96-466: The Grete Herball (The Great Herbal) is an Early Modern encyclopedia and the first illustrated herbal produced in English. It is preceded by Richard Banckes's unillustrated Herball ( 1525 ), which was the first printed English herbal ever produced. The Grete Herball is a single volume compendium which details the medicinal properties (or virtues ) of plants and some non-botanical items according to
192-515: A 1526 copy states that "...if printed with numbered pages, [it] would make three hundred and fifty, exclusive of the Preface and Index." Peter Treveris , printer, is widely believed to be responsible for the first productions of the Grete Herball . His dates of birth and death are unknown, but it is estimated that he died in the mid-1530s. Though there is some evidence suggesting Treveris first printed
288-463: A 1529 edition transferred to Cambridge University in 2013, exhibits repair work done over many centuries. Christie's auction listing of a 1526 Grete Herball claims there are only three complete copies of the first edition as well, with incomplete copies held by Yale and in the Marshall Collection. Provenance of these books can be difficult to trace, and records of ownership often reach only to
384-733: A backlash that expanded the Inquisition and sparked the disastrous European wars of religion , which included the especially bloody Thirty Years' War and ended with the establishment of the modern international system in the Peace of Westphalia . Along with the European colonization of the Americas , this period also contained the Commercial Revolution and the Golden Age of Piracy . The globalization of
480-556: A brief, abortive restoration in 1917. During its reign, the Qing dynasty adopted many of the outward features of Chinese culture in establishing its rule, but did not necessarily "assimilate", instead adopting a more universalist style of governance. The Manchus were formerly known as the Jurchens . When Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng 's peasant rebels in 1644, the Chongzhen Emperor ,
576-555: A building. In the 17th century, in other languages as in Italian , the term came to refer to the title page of a book, which at the time was often decorated with intricate engravings that borrowed stylistic elements from architecture, such as columns and pediments . Over the course of the 17th century, the title page of a book came to be accompanied by an illustration on the facing page (known in Italian as antiporta ), so that in English
672-519: A course of isolationism from the outside world but this policy was not always enforced uniformly or successfully. However, by the end of the Early Modern Period, China, Korea and Japan were mostly closed and uninterested in Europeans, even while trading relationships grew in port cities such as Guangzhou and Dejima . Around the beginning of the ethnically Han Ming dynasty (1368–1644), China
768-591: A fellow printer and bookseller, but this is as yet unconfirmed. Some copies of the Herball contain an image of Treveris's personal device, a shield bearing his initials held up by a wild man and woman. Some copies also contain Andrewe's device, confirming their collaboration. The Grete Herball proved popular enough to be reprinted several times after Treveris's death. Thome Gybson printed an updated edition " The grete herbal newly corrected " in 1539, and printer John Kyng produced
864-407: A frontal view of a human skeleton, with labels describing the major bones of the body. There are approximately 400 entries for plants and non-botanical items. Of these, 150 plants are English natives. Some plant entries are mugwort , cypress , mandrake root , grapes , chamomile , muscat , and marrubium ( horehound ). Animals recommended for their medicinal value include hare , fox (fox grease
960-609: A golden age and ruled a large extent of Mainland Southeast Asia, with the Nguyen and Trinh lords de facto ruling the south and north of present-day Vietnam respectively, whereas the Mataram Sultanate was the dominant power in Maritime Southeast Asia. The early modern period experienced an influx of European traders and missionaries into the region. In Early Modern times, the major nations of East Asia attempted to pursue
1056-415: A historical work has been questioned. Early Modern The early modern period is a historical period that is part of, or (depending on the historian ) immediately preceded, the modern period , with divisions based primarily on the history of Europe and the broader concept of modernity . There is no exact date that marks the beginning or end of the period and its extent may vary depending on
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#17328689712541152-559: A key trading post for Britain in its rivalry with the Dutch. However, the rivalry cooled in 1824 when an Anglo-Dutch treaty demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. From the 1850s onwards, the pace of colonization shifted to a significantly higher gear. At the start of the modern era, the Spice Route between India and China crossed Majapahit , an archipelagic empire based on
1248-459: A lengthy section on the use of mummy (spelled as mommie), the powdered version of which is described as a remedy for stopping nosebleeds. Besides medical uses, these entries also provide information on cosmetic applications of items, such as the bones of sepia (cuttlefish) for whitening the teeth and complexion. An addendum to the previous section, with the same style and format. This section contains information on physician's classifications of
1344-513: A period of stagnation or decline. When gunpowder was introduced to Europe, it was immediately used almost exclusively in weapons and explosives for warfare. Though it was invented in China, gunpowder arrived in Europe already formulated for military use; European countries took advantage of this and were the first to create the classic firearms. The advances made in gunpowder and firearms was directly tied to
1440-645: A result of upheavals of the Napoleonic Wars and their impact on thought and thinking, from concepts from nationalism to organizing armies. The early period ended in a time of political and economic change, as a result of mechanization in society, the American Revolution , and the first French Revolution ; other factors included the redrawing of the map of Europe by the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna and
1536-472: A scientific revolution, which led China to have fewer scientists to break the existing orthodoxies, like Galileo Galilei. Despite inventing gunpowder in the 9th century, it was in Europe that the classic handheld firearms, matchlocks, were invented, with evidence of use around the 1480s. China was using the matchlocks by 1540, after the Portuguese brought their matchlocks to Japan in the early 1500s. China during
1632-553: A spice in India. The main imports were spice, textiles (woolens from Europe, cotton from Gujarat), metals, coffee, and sugar. Despite their demise in 1722, the Safavids left their mark by establishing and spreading Shi'a Islam in major parts of the Caucasus and West Asia. In the 16th to early 18th centuries, Central Asia was under the rule of Uzbeks , and the far eastern portions were ruled by
1728-623: Is The English Plant Names in The Grete Herball (1526) A contribution to the Historical Study of English Plant-Name Usage by Swedish author Mats Rydén. It is a philological study focused on the herbal's English plant names, "...their frequency of use, provenance, typology, and synonymy (i.e. identity)...and changes in groups of names." It has been praised as filling a "shocking gap in English-language scholarship", but its potential use as
1824-485: Is " The vertuose boke of Distillacyon of the waters of all maner of Herbes (1527), translated by Laurence Andrew from the Liber de arte distillandi by Hieronymus Braunschweig, [which] is illustrated with cuts from the same wood-blocks as the Grete Herball ." The book is printed in a double column format with black letter typeface and contains a variety of woodcuts depicting plants, animals, people, and garden scenes. Though
1920-428: Is a decorative or informative illustration facing a book's title page , usually on the left-hand, or verso , page opposite the right-hand, or recto page of a book. In some ancient editions or in modern luxury editions the frontispiece features thematic or allegorical elements, in others is the author's portrait that appears as the frontispiece. In medieval illuminated manuscripts , a presentation miniature showing
2016-403: Is also described as being either hot or cold, dry or wet, and the "degree" of each. This categorization allowed doctors to prescribe a corresponding medicine for diseases, which were defined by the same system in a separate section of the book. Copies of this herbal are not consistent in their current form, many having been rebound or bound with other books. The following arrangement is taken from
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#17328689712542112-416: Is an alphabetically organized list of various maladies, with reference to the entry number and first letter of appropriate medicines for each. The headings are often specific, such as "For wormes in the bely of chyldren" or "For broken synews." Usually, the Grete Herball is not the sole focus of scholarly work itself, but is mentioned in larger examinations of the history of herbals and botany. One exception
2208-585: Is credited as the first European to use movable type printing , around 1439, and as the global inventor of the mechanical printing press . Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology (1543), which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe. His book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres ) began modern astronomy and sparked
2304-430: Is recommended for muscle cramps), goat , ox , elephant ivory , and beaver . Some of the minerals and liquids listed are lyme , glass , magnets , pearls , amber , sulfur , water, and vinegar. Foods that double as remedies are also present, with cheese prescribed for purgation, butter, honey , and zipules (a type of heavy fritter) recommended for toothaches. Some of the entries feature truly unusual remedies, such as
2400-648: Is taken to end with the French Revolution , the Napoleonic Wars , and the Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire at the Congress of Vienna . At the end of the early modern period, the British and Russian empires had emerged as world powers from the multipolar contest of colonial empires , while the three great Asian empires of the early modern period, Ottoman Turkey , Mughal India and Qing China , all entered
2496-509: Is thus closer to what we know today as historical 'reality'. It also allows us to have a better baseline to understand the precipitous decline of the Chinese polity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries." The Sengoku period that began around 1467 and lasted around a century consisted of several continually "warring states". Following contact with the Portuguese on Tanegashima Isle in 1543,
2592-410: The American Revolution or Napoleon 's rise to power . Historians in recent decades have argued that, from a worldwide standpoint, the most important feature of the early modern period was its spreading globalizing character. New economies and institutions emerged, becoming more sophisticated and globally articulated over the course of the period. The early modern period also included the rise of
2688-747: The Anglo-Maratha wars , eventually lost to the British East India Company in 1818 with the Third Anglo-Maratha War . Rule by the Company lasted until 1858, when, after the Indian rebellion of 1857 and following the Government of India Act 1858 , the British government assumed the task of directly administering India in the new British Raj . In 1819, Stamford Raffles established Singapore as
2784-522: The Azuchi–Momoyama period . Although a start date of 1573 is often given, in more broad terms, the period begins with Oda Nobunaga 's entry into Kyoto in 1568, when he led his army to the imperial capital in order to install Ashikaga Yoshiaki as the 15th, and ultimately final, shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate , and it lasts until the coming to power of Tokugawa Ieyasu after his victory over supporters of
2880-560: The Grete Herball in 1516, the earliest verifiable edition dates to July 27, 1526. This edition was printed at Southwark, as was the second edition in 1529. Treveris was active as a printer between approximately 1525 and 1532, during which time he printed such works as Hieronymus Braunschweig's Noble Handiwork of Surgery (1525), the Grete Herball (1526, 1529), and the Polychronicon (1527). The Grete Herball' s translation from French may have been performed by his associate Lawrence Andrewe,
2976-517: The Grete Herball is made up of information taken from earlier works. This literary tradition can be traced back to the second millennium b.c.e., but the number of herbals grew most in the thirteenth century. De Materia Medica (Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς) of the 1st century Pedanius Dioscorides is considered one of the most important encyclopedias of plant knowledge from the time, but herbals became numerous and wholesale lifting of information common and expected. Authors and printers borrowed freely, often without
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3072-550: The Grete Herball' s entry text dismisses the myth outright: "Some say that the male hath figure or shape of a man. And the female of a woman, but that is false. For nature never gave forme or shape of mankynde to a herbe. But it is of trough (truth) that some hath shaped such figures by craft." Entries can also hold warnings for those seeking to use the items, such as the entry for Spodium (elephant ivory), which describes dog bones sometimes being passed off as ipodium (elephant bones) by unscrupulous physicians. Each plant and non-botanical
3168-564: The Islamic world , after the fall of the Timurid Renaissance , powers such as the Ottoman, Suri , Safavid , and Mughal empires grew in strength (three of which are known as gunpowder empires for the military technology that enabled them). Particularly in the Indian subcontinent , Mughal architecture , culture , and art reached their zenith, while the empire itself is believed to have had
3264-527: The Middle Ages and the modern period. The term "early modern" was first proposed by medieval historian Lynn Thorndike in his 1926 work A Short History of Civilization as a broader alternative to the Renaissance . It was first picked up within the field of economic history during the 1940s and 1950s and gradually spread to other historians in the following decades and became widely known among scholars during
3360-617: The Nawab of Bengal surrendered his dominions to the British East India Company, in 1765, when the company was granted the diwani , or the right to collect revenue, in Bengal and Bihar , or in 1772, when the company established a capital in Calcutta , appointed its first Governor-General , Warren Hastings , and became directly involved in governance. The Maratha Confederacy, following
3456-611: The Scientific Revolution . Another notable individual was Machiavelli , an Italian political philosopher, considered a founder of modern political science . Machiavelli is most famous for a short political treatise, The Prince , a work of realist political theory . The Swiss Paracelsus (1493–1541) is associated with a medical revolution while the Anglo-Irish Robert Boyle was one of the founders of modern chemistry. In visual arts, notable representatives included
3552-504: The Siege of Belgrade (1456) , led by John Hunyadi and Giovanni da Capistrano . The siege culminated in a counterattack that forced Sultan Mehmet II to retreat, with the victory being credited with deciding the fate of Christendom . The noon bell, ordered by Pope Callixtus III, commemorates this victory across the Christian world to this day. Book frontispiece A frontispiece in books
3648-510: The Sultanate of Johor was established by a Malaccan prince to succeed Malacca. During the early modern era, the Ottoman Empire enjoyed an expansion and consolidation of power, leading to a Pax Ottomana . This was perhaps the golden age of the empire. The Ottomans expanded southwest into North Africa while battling with the re-emergent Persian Shi'a Safavid Empire to the east. In
3744-531: The farmers , artisans , and traders ranking below. The country was strictly closed to foreigners with few exceptions with the Sakoku policy. Literacy among the Japanese people rose in the two centuries of isolation. In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, daimyōs and samurai were more or less identical, since daimyōs might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local lords. Otherwise,
3840-663: The spread of Christianity around the world. The rise of sustained contacts between previously isolated parts of the globe, in particular the Columbian Exchange that linked the Old World and the New World , greatly altered the human environment. Notably, the Atlantic slave trade and colonization of Native Americans began during this period. The Ottoman Empire conquered Southeastern Europe, and parts of West Asia and North Africa. In
3936-621: The "three giants of the High Renaissance", namely Leonardo da Vinci , Michelangelo , and Raphael , Albrecht Dürer (often considered the greatest artist of Northern Renaissance), Titian from the Venetian school , Peter Paul Rubens of the Flemish Baroque traditions. Famous composers included Guillaume Du Fay , Heinrich Isaac , Josquin des Prez , Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina , Claudio Monteverdi , Jean-Baptiste Lully . Among
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4032-652: The 14th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the term. As a cultural movement, it encompassed a rebellion of learning based on classical sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform. Johannes Gutenberg
4128-456: The 1526 edition of the Grete Herball at Special Collections, The Claremont Colleges Library, Claremont, California. The title page is dominated by the printed full title of the Grete Herball, with a large frontispiece depicting a man and woman working in a garden. In each corner a mandrake root of each gender is depicted. The title is printed in both red and black ink. This full-page image is
4224-595: The 1800s. In the early modern period, the Holy Roman Empire was a union of territories in Central Europe under a Holy Roman Emperor the first of which was Otto I . The last was Francis II , who abdicated and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars . Despite its name, for much of its history the Empire did not include Rome within its borders. The Renaissance was a cultural movement that began in
4320-652: The 1990s. At the onset of the early modern period, trends in various regions of the world represented a shift away from medieval modes of organization, politically and economically. Feudalism declined in Europe, and Christendom saw the end of the Crusades and of religious unity in Western Europe under the Roman Catholic Church . The old order was destabilized by the Protestant Reformation , which caused
4416-531: The Empire ) and France ensued, culminating in the Treaty of Senlis (1493) which gave the majority of Burgundian inheritance to the Habsburg (Mary already died in 1482). The rise of the Habsburg dynasty was a prime factor in the spreading of the Renaissance. In Central Europe, King Matthias Corvinus (1443–1490), a notable nation builder, conqueror (Hungary in his time was the most powerful in Central Europe ) and patron,
4512-691: The French Herbier . They are in fact copies of a series of woodcuts which first appeared in the German Herbarius zu Teutsch (also known as Der Gart ). In the Grete Herball the same woodcut image is often reused for multiple entries. By most accounts, these images became much degraded between their original use in Herbarius and their subsequent recycling in the Grete Herball . Woodcuts were expensive to acquire, and like other printers of his time Peter Treveris would reuse them in later books. One such book
4608-459: The Japanese adopted several of the technologies and cultural practices of their visitors, whether in the military area (the arquebus , European-style cuirasses, European ships), religion ( Christianity ), decorative art, language (integration to Japanese of a Western vocabulary ) and culinary: the Portuguese introduced tempura and valuable refined sugar. Central government was largely reestablished by Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi during
4704-566: The Ming Dynasty established a bureau to maintain its calendar. The bureau was necessary because the calendars were linked to celestial phenomena and that needs regular maintenance because twelve lunar months have 344 or 355 days, so occasional leap months have to be added in order to maintain 365 days per year. In the early Ming dynasty, urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing , also contributed to
4800-547: The Ottoman sphere, the Turks seized Egypt in 1517 and established the regencies of Algeria , Tunisia , and Tripolitania (between 1519 and 1551), Morocco remaining an independent Arabized Berber state under the Sharifan dynasty . The Safavid Empire was a great Shia Persianate empire after the Islamic conquest of Persia and the establishment of Islam, marking an important point in
4896-416: The Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch Empires. The trade brought in a massive amount of silver, which China at the time needed desperately. Prior to China's global trade, its economy ran on paper money. However, in the 14th century, China's paper money system suffered a crisis, and by the mid-15th century, crashed. The silver imports helped fill the void left by the broken paper money system, which helps explain why
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#17328689712544992-403: The Qing Prince Dorgon . The rise of the Mughal Empire is usually dated from 1526, around the end of the Middle Ages. It was an Islamic Persianate imperial power that ruled most of the area as Hindustan by the late 17th and the early 18th centuries. The empire dominated South Asia , becoming the largest global economy and manufacturing power, with a nominal GDP valued at a quarter of
5088-505: The Safavids . What fueled the growth of Safavid economy was its position between the burgeoning civilizations of Europe to its west and Islamic Central Asia to its east and north. The Silk Road , which led from Europe to East Asia, revived in the 16th century. Leaders also supported direct sea trade with Europe, particularly England and The Netherlands, which sought Persian carpet, silk, and textiles. Other exports were horses, goat hair, pearls, and an inedible bitter almond hadam-talka used as
5184-511: The Toyotomi clan at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Tokugawa received the title of shōgun in 1603, establishing the Tokugawa shogunate . The Edo period from 1600 to 1868 characterized early modern Japan. The Tokugawa shogunate was a feudalist regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shōguns of the Tokugawa clan . The period gets its name from the capital city, Edo , now called Tokyo. The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from Edo Castle from 1603 until 1868, when it
5280-554: The addition of any original content. Instead, the Grete Herball is considered the only known translation from French of Le Grant Herbier (1498). Like contemporary herbals, Le Grant Herbier exhibits heavy borrowing. Over half of its chapters are lifted from Circa instans , a Salernitan work created between approximately 1130 and 1150. Later botanists, such as William Turner and Nicholas Culpeper , would begin to break this tradition and put their own observations, research, and theories into their herbals alongside older knowledge. Turner
5376-414: The area of history being studied. In general, the early modern period is considered to have lasted from around the start of the 16th century to the start of the 19th century (about 1500–1800). In a European context, it is defined as the period following the Middle Ages and preceding the advent of modernity; but the dates of these boundaries are far from universally agreed. In the context of global history ,
5472-409: The beginning of the modern period with the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and later by various movements to reform the church (including Lutheran, Zwinglian, and Calvinist), followed by the Counter Reformation . The Hussite Crusades (1419–1434) involved military actions against the followers of Jan Hus in Bohemia , concluding with the Battle of Grotniki . These wars were notable for being among
5568-419: The book or text being presented (by whom and to whom varies) was often used as a frontispiece. The word comes from the French frontispice , which derives from the late Latin frontispicium , composed of the Latin frons ('forehead') and specere ('to look at'). It was synonymous with ' metoposcopy '. In English, it was originally used as an architectural term , referring to the decorative facade of
5664-426: The decline in the use of plate armor because of the inability of the armor to protect one from bullets. The musket was able to penetrate all forms of armor available at the time, making armor obsolete, and as a consequence the heavy musket as well. Although there is relatively little to no difference in design between arquebus and musket except in size and strength, it was the term musket which remained in use up into
5760-445: The dominance of mercantilism as an economic theory. Other notable trends of the period include the development of experimental science , increasingly rapid technological progress , secularized civic politics, accelerated travel due to improvements in mapping and ship design, and the emergence of nation states . The early modern period is a subdivision of the most recent of the three major periods of European history : antiquity ,
5856-428: The early modern period is often used even in contexts where there is no equivalent "medieval" period. Various events and historical transitions have been proposed as the start of the early modern period, including the fall of Constantinople in 1453 , the start of the Renaissance , the end of the Crusades and the beginning of the Age of Discovery . Its end is often marked by the French Revolution , and sometimes also
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#17328689712545952-443: The economy was compounded by the effects on agriculture of the incipient Little Ice Age , natural calamities, crop failure and sudden epidemics. The ensuing breakdown of authority and people's livelihoods allowed rebel leaders, such as Li Zicheng , to challenge Ming authority. The Ming dynasty fell around 1644 to the ethnically Manchu Qing dynasty , which would be the last dynasty of China . The Qing ruled from 1644 to 1912, with
6048-434: The eighteenth or nineteenth centuries. Given their scarcity, copies of the Grete Herball are of interest to rare book collectors. Early editions have been valued in the thousands at auction. Sotheby's auction house valued one 1526 copy (bound together with Treveris's printing of the Noble Handiwork of Surgery (1525)) between £50,000 and £70,000 GBP. The 1526 copy sold by Christie's fetched US$ 5,625 on June 24, 2009, and
6144-421: The established order until the arrival of foreign powers. In 1392, General Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910) with a largely bloodless coup. Yi Seong-gye moved the capital of Korea to the location of modern-day Seoul. The dynasty was heavily influenced by Confucianism, which also played a large role to shaping Korea's strong cultural identity. King Sejong the Great (1418–1450), one of
6240-413: The faith) invaded and conquered much of northern India during the Lodhi dynasty and Suri dynasty . Pashtun forces also invaded Persia, and the opposing forces were defeated in the Battle of Gulnabad . The Pashtuns later formed the Durrani Empire . The Songhai Empire took control of the trans-Saharan trade at the beginning of the modern era. It seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Jenne in 1473, building
6336-470: The final Early Modern edition in 1561. Both Gybson and Kyng use fewer images and different frontispieces than Treveris's editions. The first and second editions of the Grete Herball are extremely rare. Only three "complete and perfect" copies of the 1529 edition are known to exist, though fragments of other copies have been found. Those that do exist usually show signs of repair, such as being rebound or having replaced spines and added pages. One such copy,
6432-438: The first European conflicts where hand-held gunpowder weapons, like muskets , played a decisive role. The Taborite faction of Hussite warriors, primarily infantry, decisively defeated larger armies with heavily armored knights, contributing to the infantry revolution. However, the Hussite Crusades were ultimately inconclusive. The final crusade, the Crusade of 1456, was organized to counter the advancing Ottoman Empire and lift
6528-518: The global economy, superior than the combined GDP of Europe. The empire, prior to the death of the last prominent emperor Aurangzeb , was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting its different provinces . All the significant monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this period which was characterized by the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and architectural results. The Maratha Confederacy , founded in
6624-407: The growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. In the 16th century the Ming dynasty flourished over maritime trade with
6720-438: The history of Islam in the east. The Safavid dynasty was founded about 1501. From their base in Ardabil , the Safavids established control over all of Persia and reasserted the Iranian identity of the region, thus becoming the first native dynasty since the Sassanids to establish a unified Iranian state. Problematic for the Safavids was the powerful Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans, a Sunni dynasty, fought several campaigns against
6816-446: The humors and types of illness. This is according to the Galenic system of humors, with the four temperaments described according to the state of their "bryne" or humors. This is followed by instructions for diagnosis of illnesses, again by referencing the state of a person's "bryne". A catalogue of illnesses and their symptoms. Some examples are alopecia , asthma , worms, cramps, flesh wounds, fluxes , and gout . The final index
6912-688: The island of Java . It was the last of the major Hindu empires of Maritime Southeast Asia and is considered one of the greatest states in Indonesian history. Its influence extended to Sumatra , the Malay Peninsula , Borneo , and eastern Indonesia, though the effectiveness of this influence remains debated. Majapahit struggled to control the rising Sultanate of Malacca , which dominated Muslim Malay settlements in Phuket, Satun, Pattani, and Sumatra. The Portuguese invaded Malacca's capital in 1511, and by 1528,
7008-507: The largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time. Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts which did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants. None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge
7104-477: The last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus then allied with former Ming general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing , which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. The Manchus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule of China proper . Schoppa, the editor of The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History argues, "A date around 1780 as the beginning of modern China
7200-407: The last medieval epic poet ) was actually a chief modernizing force of the time (whose reform initiatives led to Europe-wide revolutions in the areas of warfare and communications, among others ), who broke the back of the knight class (causing many to become robber barons) and had personal conflicts with the three other men on the matter of the knight's status. Christianity was challenged at
7296-670: The local Pashtuns . Between the 15th and 16th centuries, various nomadic tribes arrived from the steppes, including the Kipchaks , Naimans , Kangly , Khongirad , and Manghuds . These groups were led by Muhammad Shaybani , who was the Khan of the Uzbeks. The lineage of the Afghan Pashtuns stretches back to the Hotaki dynasty. Following Muslim Arab and Turkic conquests, Pashtun ghazis (warriors for
7392-619: The modern period is often dated to the start of the Tudor period with the victory of Henry VII over Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. Early modern European history is usually seen to span from the start of the 15th century, through the Age of Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries, until the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century. The early modern period
7488-640: The notable royalty of the time was Charles the Bold (1433–1477), the last Valois Duke of Burgundy , known as Charles the Bold (or Rash) to his enemies, His early death was a pivotal moment in European history. Charles has often been regarded as the last representative of the feudal spirit, although in administrative affairs, he introduced remarkable modernizing innovations. Upon his death, Charles left an unmarried nineteen-year-old daughter, Mary of Burgundy , as his heir. Her marriage would have enormous implications for
7584-593: The only two kings in Korea's history to earn the title of great in their posthumous titles, reclaimed Korean territory to the north and created the Korean alphabet . During the end of the 16th century, Korea was invaded twice by Japan, first in 1592 and again in 1597. Japan failed both times due to Admiral Yi Sun-sin , Korea's revered naval genius, who led the Korean Navy using advanced metal clad ships called turtle ships . Because
7680-543: The order varies by edition, many feature a list of chapters at the beginning and an index at the end. The Grete Herball contains extensive information on plant life as well as entries on animals, comestibles , and minerals. Each entry features an image of the plant or item, its Latin name, any known alternate names, its humoral categorization, any associated folklore, a list of its medical and practical applications, and instructions for use. Editions and surviving copies vary in length. Botanist Richard Pulteney 's description of
7776-812: The peace established by the Second Treaty of Paris , which ended the Napoleonic Wars. In the Americas, pre-Columbian peoples had built a large and varied civilization, including the Aztec Empire , the Inca civilization , the Maya civilization and its cities, and the Muisca . The European colonization of the Americas began during the early modern period, as did the establishment of European trading hubs in Asia and Africa, which contributed to
7872-685: The period can be seen in the medieval North Italian city-states and maritime republics , particularly Genoa , Venice , and Milan . Russia reached the Pacific coast in 1647 and consolidated its control over the Russian Far East in the 19th century. The Great Divergence took place as Western Europe greatly surpassed China in technology and per capita wealth. As the Age of Revolution dawned, beginning with revolts in America and France, political changes were then pushed forward in other countries partly as
7968-527: The political balance of Europe. Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor secured the match for his son, the future Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor , with the aid of Mary's stepmother, Margaret. In 1477, the territory of the Duchy of Burgundy was annexed by France. In the same year, Mary married Maximilian, Archduke of Austria . A conflict between the Burgundian side (Maximilian brought with himself almost no resources from
8064-600: The regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. The empire eventually made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought Muslim scholars to Gao . Many major events caused Europe to change around the start of the 16th century, starting with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the fall of Muslim Spain and the discovery of the Americas in 1492, and Martin Luther 's Protestant Reformation in 1517. In England
8160-700: The rise of the Joseon Dynasty to the enthronement of King Gojong . By the 16th century, Asian economies under the Ming dynasty and Mughal Bengal were stimulated by trade with the Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Dutch, while Japan engaged in the Nanban trade after the arrival of the first European Portuguese during the Azuchi–Momoyama period . Meanwhile, in Southeast Asia, the Toungoo Empire along with Ayutthaya experienced
8256-510: The ships were armed with cannons, Admiral Yi's navy was able to demolish the Japanese invading fleets, destroying hundreds of ships in Japan's second invasion. During the 17th century, Korea was invaded again, this time by Manchurians, who would later take over China as the Qing Dynasty. In 1637, King Injo was forced to surrender to the Qing forces, and was ordered to send princesses as concubines to
8352-507: The southwest of present-day India, surpassed the Mughals as the dominant power in India from 1740 and rapidly expanded until the Third Battle of Panipat halted their expansion in 1761. The development of New Imperialism saw the conquest of nearly all eastern hemisphere territories by colonial powers. The commercial colonization of India commenced in 1757, after the Battle of Plassey , when
8448-578: The system of humoralism . Confirmed editions were printed between 1526 and 1561, with many still in existence today. Its full title is " The grete herball: whiche geueth parfyt knowlege and under standyng of all maner of herbes & there gracyous vertues whiche god hath ordeyned for our prosperous welfare and helth: for they hele & cure all maner of dyseases and sekenesses that fall or mysfortune to all maner of creatoures of god created: practysed by many expert and wyse maysters, as Aucienna & other &c. " Like most medieval and early modern herbals,
8544-536: The value of silver in China was twice as high as the value of silver in Spain during the end of the 16th century. China under the later Ming dynasty became isolated, prohibiting the construction of ocean going sea vessels. Despite isolationist policies the Ming economy still suffered from an inflation due to an overabundance of Spanish New World silver entering its economy through new European colonies such as Macau . Ming China
8640-500: The world's largest economy, bigger than the entirety of Western Europe and worth 25% of global GDP. By the mid-18th century, India was a major proto-industrializing region. Various Chinese dynasties controlled the East Asian sphere. In Japan, the Edo period from 1600 to 1868 is also referred to as the early modern period. In Korea, the early modern period is considered to have lasted from
8736-515: Was abolished during the Meiji Restoration in the late Edo period (often called the Late Tokugawa shogunate ). Society in the Japanese " Tokugawa period " ( Edo society ), unlike the shogunates before it, was based on the strict class hierarchy originally established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi . The daimyōs (feudal lords) were at the top, followed by the warrior -caste of samurai , with
8832-416: Was disdainful of previous efforts, it is believed he is referring to the Grete Herball when he states "...as yet there was no English Herbal but one, all full of unlearned cacographees (bad spelling) and falsely naming of herbs..." in the preface to his own Herbal (1568). Similarly, the Grete Herball' s numerous woodcuts are taken from Le Grant Herbier , but like the text these images are not original to
8928-434: Was further strained by victorious but costly wars to protect Korea from Japanese Invasion . The European trade depression of the 1620s also hurt the Chinese economy, which sunk to the point where all of China's trading partners cut ties with them: Philip IV restricted shipments of exports from Acapulco , the Japanese cut off all trade with Macau , and the Dutch severed connections between Goa and Macau. The damage to
9024-620: Was leading the world in mathematics as well as science. However, Europe soon caught up to China's scientific and mathematical achievements and surpassed them. Many scholars have speculated about the reason behind China's lag in advancement. A historian named Colin Ronan claims that though there is no one specific answer, there must be a connection between China's urgency for new discoveries being weaker than Europe's and China's inability to capitalize on its early advantages. Ronan believes that China's Confucian bureaucracy and traditions led to China not having
9120-651: Was the first who introduced the Renaissance outside of Italy. In military area, he introduced the Black Army , one of the first standing armies in Europe and a remarkably modern force. Some noblemen from the generation that lived during this period have been attributed the moniker "the last knight", with the most notable being the above-mentioned Maximilian I (1459–1519), Chevalier de Bayard (1476–1524), Franz von Sickingen (1481–1523) and Götz von Berlichingen (1480–1562). Maximilian (although Claude Michaud opines that he could claim "last knight" status by virtue of being
9216-453: Was valued between $ 4000 – US$ 6000. As a herbal text, the book's content is primarily on the medicinal uses and properties of the materials described. Exceptions to this rule are suggestions for cosmetic use or folklore associated with the item. One well-known entry concerns the Mandrake , a herb with the mythical human form of a man and a woman. Accompanying woodcuts demonstrate this belief, but
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