle, the Forcella di Longeres saddle (2235 m) separates the Plano di Longeres from the Vallone di Lavaredo,

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1984-538: The black variety, can be found at the unusual (for reptiles) altitude of 2600 m. The vegetation on the vast clocks and on the southern flanks of the peaks is characterized by plants that are able to adapt to the constant movements of the stone clock. Examples of these are alpine cod mouth ( Linaria alpina ), French sorrel ( Rumex scutatus ), Thlaspi cepaeifolium , Potentilla nitida and Alpine poppy ( Papaver alpinum ). In crevices are trickled Saxifraga squarrosa, cruciferous Kernera saxatilis, carnation Minuartia sedoides and

2046-494: The border with the municipality of Auronzo di Cadore in the province of Belluno , which also represents the German-Italian language border. To the northeast, this ridge continues to the 2454 m high Paternsattel (Forcella Lavaredo), where it turns north to the mountains Passportenkopf (Croda di Passaporto, 2719 m) and Paternkofel (Monte Paterno, 2744 m). In the west it sits across the Forcella Col di Mezzo (2315 m) transition to

2108-516: The chamois spends the summer months in alpine meadows above the tree line, but moves to elevations of around 800 m (2,600 ft) to spend the winter in pine-dominated forests. Alpine chamois arrived in New Zealand in 1907 as a gift from the Austrian Emperor, Franz Joseph I in exchange for specimens of living ferns, rare birds and lizards. Albert E. L. Bertling, formerly head keeper of

2170-698: The end of the Rienz Valley (Valle della Rienza). There are three small mountain lakes, the Zinnenseen. This area north of the mountains, from the peaks to the municipality of Toblach in South Tyrol to the Natural Park of the Three Peaks (up to 2010, the Sesto Dolomites Nature Park), has been a UNESCO World Heritage site since 2009. The ridge of the battlements, which runs in a west-east direction, forms

2232-451: The first geologists to distinguish dolomite from limestone was Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu; a French mineralogist and geologist whom it is named after. He recognized and described the distinct characteristics of dolomite in the late 18th century, differentiating it from limestone. Most dolomite was formed as a magnesium replacement of limestone or of lime mud before lithification . The geological process of conversion of calcite to dolomite

2294-531: The formation of dolomite helps explain the rarity of Cenozoic dolomites, since Cenozoic seawater temperatures seldom exceeded 40 °C. It is possible that microorganisms are capable of precipitating primary dolomite. This was first demonstrated in samples collected at Lagoa Vermelha , Brazil in association with sulfate-reducing bacteria ( Desulfovibrio ), leading to the hypothesis that sulfate ion inhibits dolomite nucleation. Later laboratory experiments suggest bacteria can precipitate dolomite independently of

2356-479: The forms of stalactites , stalagmites , flowstone etc., can also form in caves within dolomite rock. “Dolomite is a common rock type, but a relatively uncommon mineral in speleothems”. Both the 'Union Internationale de Spéléologie' (UIS) and the American 'National Speleological Society' (NSS), extensively use in their publications, the terms "dolomite" or "dolomite rock" when referring to the natural bedrock containing

2418-404: The greater temperatures characterizing deeper burial, if a mechanism exists to flush magnesium-bearing fluids through the beds. Mineral dolomite has a 12% to 13% smaller volume than calcite per alkali cation. Thus dolomitization likely increases porosity and contributes to the sugary texture of dolomite. Dolomite is supersaturated in normal seawater by a factor of greater than ten, but dolomite

2480-437: The interior of the Alps provides relatively favorable climatic conditions considering the altitude. Nevertheless, when cold fronts pass the area, rapid weather changes with fog, wind and heavy rainfall can occur, even as snow, even in high summer. In shady gorges and under north walls, the snow can lie until late summer, sometimes all year round, even though there are no glaciers here. The alpine vegetation zone around Drei Zinnen

2542-437: The magnesium ion is surrounded by a clump of water molecules that are strongly attracted to its positive charge. Calcium is a larger ion and this reduces the strength of binding of its hydration shell, so it is much easier for a calcium ion than a magnesium ion to shed its hydration shell and bind to a growing crystal. It is also more difficult to nucleate a seed crystal of ordered dolomite than disordered high-magnesium calcite. As

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2604-461: The magnesium layers. A small amount of ferrous iron typically substitutes for magnesium, particularly in more ancient dolomites. Carbonate rock tends to be either almost all calcite or almost all dolomite, with intermediate compositions being quite uncommon. Dolomite outcrops are recognized in the field by their softness (mineral dolomite has a Mohs hardness of 4 or less, well below common silicate minerals) and because dolomite bubbles feebly when

2666-560: The main predators of chamois. Chamois usually use speed and stealthy evasion to escape predators and can run at 50 km/h (31 mph) and can jump 2 m (6 ft 7 in) vertically into the air or over a distance of 6 m (20 ft). The chamois is native to the Pyrenees , the mountains of south and central Europe , Turkey , and the Caucasus . It lives in precipitous, rugged, rocky terrain at moderately high elevations of up to at least 3,600 m (11,800 ft). In Europe,

2728-451: The mechanism of dolomitization, the tendency of carbonate rock to be either almost all calcite or almost all dolomite suggests that, once the process is started, it completes rapidly. The process likely occurs at shallow depths of burial, under 100 meters (330 ft), where there is an inexhaustible supply of magnesium-rich seawater and the original limestone is more likely to be porous. On the other hand, dolomitization can proceed rapidly at

2790-571: The microscope, thin sections of dolomite usually show individual grains that are well-shaped rhombs , with considerable pore space. As a result, subsurface dolomite is generally more porous than subsurface limestone and makes up 80% of carbonate rock petroleum reservoirs . This texture contrasts with limestone, which is usually a mixture of grains, micrite (very fine-grained carbonate mud) and sparry cement. The optical properties of calcite and mineral dolomite are difficult to distinguish, but calcite almost never crystallizes as regular rhombs, and calcite

2852-427: The mineral. The term dolomite refers to both the calcium-magnesium carbonate mineral and to sedimentary rock formed predominantly of this mineral. The term dolostone was introduced in 1948 to avoid confusion between the two. However, the usage of the term dolostone is controversial, because the name dolomite was first applied to the rock during the late 18th century and thus has technical precedence. The use of

2914-492: The mixing zone serves as domain of intense microbial activity which promotes dolomitization. A third model postulates that normal seawater is the dolomitizing fluid, and the necessary large volumes are flushed through the dolomitizing limestone through tidal pumping. Dolomite formation at Sugarloaf Key , Florida, may be an example of this process. A similar process might occur during rises in sea level, as large volumes of water move through limestone platform rock. Regardless of

2976-536: The most stable polymorph form of calcite. Speleothem types known to have a dolomite constituent include: coatings, crusts, moonmilk , flowstone , coralloids, powder, spar and rafts. Although there are reports of dolomite speleothems known to exist in a number of caves around the world, they are usually in relatively small quantities and form in very fine-grained deposits. Chamois Capra rupicapra Linnaeus, 1758 The chamois ( / ˈ ʃ æ m w ɑː / ) ( Rupicapra rupicapra ) or Alpine chamois

3038-454: The normal ascent routes; the Cima Piccola's route is the most difficult of the three. A climbing route, the Dibona Kante, on the Cima Grande is named after Angelo Dibona . Emilio Comici was the first to climb the north face of the Cima Grande in 1933 in a party of three, after an ascent time of 3 days and 2 nights. This partly overhanging northern face is considered by climbers to be one of

3100-500: The peaks is the summer-open, privately run farmhouse Lange Alm (also Lange Alpe) at 2296 m. One hiking trail goes from the Auronzo hut over the Forcella Col di Mezzo, another from the north comes from the Rienztal. CAI's Dreizinnenhütte (Rifugio Locatelli, 2438 m) is located approximately one kilometer northeast of Drei Zinnen. The cabin, which is well known for its view of the north wall, can be reached from Auronzohytta via Paternsattel on

3162-427: The pore space in the dolomitizing limestone. Several processes have been proposed for dolomitization. The hypersaline model (also known as the evaporative reflux model ) is based on the observation that dolomite is very commonly found in association with limestone and evaporites , with the limestone often interbedded with the dolomite. According to this model, dolomitization takes place in a closed basin where seawater

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3224-401: The process remains poorly understood. There are also fine-grained dolomites showing no textural indications that they formed by replacement, and it is uncertain whether they formed by replacement of limestone that left no textural traces or are true primary dolomites. This dolomite problem was first recognized over two centuries ago but is still not fully resolved. The dolomitization reaction

3286-564: The province of Bolzano , region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol ). The area has also staged many finishes in Giro d'Italia . Since the front line between Italy and Austria-Hungary during World War I ran through the Tre Cime peaks, there are a number of fortifications, trenches, tunnels, iron ladders, and commemorative plaques in the area. There was intense fighting throughout the so-called " White War " between 1915 and 1917. Tre Cime has been used as

3348-456: The question of whether this can lead to precipitation of dolomite. Dolomitization can sometimes be reversed, and a dolomite bed converted back to limestone. This is indicated by a texture of pseudomorphs of mineral dolomite that have been replaced with calcite. Dedolomitized limestone is typically associated with gypsum or oxidized pyrite , and dedolomitization is thought to occur at very shallow depths through infiltration of surface water with

3410-557: The rare Paederota bonarota. In the steep, shady north walls there are hardly any vascular plants; the most conspicuous vegetation is next to moss and low large carpets with blue-green bacteria, which appear especially on moist rock walls in the form of characteristic «ink lines». A mammal that moves all the way into the cliff areas is the snow field mouse (Chionomys nivalis). Wallcreepers ( Tichodroma muraria ) and alpine choughs ( Pyrrhocorax graculus ), two bird species adapted to high mountain habitats, hunt insects here. The first ascent of

3472-428: The same age, suggesting that food supplies may be limited. The species R. rupicapra is categorized into seven subspecies: As their meat is considered tasty, chamois are popular game animals. Chamois have two traits that are exploited by hunters: the first is that they are most active in the morning and evening when they feed; the second is that they tend to look for danger originating from below, which means that

3534-400: The sulfate concentration. With time other pathways of interaction between microbial activity and dolomite formation have been added to the discord regarding their role in modulation and generation of polysaccharides , manganese and zinc within the porewater. Meanwhile, a contrary view held by other researchers is that microorganisms precipitate only high-magnesium calcite but leave open

3596-560: The summer and conifers, barks and needles from trees in winter. Primarily diurnal in activity, they often rest around mid-day and may actively forage during moonlit nights. Chamois can reach an age of 22 years in captivity, although the average recorded age in the wild ranges from 15 to 17 years. Common causes of mortality can include avalanches, epidemics and predation. In the past, the principal predators were Eurasian lynxes , Persian leopards and Golden Jackal , gray wolves , and possibly brown bears and golden eagles , but humans are now

3658-422: The surrounding matrix composed of dolomite grains. Sometimes dolomite rhombs are seen cut across the fossil outline. However, some dolomite shows no textural indications that it was formed by replacement of limestone. Dolomite is widespread in its occurrences, though not as common as limestone. It is typically found in association with limestone or evaporite beds and is often interbedded with limestone. There

3720-526: The term dolostone was not recommended by the Glossary of Geology published by the American Geological Institute . In old USGS publications, dolomite was referred to as magnesian limestone , a term now reserved for magnesium -deficient dolomites or magnesium-rich limestones. Dolomite rock is defined as sedimentary carbonate rock composed of more than 50% mineral dolomite . Dolomite

3782-427: The tip, the horn of the male being thicker. In summer, the fur has a rich brown colour which turns to a light grey in winter. Distinct characteristics are white contrasting marks on the sides of the head with pronounced black stripes below the eyes, a white rump and a black stripe along the back. Female chamois and their young live in herds of up to 15 to 30 individuals; adult males tend to live solitarily for most of

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3844-1100: The year. During the rut (late November/early December in Europe, May in New Zealand ), males engage in fierce battles for the attention of unmated females. An impregnated female undergoes a gestation period of 170 days, after which a single kid is usually born in May or early June. On rare occasions, twins may be born. If a mother is killed, other females in the herd may try to raise the young. Kids are weaned at six months of age and are fully grown by one year of age, but do not reach sexual maturity until they are three to four years old, although some females may mate at as early two years old. At sexual maturity, young males are forced out of their mother's herds by dominant males (who sometimes kill them), to wander somewhat nomadically until they can establish themselves as mature breeding specimens at eight to nine years of age. Chamois eat various types of vegetation, including highland grasses and herbs during

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