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80-571: The Greater Houston Partnership ( GHP ) is the largest chamber of commerce in the Houston area. The Partnership is an economic development organization for the Greater Houston area. The Partnership works to make Houston greater by promoting economic development, foreign trade and investment, and by advocating for efficient and effective government that supports, rather than impedes, business growth. The Partnership also convenes key stakeholders to solve

160-481: A carbon-copy manner with little success. This isomorphic mimicry –adopting organizational forms that have been successful elsewhere but that only hide institutional dysfunction without solving it on the home country –can contribute to getting countries stuck in 'capability traps' where the country does not advance in its development goals. An example of this can be seen through some of the criticisms of foreign aid and its success rate at helping countries develop. Beyond

240-512: A community or region". Daphne Greenwood and Richard Holt distinguish economic development from economic growth on the basis that economic development is a "broadly based and sustainable increase in the overall standard of living for individuals within a community", and measures of growth such as per capita income do not necessarily correlate with improvements in quality of life. The United Nations Development Programme in 1997 defined development as increasing people‟s choices. Choices depend on

320-417: A conception and often implemented by programs. These policies govern and include various aspects of life such as education, health care, employment, finance, economics, transportation, and all over elements of society. The implementation of public policy is known as public administration . Public policy can be considered the sum of a government's direct and indirect activities and has been conceptualized in

400-435: A form of direct action is either using the resources already publicly available (Make) or contracting the private sector to address the issue (Buy). The indirect section of money explains means to dissuade or encourage behavior using money. Literally through taxing the undesired behavior and subsidizing the desired behavior. The direct section of Other echoes the direct section of Money. However, instead of using fiscal power,

480-675: A major contributor to development economics , asserted that economic development grew to concentrate on the poor regions of the world , primarily in Africa , Asia and Latin America yet on the outpouring of fundamental ideas and models. It has also been argued, notably by Asian and European proponents of infrastructure-based development , that systematic, long-term government investments in transportation , housing , education , and healthcare are necessary to ensure sustainable economic growth in emerging countries. During Robert McNamara's 13 years at

560-421: A panel dataset for each 50 states with unemployment, labor force participation by race, and annual labor market statistics. In addition, for contractionary monetary policy, they utilize the federal funds rate, the short-term interest rates charged to banks. Seguino and Heintz Seguino concludes that the impact of a one percentage point increase in the federal funds rate relative to white and black women's unemployment

640-415: A particular issue. The use of effective tools and instruments determines the outcome of a policy. Many actors can be important in the public policy process, but government officials ultimately choose public policy in response to the public issue or problem at hand. In doing so, government officials are expected to meet public sector ethics and take the needs of all project stakeholders into account. It

720-422: A positive effect. Enforcement may include law enforcement or combine incentive and disincentive-based policy instruments. A meta-analysis of policy studies across multiple policy domains suggests enforcement mechanisms are the "only modifiable treaty design choice" with the potential to improve the mostly low effectiveness of international treaties . As stated by Paul Cairney, the implementation gap are

800-587: A professional industry of highly specialized practitioners. The practitioners have two key roles: one is to provide leadership in policy-making , and the other is to administer policy, programs, and projects. Economic development practitioners generally work in public offices on the state, regional, or municipal level, or in public-private partnerships organizations that may be partially funded by local, regional, state, or federal tax money. These economic development organizations function as individual entities and in some cases as departments of local governments. Their role

880-448: A range of tools and approaches to help in this task. Government action is the decisions, policies, and actions taken by governments, which can have a significant impact on individuals, organizations, and society at large. Regulations, subsidies, taxes, and spending plans are just a few of the various shapes it might take. Achieving certain social or economic objectives, such as fostering economic expansion, lowering inequality, or safeguarding

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960-545: A series of stages, from a notional starting point at which policymakers begin to think about a policy problem to a notional end point at which a policy has been implemented, and policymakers think about how successful it has been before deciding what to do next." Officials considered policymakers bear the responsibility to advance the interests of various stakeholders. Policy design entails conscious and deliberate effort to define policy aims and map them instrumentally. Academics and other experts in policy studies have developed

1040-486: A significant amount of revenue from this source are less accountable to their citizens (they are more autonomous) as they have less pressure to legitimately use those resources. Just as it has been documented for countries with an abundant supply of natural resources such as oil, countries whose government budget consists largely of foreign aid donations and not regular taxes are less likely to have incentives to develop effective public institutions. This in turn can undermine

1120-546: A significant indicator of a country's economic advancement: this perspective is illustrated notably through the Basic Rail Transportation Infrastructure Index (known as BRTI Index) and related models such as the (Modified) Rail Transportation Infrastructure Index (RTI). In an effort to create an indicator that would help measure gender equality , the United Nations has created two measures:

1200-495: A variety of ways. They are created and/or enacted on behalf of the public , typically by a government . Sometimes they are made by nonprofit organizations or are made in co-production with communities or citizens, which can include potential experts, scientists, engineers and stakeholders or scientific data, or sometimes use some of their results. They are typically made by policy-makers affiliated with (in democratic polities ) currently elected politicians . Therefore,

1280-465: Is 0.015 and 0.043, respectively One growing understanding in economic development is the promotion of regional clusters and a thriving metropolitan economy . In today's global landscape, location is vitally important and becomes a key in competitive advantage . International trade and exchange rates are key issues in economic development. Currencies are often either under-valued or over-valued , resulting in trade surpluses or deficits. Furthermore,

1360-477: Is Thad Hill. In 2014, the Houston Chronicle criticized Greater Houston Partnership for refusing to comply with an open records request. To avoid disclosing the information requested, GHP chose to instead cancel contracts with the county government, drawing criticism from elected officials such as Harris County Precinct 3 Commissioner Steve Radack. In January 2021, the organization received calls to denounce

1440-500: Is a time-consuming ' policy cycle '. The policy cycle as set out in Understanding Public Policy: Theories and Issues . Agenda setting identifies problems that require government attention, deciding which issue deserve the most attention and defining the nature of the problem. Most public problems are made through the reflection of social and ideological values. As societies and communities evolve over time,

1520-501: Is however worth noting that what public policy is put forward can be influenced by the political stance of the party in power. Following the 2008/2009 financial crisis, David Cameron's Conservative party looked to implement a policy of austerity in 2010 after winning the general election that year, to shore up the economy and diminish the UK's national debt. Whilst the Conservatives saw reducing

1600-400: Is important to not expect that particular economic development programs be able to fix many problems at once as that would be establishing unsurmountable goals for them that are highly unlikely they can achieved. Any development policy should set limited goals and a gradual approach to avoid falling victim to something Prittchet, Woolcock and Andrews call 'premature load bearing'. Many times

1680-427: Is influenced by different public problems and issues, and has different stakeholders; as such, each requires different public policy. In public policy making, numerous individuals, corporations, non-profit organizations and interest groups compete and collaborate to influence policymakers to act in a particular way. Therefore, "the failure [of public policies] is possibly not only the politician's fault because he/she

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1760-474: Is measured by the capacity to create public value ." Other scholars define public policy as a system of "courses of action, regulatory measures, laws, and funding priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by a governmental entity or its representatives". Public policy is commonly embodied in "constitutions, legislative acts, and judicial decisions". Transformative constitutions of Global South considers judicial actions for Public policy as paramount, since

1840-432: Is never the lone player in the field of decision making. There is a multitude of actors pursuing their goals, sometimes complementary, often competing or contradictory ones." In this sense, public policies can be the result of actors involved, such as interest organization's, and not necessarily the will of the public. Furthermore, public policy is also affected by social and economic conditions, prevailing political values,

1920-433: Is straightforward and easy to understand, the cycle is not totally applicable in all situations of policymaking due to it being far too simple as there are more crucial steps that should go into more complex real life scenarios. The mainstream tradition of policy studies has been criticized for oversimplifying the processes of public policy, particularly in use of models based on rational choice theory , failing to capture

2000-426: Is suitable when the matter of concern is relatively simple and unambiguous, and the means of enactment are expected to be highly disciplined. But where the matter is complex and/or contested – where intentions are confused and/or disguised – it may not be possible to define the policy ideas clearly and unambiguously. In this case it may be useful to identify a policy in terms of what actually happens. David Easton in

2080-447: Is that of Thomas R. Dye , according to whom "public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do" (Dye, 1972: 2). Although widely used, Dye's concept is also criticized as being an empty concept. Dye himself admitted that his concept "discourages elaborate academic discussions of the definition of public policy - we say simply that public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do". In an institutionalist view,

2160-591: Is the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management . Much of public policy is concerned with evaluating decision-making in governments and public bureaucracies. Public policy making can be characterized as a dynamic, complex, and interactive system through which public problems are identified and resolved through the creation of new policy or reform of existing policy. Public problems can originate in endless ways and require different policy responses (such as regulations, subsidies, import quotas, and laws) on

2240-465: Is the setting of the objectives for the policy, along with identifying the cost and effect of solutions that could be proposed from policy instruments. Legitimation is when approval/ support for the policy instruments is gathered, involving one of or a combination of executive approval, legislative approval, and seeking consent through consultation or referendums. Policy implementation is establishing or employing an organization to take responsibility for

2320-420: Is through a series of stages known as "the policy cycle", which was first discussed by the political scientist Harold Laswell in his book The Decision Process: Seven Categories of Functional Analysis , published in 1956. The characterization of particular stages can vary, but a basic sequence is agenda setting, policy formulation, legitimation , implementation, and evaluation. "It divides the policy process into

2400-547: Is to seek out new economic opportunities and retain their existing business wealth. There are numerous other organizations whose primary function is not economic development that work in partnership with economic developers. They include the news media, foundations, utilities, schools, health care providers, faith-based organizations, and colleges, universities, and other education or research institutions. There are various types of macroeconomic and sociocultural indicators or "metrics" used by economists and geographers to assess

2480-429: Is typically associated with improvements in a variety of areas or indicators (such as literacy rates , life expectancy , and poverty rates) , that may be causes of economic development rather than consequences of specific economic development programs. For example, health and education improvements have been closely related to economic growth, but the causality with economic development may not be obvious. In any case, it

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2560-544: Is usually either continued as is, modified, or discontinued. This cycle will unless discontinued go back to the agenda-setting phase and the cycle will commence again. However, the policy cycle is illustrated in a chronological and cyclical structure which could be misleading as in actuality, policymaking would include overlapping stages between the multiple interactions of policy proposals, adjustments, decision-making amongst multiple government institutions and respective authoritative actors. Likewise, although its heuristic model

2640-645: The Gender-Related Development Index (GDI) and the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM). These indicators were first introduced in the 1995 UNDP Human Development Report. Other factors include the inflation rate, investment level and national debt , birth and death rates, life expectancy , morbidity , education levels (measured through literacy and numeracy rates), housing , social services like hospitals , health facilities , clean and safe drinking water , schools (measured by

2720-637: The January 6 riots at the US Capitol . In April 2021, advocacy groups and business voices called on the organization to oppose voter suppression legislation proposed by members of the Texas Legislature . 175 well-known members of the Houston business community, including ten GHP members, openly opposed the legislation. Two days later, Harris County Judge Lina Hidalgo and Houston Mayor Sylvester Turner pulled out of GHP luncheons in opposition to GHP's silence on

2800-459: The policy window , another concept demonstrating the critical moment within a time and situation that a new policy could be motivated. Because the definition of public problems are not obvious, they are most often denied and not acted upon. The problem stream represents a policy process to compromise for how worthy problems are to create policies and solutions. This is represented in five discrete factors: Therefore, John Kingdon's model suggests

2880-527: The post-war period of reconstruction initiated by the United States. In 1949, during his inaugural speech, President Harry Truman identified the development of undeveloped areas as a priority for the West: There have been several major phases of development theory since 1945. Alexander Gerschenkron argued that the less developed the country is at the outset of economic development (relative to others),

2960-437: The "policy process is a complex political process in which there are many actors: elected politicians, political party leaders, pressure groups, civil servants, publicly employed professionals, judges, non-governmental organizations, international agencies, academic experts, journalists and even sometimes citizens who see themselves as the passive recipients of policy." A popular way of understanding and engaging in public policy

3040-493: The 1960s, it has increasingly focused on poverty reduction . Whereas economic development is a policy intervention aiming to improve the well-being of people, economic growth is a phenomenon of market productivity and increases in GDP ; economist Amartya Sen describes economic growth as but "one aspect of the process of economic development". The precise definition of economic development has been contested: while economists in

3120-539: The 1980s pushing an agenda of free trade and removal of import substitution industrialization policies. In economics, the study of economic development was born out of an extension to traditional economics that focused entirely on the national product , or the aggregate output of goods and services. Economic development was concerned with the expansion of people's entitlements and their corresponding capabilities, such as morbidity , nourishment , literacy , education , and other socio-economic indicators. Borne out of

3200-413: The 20th century viewed development primarily in terms of economic growth , sociologists instead emphasized broader processes of change and modernization . Development and urban studies scholar Karl Seidman summarizes economic development as "a process of creating and utilizing physical, human, financial, and social assets to generate improved and broadly shared economic well-being and quality of life for

3280-591: The Greater Houston Partnership in 2000. In 2007, the chamber came out in favor of a bond for Houston Independent School District (HISD), lending key support to the effort the month before the election. The bond was approved by the voters. In 2015 and after months of negotiation, the GHP publicly supported the Houston Equal Rights Ordinance . An earlier effort to pass such an ordinance in 1985

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3360-477: The US, Members of Congress have observed that partisan rancour, ideological disputes, and decreased willingness to compromise on policies have made policy making far more difficult than it was only a decade ago .These are good examples of how varying political beliefs can impact what is perceived as paramount for the electorate. Since societies have changed in the past decades, the public policy making system changed too. In

3440-462: The USA of the 1950s provided an illustration of the need he found to broaden his conceptualization of public policy beyond stated ideas: "If the formal policy of an educational system forbids discrimination against Negroes but local school boards or administrators so zone school attendance that Negroes are segregated in a few schools, both the impartial law and discriminatory practices must be considered part of

3520-462: The World Bank under McNamara's tenure "sold" states poverty reduction "through a mixture of persuasion and coercion." The development of a country has been associated with different concepts but generally encompasses economic growth through higher productivity, political systems that represent as accurately as possible the preferences of its citizens, The extension of rights to all social groups and

3600-528: The World Bank, he introduced key changes, most notably, shifting the Bank's economic development policies toward targeted poverty reduction. Before his tenure at the World Bank, poverty did not receive substantial attention as part of international and national economic development; the focus of development had been on industrialization and infrastructure. Poverty also came to be redefined as a condition faced by people rather than countries. According to Martha Finnemore,

3680-434: The attainment of a standard of living equivalent to that of industrialized countries . Economic development can also be considered as a static theory that documents the state of an economy at a certain place. According to Schumpeter and Backhaus (2003), the changes in this equilibrium state documented in economic theory can only be caused by intervening factors coming from the outside. Economic development originated in

3760-480: The backdrop of Keynesian economics (advocating government intervention), and neoclassical economics (stressing reduced intervention), with the rise of high-growth countries ( Singapore , South Korea , Hong Kong ) and planned governments ( Argentina , Chile , Sudan , Uganda ), economic development and more generally development economics emerged amidst these mid-20th century theoretical interpretations of how economies prosper. Also, economist Albert O. Hirschman ,

3840-478: The bills. The organization released another statement the next day "opposing voter suppression", but still took no position on the bills. In June 2021, the organization was revealed to have run multiple advertisements supporting a controversial highway expansion project found by the Federal Highway Administration to have "numerous environmental and civil rights issues." Critics stated that the GHP

3920-495: The broader policy outcomes, "focus[ing] on a policy's societal consequences." In the United States, this concept refers not only to the result of policies, but more broadly to the decision-making and analysis of governmental decisions. As an academic discipline, public policy is studied by professors and students at public policy schools of major universities throughout the country. The U.S. professional association of public policy practitioners, researchers, scholars, and students

4000-416: The country's efforts to develop. In its broadest sense, policies of economic development encompass three major areas: Contractionary monetary policy is a tool used by central banks to slow down a country's economic growth. An example would be raising interest rates to decrease lending. In the United States, the use of contractionary monetary policy has increased women's unemployment. Seguino and Heintz uses

4080-419: The current dynamics in today's society as well as sustaining ambiguities and misunderstandings. In contrast, an anthropological approach to studying public policy deconstructs many of the categories and concepts that are currently used, seeking to gain a deeper understanding of the configurations of actors, activities, and influences that go into shaping policy decisions, implementations and results. Each system

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4160-624: The distance learners must travel to reach them), ability to use hard infrastructure (railways, roads, ports, airports, harbours, etc.), and telecommunications and other soft infrastructure like the Internet . The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) focuses on aggregating various indicators that focus on capturing the economic, political, and professional gains made by women. The GEM is composed of just three variables: income earning power, share in professional and managerial jobs, and share of parliamentary seats. The Gender Development Index (GDI) measures

4240-659: The economic development goals of specific countries cannot be reached because they lack the State's capabilities to do so. For example, if a nation has little capacity to carry out basic functions like security and policing or core service delivery it is unlikely that a program that wants to foster a free-trade zone (special economic zones) or distribute vaccinations to vulnerable populations can accomplish their goals. This has been something overlooked by multiple international organizations, aid programs and even participating governments who attempt to carry out 'best practices' from other places in

4320-511: The environment, is the aim of government action. Public policy can be conceptualized in varying ways, according to the purposes of the speaker or author, and the characteristics of the situation they are concerned with. One dividing line in conceptions of public policy is between those that see it primarily in terms of ideas (principles and plans of action) and those that see it as a collection of empirical phenomena (the things that are done, and their outcomes). The first of these conceptualizations

4400-557: The foundation of public policy is composed of national constitutional laws and regulations. Further foundational aspects include both judicial interpretations and regulations which are generally authorized by legislation. Public policy is considered strong when it solves problems efficiently and effectively, serves and supports governmental institutions and policies, and encourages active citizenship. In his book Advanced Introduction to Public Policy , B. Guy Peters defines public policy as "the set of activities that governments engage in for

4480-515: The gender gap in human development achievements. It takes the disparity between men and women into account through three variables, health, knowledge, and living standards. *Top country subdivisions by GDP *Top country subdivisions by GDP per capita *Top country metropolitan by GDP Public policy Public policy is an institutionalized proposal or a decided set of elements like laws, regulations, guidelines, and actions to solve or address relevant and real-world problems , guided by

4560-543: The growth of globalization has linked economic development with trends on international trade and participation in global value chains (GVCs) and international financial markets. The last financial crisis had a huge effect on economies in developing countries. Economist Jayati Ghosh states that it is necessary to make financial markets in developing countries more resilient by providing a variety of financial institutions . This could also add to financial security for small-scale producers. Economic development has evolved into

4640-415: The implementation should start with the target group, as they are seen as the actual implementers of policy. Evaluation is the process of assessing the extent to which the policy has been successful, or if this was the right policy to begin with/ was it implemented correctly and if so, did it go as expected. Maintenance is when the policy makers decide to either terminate or continue the policy. The policy

4720-448: The incentive compatibility problems that can happen to foreign aid donations –that foreign aid granting countries continue to give it to countries with little results of economic growth but with corrupt leaders that are aligned with the granting countries' geopolitical interests and agenda –there are problems of fiscal fragility associated to receiving an important amount of government revenues through foreign aid. Governments that can raise

4800-474: The local, national, or international level. The public problems that influence public policy making can be of economic, social, or political nature. A government holds a legal monopoly to initiate or threaten physical force to achieve its ends when necessary. For instance, in times of chaos when quick decision making is needed. A topology model can be used to demonstrate the types of and implementation of public policy: The direct section of money explains that

4880-428: The more likely certain conditions are to occur. Hence, all countries do not progress similarly. From the 1940s to the 1960s the state played a large role in promoting industrialization in developing countries, following the idea of modernization theory . This period was followed by a brief period of basic needs development focusing on human capital development and redistribution in the 1970s. Neoliberalism emerged in

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4960-474: The national debt as an absolute priority, the Labour Party, since the effects of Conservative austerity became apparent, have slated the policy for its 'needless' pressure on the working classes and those reliant on welfare, their 2019 election manifesto stating "Tory cuts [have] pushed our public services to breaking point" and that "the Conservatives have starved our education system of funding". Furthermore, in

5040-548: The nature in which norms, customs and morals are proven acceptable, unacceptable, desirable or undesirable changes as well. Thus, the search of crucial problems to solve becomes difficult to distinguish within 'top-down' governmental bodies. The policy stream is a concept developed by John Kingdon as a model proposed to show compelling problems need to be conjoined with two other factors: appropriate political climate and favorable and feasible solutions (attached to problems) that flow together to move onto policy agenda. This reinforces

5120-448: The opportunities to get them and the proper functionality of institutions and organizations that can attend more technically and logistically complex tasks (i.e. raise taxes and deliver public services). These processes describe the State's capabilities to manage its economy, polity, society and public administration. Generally, economic development policies attempt to solve issues in these topics. With this in mind, economic development

5200-461: The people in question and their nation. The UNDP indicates four chief factors in development, especially human development, which are empowerment, equity, productivity, and sustainability. Mansell and Wehn state that economic development has been understood by non-practitioners since the World War II to involve economic growth, namely the increases in per capita income , and (if currently absent)

5280-517: The policy window appears through the emergence and connection of problems, politics and policies, emphasizing an opportunity to stimulate and initiate new policies. The issue attention cycle is a concept developed by Anthony Downs (1972) where problems progress through five distinct stages. This reinforces how the policy agenda does not necessarily lead to policy change, as public interest dissipates, most problems end up resolving themselves or get ignored by policymakers. Its key stages include: This

5360-466: The policy, making sure the organization has the resources/legal authority to do so, in addition to making sure the policy is carried out as planned. An example of this would be the department of education being set up. Enforcement mechanisms are a central part of various policies. Enforcement mechanisms co-determine natural resource governance outcomes and pollution -related policies may require proper enforcement mechanisms (and often substitutes) to have

5440-482: The policy." Easton characterized public policy as "a web of decisions and actions that allocates values". Other definitions of public policy in terms of a broad range of empirical phenomena include that of Paul Cairney: "the sum total of government action from signals of intent to the final outcomes". An example of conceiving public policy as ideas is a definition by Richard Titmuss : "the principles that govern action directed towards given ends". Titmuss' perspective

5520-485: The political forces that facilitate legislative decisions may run counter to the will of the people. Public policy focuses on the decisions that create the outputs of a political system, such as transport policies, the management of a public health service, the administration of a system schooling and the organization of a defense force. The directly measurable policy outputs, "actions actually taken in pursuance of policy decisions and statements," can be differentiated from

5600-452: The publics mood and the structure of government which all play a role in the complexity of public policy making. The large set of actors in the public policy process, such as politicians, civil servants, lobbyists, domain experts, and industry or sector representatives, use a variety of tactics and tools to advance their aims, including advocating their positions publicly, attempting to educate supporters and opponents, and mobilizing allies on

5680-466: The purpose of changing their economy and society", effectively saying that public policy is legislation brought in with the aim of benefiting or impacting the electorate in some way. In another definition, author B. Dente in his book Understanding Policy Decisions explains public policy as "a set of actions that affect the solution of a policy problem, i.e. a dissatisfaction regarding a certain need, demand or opportunity for public intervention. Its quality

5760-770: The region's most pressing issues. The Partnership was formed in 1989 in a merger of the Greater Houston Chamber of Commerce, the Houston Economic Development Council and the Houston World Trade Association. Today, the Partnership serves the 12-county greater Houston region and represents a member roster of 900 businesses and institutions. Members of the Partnership account for one-fifth of all jobs in Houston. They engage in various initiatives, committees and task forces. The organization

5840-453: The relative economic advancement of a given region or nation. The World Bank 's "World Development Indicators" are compiled annually from officially recognized international sources and include national, regional and global estimates. GDP per capita is gross domestic product divided by mid-year population. GDP is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product taxes and minus any subsidizes not included in

5920-448: The stages a policy must go through before an authoritative decision is made and carried out. As an example, the agenda setting stage is followed by the policy formulation, this will continue until the policy is implemented. "Top-down" and "bottom-up" describe the process of policy implementation. Top-down implementation means the carrying out of a policy at the top i.e. central government or legislature. The bottom-up approach suggests that

6000-437: The state uses authoritative power to enforce this. This comes in ways of making an action mandatory (Oblige) or prohibiting the behavior by threatening of law (Prohibit). The indirect section of Other is spreading information on an issue to the public (Inform) and making calls to action on an issue (Implore) It is through a combined effort of these means that a state addresses and works on any given issue. Public policy making

6080-415: The value of the products. It is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion and degradation of natural resources. Median income is related to real gross national income per capita and income distribution . European development economists have argued that the existence of modern transportation networks- such as high-speed rail infrastructure constitutes

6160-478: Was established in 1989, when the Houston Chamber of Commerce, the Houston Economic Development Council, and the Houston World Trade Association merged. The Partnership's roots extend to the original Houston Chamber of Commerce's creation in 1840. In 1992, the Partnership founded The Center for Houston's Future as a non-profit research organization. The Center for Houston's Future became an independent affiliate of

6240-421: Was particularly one of social contract ethics. More recently, Antonio Lassance has defined public policy as "an institutionalized proposal to solve a central problem, guided by a conception" (Lassance, 2020: 7). Lassance's perspective and concerns are grounded in a theory of change or program theory which he believes can be empirically tested. One of the most known and controversial concepts of public policy

6320-515: Was spreading false information in hopes to profit from the project. Economic development The term has been used frequently in the 20th and 21st centuries, but the concept has existed in the West for far longer. " Modernization ", " Westernization ", and especially " industrialization " are other terms often used while discussing economic development. Historically, economic development policies focused on industrialization and infrastructure ; since

6400-566: Was strongly opposed by the Houston Chamber of Commerce. Over $ 400,000 in advertisements were purchased by business leaders to ensure that Houston would not become a "gay mecca." This opposition was led by former mayor and Houston Chamber of Commerce president Louie Welch . In 2019, the Greater Houston Partnership called for the Texas Education Agency to assign a board of managers to run HISD. The Houston Independent School District takeover began in 2023. The Partnership’s current Chair

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