This is an accepted version of this page
137-462: Great Zimbabwe is a medieval city in the south-eastern hills of the modern country of Zimbabwe , near Lake Mutirikwe and the town of Masvingo . It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe from the 13th century, having been settled in the 4th century AD. Construction on the city began in the 11th century and continued until it was abandoned in the 15th century. The edifices were erected by ancestors of
274-483: A Shona term for Great Zimbabwe , a medieval city ( Masvingo ) in the country's south-east. Two different theories address the origin of the word. Many sources hold that "Zimbabwe" derives from dzimba-dza-mabwe , translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as "houses of stones" ( dzimba = plural of imba , "house"; mabwe = plural of ibwe , "stone"). The Karanga-speaking Shona people live around Great Zimbabwe in
411-615: A national monument by the Zimbabwean government, and the modern independent state was named after it. The word great distinguishes the site from the many smaller ruins, now known as "zimbabwes", spread across the Zimbabwe Highveld . There are 200 such sites in southern Africa, such as Bumbusi in Zimbabwe and Manyikeni in Mozambique , with monumental, mortarless walls. Zimbabwe is
548-459: A presidential election along with a parliamentary election . The results of this election were withheld for two weeks, after which it was generally acknowledged that the Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai (MDC-T) had achieved a majority of one seat in the lower house of parliament. In September 2008, a power-sharing agreement was reached between Tsvangirai and President Mugabe, permitting
685-567: A self-governing British colony , subsequent to a 1922 referendum . Rhodesians of all races served on behalf of the United Kingdom during the two World Wars in the early-20th century. Proportional to the white population, Southern Rhodesia contributed more per capita to both the First and Second World Wars than any other part of the empire, including Britain. The 1930 Land Apportionment Act restricted black land ownership to certain segments of
822-472: A book publication that introduced the ruins to English readers. Bent had no formal archaeological training, but had travelled very widely in Arabia , Greece and Asia Minor . He was aided by the expert cartographer and surveyor Robert M. W. Swan (1858–1904), who also visited and surveyed a host of related stone ruins nearby. Bent stated in the first edition of his book The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland (1892) that
959-415: A coinage by the black nationalist Michael Mawema, whose Zimbabwe National Party became the first to officially use the name in 1961. The term "Rhodesia"—derived from the surname of Cecil Rhodes , the primary instigator of British colonisation of the territory—was perceived by African nationalists as inappropriate because of its colonial origin and connotations. According to Mawema, black nationalists held
1096-467: A decline in trade compared to sites further north, the exhaustion of the gold mines, political instability and famine and water shortages induced by climatic change. The Mutapa state arose in the 15th century from the northward expansion of the Great Zimbabwe tradition, having been founded by Nyatsimba Mutota from Great Zimbabwe after he was sent to find new sources of salt in the north; (this supports
1233-464: A few kilometres north and about 56 km (35 mi) south of the site, he did not make a reference to Great Zimbabwe. Portuguese traders heard about the remains of the medieval city in the early 16th century, and records survive of interviews and notes made by some of them, linking Great Zimbabwe to gold production and long-distance trade. Two of those accounts mention an inscription above the entrance to Great Zimbabwe, written in characters not known to
1370-789: A gesture of goodwill, Barros subsequently paid the debts of those who had perished in the expedition. During these years he had continued his studies in his leisure hours, and shortly after the Brazilian disaster he offered to write a history of the Portuguese in India, the Décadas da Ásia , which the king accepted. He began work forthwith, but, before printing the first part, he published a Portuguese grammar (1539) and some further moral Dialogues. His 1543 text Diálogo evangélico sobre os artigos da fé contra o Talmud dos Judeus makes anti-Jewish remarks. The first of
1507-451: A history of the Portuguese in India, Asia, and southeast Africa. João de Barros was born in Viseu , Portugal around 1496. He was the illegitimate son of Lopo de Barros, a squire in the royal household of Manuel I of Portugal and a holder of various judicial posts. Nothing is known of his mother. At a young age his father died and he was placed into service at the royal household, where he became
SECTION 10
#17330857117531644-614: A huge boulder in a shape similar to that of the Zimbabwe Bird. The Great Enclosure is composed of an inner wall, encircling a series of structures and a younger outer wall. The Conical Tower, 5.5 m (18 ft) in diameter and 9 m (30 ft) high, was constructed between the two walls. The Valley Complex is divided into the Upper and Lower Valley Ruins, with different periods of occupation. There are different archaeological interpretations of these groupings. It has been suggested that
1781-488: A meeting in 1960 to choose an alternative name for the country, proposing names such as "Matshobana" and " Monomotapa " before his suggestion, "Zimbabwe", prevailed. It was initially unclear how the chosen term was to be used—a letter written by Mawema in 1961 refers to "Zimbabweland" — but "Zimbabwe" was sufficiently established by 1962 to become the generally preferred term of the black nationalist movement. Like those of many African countries that gained independence during
1918-423: A military system with regimental kraals , similar to those of Shaka, which was stable enough to repel further Boer incursions. Mzilikazi died in 1868; following a violent power struggle, his son Lobengula succeeded him. In the 1880s, European colonists arrived with Cecil Rhodes 's British South Africa Company (chartered in 1889). In 1888, Rhodes obtained a concession for mining rights from King Lobengula of
2055-591: A more recent survey concluded that the population likely never exceeded 10,000. The ruins that survive are built entirely of stone; they span 730 ha (1,800 acres). In 1531, Vicente Pegado, Captain of the Portuguese Garrison of Sofala , described Zimbabwe thus: Among the gold mines of the inland plains between the Limpopo and Zambezi rivers there is a fortress built of stones of marvelous size, and there appears to be no mortar joining them ... This edifice
2192-528: A non-Shona head of state. Archaeological records date archaic human settlement of present-day Zimbabwe to at least 500,000 years ago. Zimbabwe's earliest known inhabitants were most likely the San people , who left behind a legacy of arrowheads and cave paintings. Approximately 2,000 years ago, the first Bantu-speaking farmers arrived during the Bantu expansion. Societies speaking proto- Shona languages first emerged in
2329-568: A page to the heir apparent, Dom João, the future João III of Portugal . Educated in the palace, he composed, at the age of twenty, a romance of chivalry, the Chronicle of the Emperor Clarimundo , in which he is said to have had the assistance of Prince John (later King John III ). Upon ascending the throne, King John III awarded Barros the captaincy of the fortress of St George of Elmina , to which he proceeded in 1524. In 1525, he obtained
2466-558: A position of great responsibility and importance at a time when Lisbon was the European center for the trade of the East. Barros proved a good administrator, displaying great industry and an honesty rare at the time, with the result that he made little profit compared to his predecessors, who had amassed fortunes. In 1534, João III introduced an initiative to encourage the colonization of Brazil . A dozen hereditary captaincies were established along
2603-434: A recommendation. In August 2023, President Emmerson Mnangagwa won a second term in an outcome of the election rejected by the opposition and questioned by observers. In September 2023, Zimbabwe signed control over almost 20% of the country's land to the carbon offset company Blue Carbon . Zimbabwe is a landlocked country in southern Africa, lying between latitudes 15° and 23°S , and longitudes 25° and 34°E . It
2740-438: A royal palace for the local monarch. As such, it would have been used as the seat of political power. Among the edifice's most prominent features were its walls, some of which are 11 metres (36 ft) high. They were constructed of " dry stone " (that is, without mortar ). Eventually, the city was abandoned and fell into ruin. The earliest document mentioning the Great Zimbabwe ruins was in 1531 by Vicente Pegado , captain of
2877-464: A year, and had done so for quite a long time. If this rate of growth had been maintained for the next 37 years, Zimbabwe would have in 2016 a GDP of US$ 52 billion. Instead it had a formal sector GDP of only US$ 14 billion, a cost of US$ 38 billion in lost growth. The population growth in 1980 was among the highest in Africa at about 3.5 per cent per annum, doubling every 21 years. Had this growth been maintained,
SECTION 20
#17330857117533014-581: Is a landlocked country in Southeast Africa , between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers , bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia to the north, and Mozambique to the east. The capital and largest city is Harare , and the second largest is Bulawayo . A country of roughly 16.6 million people as per 2024 census, Zimbabwe's largest ethnic group are the Shona , who make up 80% of
3151-461: Is a republic with a presidential system of government. The semi-presidential system was abolished with the adoption of a new constitution after a referendum in 2013 . Under the constitutional changes in 2005, an upper chamber , the Senate , was reinstated. The House of Assembly is the lower chamber of Parliament. In 1987 Mugabe revised the constitution, abolishing the ceremonial presidency and
3288-515: Is almost surrounded by hills, upon which are others resembling it in the fashioning of stone and the absence of mortar, and one of them is a tower more than 12 fathoms [22 m] high. The natives of the country call these edifices Symbaoe, which according to their language signifies court. The ruins form three distinct architectural groups. They are known as the Hill Complex, the Valley Complex and
3425-443: Is believed to have been an early Venda-speaking culture, and to the nearby Sotho. More recent archaeological work has been carried out by Peter Garlake , who has produced the comprehensive descriptions of the site, David Beach and Thomas Huffman , who have worked on the chronology and development of Great Zimbabwe and Gilbert Pwiti , who has published extensively on trade links. Today, the most recent consensus appears to attribute
3562-442: Is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the west and southwest, Zambia to the northwest, and Mozambique to the east and northeast. Its northwest corner is roughly 150 meters from Namibia , nearly forming a four-nation quadripoint . Most of the country is elevated, consisting of a central plateau (high veld) stretching from the southwest northwards with altitudes between 1,000 and 1,600 m. The country's extreme east
3699-457: Is derived from Dzimba-dze-mabwe , translated from Shona as "large houses of stone" ( dzimba = plural of imba , "house"; mabwe = plural of bwe , "stone"). A second suggests that Zimbabwe is a contracted form of dzimba-hwe , which means "venerated houses" in the Zezuru dialect of Shona, as usually applied to the houses or graves of chiefs. The majority of scholars believe that it
3836-463: Is mountainous, this area being known as the Eastern Highlands , with Mount Nyangani as the highest point at 2,592 m. The highlands are known for their natural environment, with tourist destinations such as Nyanga , Troutbeck, Chimanimani , Vumba and Chirinda Forest at Mount Selinda . About 20% of the country consists of low-lying areas, (the low veld) under 900m. Victoria Falls , one of
3973-580: The American declaration of 1776, which Smith and others indeed claimed provided a suitable precedent to their own actions. The United Kingdom deemed the Rhodesian declaration an act of rebellion but did not re-establish control by force. The British government petitioned the United Nations for sanctions against Rhodesia pending unsuccessful talks with Smith's administration in 1966 and 1968. In December 1966,
4110-633: The Bantu people (who would become the ethnic Shona) built the city-state of Great Zimbabwe ; the city-state became one of the major African trade centres by the 11th century but was abandoned by the mid 15th century. From there, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe was established, followed by the Rozvi and Mutapa empires. The British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes demarcated the Rhodesia region in 1890 when they conquered Mashonaland and later in 1893 Matabeleland after
4247-456: The Cold War , Zimbabwe is an ethnically neutral name. It is debatable to what extent Zimbabwe, being over 80% homogenously Shona and dominated by them in various ways, can be described as a nation state . The constitution acknowledges 16 languages, but only embraces two of them nationally, Shona and English. Shona is taught widely in schools, unlike Ndebele . Zimbabwe has additionally never had
Great Zimbabwe - Misplaced Pages Continue
4384-598: The Constitution of Zimbabwe Mugabe should be succeeded by Vice-president Phelekezela Mphoko , a supporter of Grace Mugabe , ZANU–PF chief whip Lovemore Matuke stated to the Reuters news agency that Mnangagwa would be appointed as president. On 30 July 2018 Zimbabwe held its general elections , which were won by the ZANU-PF party led by Mnangagwa. Nelson Chamisa who was leading the main opposition party MDC Alliance contested
4521-407: The Décadas da Ásia ("Decades of Asia") appeared in 1552, and its reception was such that the king straightway charged Barros to write a chronicle of King Manuel. His many occupations, however, prevented him from undertaking this book, which was finally composed by Damião de Góis . The second Decade came out in 1553 and the third in 1563, but he died before publishing the fourth Decade . The latter
4658-641: The First Matabele War . Company rule ended in 1923 with the establishment of Southern Rhodesia as a self-governing British colony . In 1965, the white minority government unilaterally declared independence as Rhodesia . The state endured international isolation and a 15-year guerrilla war with black nationalist forces; this culminated in a peace agreement that established de jure sovereignty as Zimbabwe in April 1980. Robert Mugabe became Prime Minister of Zimbabwe in 1980, when his ZANU–PF party won
4795-453: The Institute for Security Studies (ISS) concluded that due to the deterioration of government and the economy "the government encourages corruption to make up for its inability to fund its own institutions" with widespread and informal police roadblocks to issue fines to travellers being one manifestation of this. In July 2016 nationwide protests took place regarding the economic collapse in
4932-497: The Kingdom of Zimbabwe eclipsed Mapungubwe. This Shona state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture. From c. 1450 to 1760, the Kingdom of Mutapa ruled much of the area of present-day Zimbabwe, plus parts of central Mozambique. It is known by many names including the Mutapa Empire, also known as Mwene Mutapa or Monomotapa as well as "Munhumutapa", and was renowned for its strategic trade routes with
5069-448: The Shona name of the ruins, first recorded in 1531 by Vicente Pegado, captain of the Portuguese garrison of Sofala. Pegado noted that "The natives of the country call these edifices Symbaoe , which according to their language signifies 'court ' ". The name contains dzimba , the Shona term for "houses". There are two theories for the etymology of the name. The first proposes that the word
5206-525: The Shona languages , based upon evidence of pottery, oral traditions and anthropology and recent scholarship supports the construction of Great Zimbabwe (and the origin of its culture) by Shona and Venda peoples, who were probably descended from the Gokomere culture. The Gokomere culture, an eastern Bantu subgroup, existed in the area from around 200 AD and flourished from 500 AD to about 800 AD. Archaeological evidence indicates that it constitutes an early phase of
5343-420: The Shona people , currently located in Zimbabwe and nearby countries. The stone city spans an area of 7.22 square kilometres (2.79 sq mi) and could have housed up to 18,000 people at its peak, giving it a population density of approximately 2,500 inhabitants per square kilometre (6,500/sq mi). It is recognised as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO . Great Zimbabwe is believed to have served as
5480-503: The general election following the end of white minority rule and has remained the country's dominant party since. He was the President of Zimbabwe from 1987, after converting the country's initial parliamentary system into a presidential one , until his resignation in 2017. Under Mugabe's authoritarian regime, the state security apparatus dominated the country and was responsible for widespread human rights violations. From 1997 to 2008
5617-642: The "humanitarian situation has improved in Zimbabwe since 2009, but conditions remain precarious for many people". A new constitution approved in the Zimbabwean constitutional referendum, 2013 curtails presidential powers. Mugabe was re-elected president in the July 2013 Zimbabwean general election which The Economist described as "rigged" and the Daily Telegraph as "stolen". The Movement for Democratic Change alleged massive fraud and tried to seek relief through
Great Zimbabwe - Misplaced Pages Continue
5754-423: The 120 constituencies. Moyo participated in the elections despite the allegations and won a seat as an independent member of Parliament. Jo%C3%A3o de Barros João de Barros ( Portuguese pronunciation: [ʒuˈɐ̃w dɨ ˈβaʁuʃ] ; 1496 – 20 October 1570), nicknamed the "Portuguese Livy ", is one of the first great Portuguese historians, most famous for his Décadas da Ásia ( Decades of Asia ),
5891-460: The 1950s, there has been consensus among archaeologists as to the African origins of Great Zimbabwe. Artefacts and radiocarbon dating indicate settlement in at least the 5th century, with continuous settlement of Great Zimbabwe between the 12th and 15th centuries and the bulk of the finds from the 15th century. The radiocarbon evidence is a suite of 28 measurements, for which all but the first four, from
6028-546: The Arab merchants who had seen it. In 1506, the explorer Diogo de Alcáçova described the edifices in a letter to Manuel I of Portugal , writing that they were part of the larger kingdom of Ucalanga (presumably Karanga, a dialect of the Shona people spoken mainly in Masvingo and Midlands provinces of Zimbabwe). João de Barros left another such description of Great Zimbabwe in 1538, as recounted to him by Moorish traders who had visited
6165-557: The Arabs and Portugal. The Portuguese sought to monopolise this influence and began a series of wars which left the empire in near collapse in the early 17th century. As a direct response to increased European presence in the interior a new Shona state emerged, known as the Rozwi Empire . Relying on centuries of military, political and religious development, the Rozwi (meaning "destroyers") expelled
6302-605: The Austrian Habsburg authorities), and by an A.A. Anderson (writing about his travels north of the Limpopo River in the 19th century). Lemba speak the Bantu languages spoken by their geographic neighbours and resemble them physically, but they have some religious practices and beliefs similar to those in Judaism and Islam , which they claim were transmitted by oral tradition. The first scientific archaeological excavations at
6439-494: The British government invited Muzorewa, Mugabe, and Nkomo to participate in a constitutional conference at Lancaster House . The purpose of the conference was to discuss and reach an agreement on the terms of an independence constitution, and provide for elections supervised under British authority allowing Zimbabwe Rhodesia to proceed to legal independence. With Lord Carrington, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs of
6576-522: The City centre and Mashava. The campuses include Herbet Chitepo Law School, Robert Mugabe School of Education, Gary Magadzire School of Agriculture and Natural Science, Simon Muzenda School of Arts, and Munhumutapa School of Commerce. Zimbabwe Zimbabwe ( / z ɪ m ˈ b ɑː b w eɪ , - w i / ; Shona pronunciation: [zi.ᵐba.ɓwe] ), officially the Republic of Zimbabwe ,
6713-537: The Eastern Highlands. The country is mostly savanna , although the moist and mountainous Eastern Highlands support areas of tropical evergreen and hardwood forests. Trees found in the Eastern Highlands include teak , mahogany , enormous specimens of strangler fig , forest Newtonia , big leaf, white stinkwood , chirinda stinkwood, knobthorn and many others. In the low-lying parts of the country fever trees , mopane , combretum and baobabs abound. Much of
6850-522: The Golden Age ; examples from fiction include Wilbur Smith 's The Sunbird and Stanlake Samkange 's Year of the Uprising . When white colonialists like Cecil Rhodes first saw the ruins, they saw them as a sign of the great riches that the area would yield to its new masters. Pikirayi and Kaarsholm suggest that this presentation of Great Zimbabwe was partly intended to encourage settlement and investment in
6987-637: The Great Enclosure. The Hill Complex is the oldest, and was occupied from the 11th to 13th centuries. The Great Enclosure was occupied from the 13th to 15th centuries, and the Valley Complex from the 14th to 16th centuries. Notable features of the Hill Complex include the Eastern Enclosure, in which it is thought the Zimbabwe Birds stood, a high balcony enclosure overlooking the Eastern Enclosure, and
SECTION 50
#17330857117537124-523: The Great Zimbabwe culture. The Gokomere culture likely gave rise to both the modern Mashona people, an ethnic cluster comprising distinct sub-ethnic groups such as the local Karanga clan and the Rozwi culture, which originated as several Shona states. Gokomere peoples were probably also related to certain nearby early Bantu groups like the Mapungubwe civilisation of neighbouring North eastern South Africa, which
7261-618: The Ndebele peoples. He presented this concession to persuade the government of the United Kingdom to grant a royal charter to the company over Matabeleland, and its subject states such as Mashonaland as well. Rhodes used this document in 1890 to justify sending the Pioneer Column , a group of Europeans protected by well-armed British South Africa Police (BSAP) through Matabeleland and into Shona territory to establish Fort Salisbury (present-day Harare ), and thereby establish company rule over
7398-598: The Portuguese João dos Santos. Mauch went so far as to favour a legend that the structures were built to replicate the palace of the Queen of Sheba in Jerusalem, and claimed a wooden lintel at the site must be Lebanese cedar , brought by Phoenicians . The Sheba legend, as promoted by Mauch, became so pervasive in the white settler community as to cause the later scholar James Theodore Bent to say, The names of King Solomon and
7535-662: The Portuguese from the Zimbabwean plateau in 1683. Around 1821 the Zulu general Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan successfully rebelled against King Shaka and established his own clan, the Ndebele . The Ndebele fought their way northwards into the Transvaal , leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the Mfecane . When Dutch trekboers converged on
7672-429: The Portuguese garrison of Sofala on the coast of modern-day Mozambique, who recorded it as Symbaoe . The first confirmed visits by Europeans were in the late 19th century, with investigations of the site starting in 1871. Some later studies of the monument were controversial, as the white government of Rhodesia pressured archeologists to deny its construction by black Africans. Great Zimbabwe has since been adopted as
7809-455: The Queen of Sheba were on everybody's lips, and have become so distasteful to us that we never expect to hear them again without an involuntary shudder. Carl Peters collected a ceramic ushabti in 1905. Flinders Petrie examined it and identified a cartouche on its chest as belonging to the 18th Dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III and suggested that it was a statuette of the king and cited it as proof of commercial ties between rulers in
7946-479: The Rhodes administration subdued the Ndebele and Shona groups and organised the land with a disproportionate bias favouring Europeans, thus displacing many indigenous peoples. The United Kingdom annexed Southern Rhodesia on 12 September 1923. Shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force. Under the new constitution, Southern Rhodesia became
8083-646: The Transvaal in 1836, they drove the tribe even further northward, with the assistance of Tswana Barolong warriors and Griqua commandos. By 1838 the Ndebele had conquered the Rozwi Empire, along with the other smaller Shona states, and reduced them to vassaldom . After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled in the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known as Matabeleland, establishing Bulawayo as their capital. Mzilikazi then organised his society into
8220-675: The UANC head, became prime minister and the country's name was changed to Zimbabwe Rhodesia. The Internal Settlement left control of the Rhodesian Security Forces , civil service, judiciary, and a third of parliament seats to whites. On 12 June, the United States Senate voted to lift economic pressure on the former Rhodesia. Following the fifth Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting , held in Lusaka , Zambia, from 1 to 7 August in 1979,
8357-542: The United Kingdom, in the chair, these discussions were mounted from 10 September to 15 December in 1979, producing a total of 47 plenary sessions . On 21 December 1979, delegations from every major interest represented reached the Lancaster House Agreement , effectively ending the guerrilla war. On 11 December 1979, the Rhodesian House of Assembly voted 90 to nil to revert to British colonial status. With
SECTION 60
#17330857117538494-541: The United States enacted the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act (ZDERA). It came into effect in 2002 and froze credit to the Zimbabwean government. By 2003, the country's economy had collapsed. It is estimated that up to a quarter of Zimbabwe's 11 million people had fled the country. Three-quarters of the remaining Zimbabweans were living on less than one U.S. dollar a day. Following elections in 2005 ,
8631-516: The Valley complex was for the citizens, and the Great Enclosure was used by the king. Structures that were more elaborate were probably built for the kings, although it has been argued that the dating of finds in the complexes does not support this interpretation. Dhaka pits were closed depressions utilized by inhabitants of Great Zimbabwe as sources of water management in the form of reservoirs , wells and springs. Dhaka pits may have been in use since
8768-467: The ZANU–PF party, which claimed 117 of the 120 contested seats. During the 1990s, students, trade unionists, and other workers often demonstrated to express their growing discontent with Mugabe and ZANU–PF party policies. In 1996, civil servants, nurses, and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues. The general health of the population also began to significantly decline; by 1997 an estimated 25% of
8905-424: The adaptations that have been made to contemporary archaeological methodologies. Preben Kaarsholm writes that both colonial and black nationalist groups invoked Great Zimbabwe's past to support their vision of the country's present, through the media of popular history and of fiction. Examples of such popular history include Alexander Wilmot 's Monomotapa (Rhodesia) and Ken Mufuka 's Dzimbahwe: Life and Politics in
9042-472: The amount of wildlife. Woodland degradation and deforestation caused by population growth , urban expansion and use for fuel are major concerns and have led to erosion which diminishes the amount of fertile soil. Local farmers have been criticised by environmentalists for burning off vegetation to heat their tobacco barns. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.31/10, ranking it 81st globally out of 172 countries. Zimbabwe
9179-410: The ancestors of the Shona people. More importantly he suggested a wholly medieval date for the walled fortifications and temple. This claim was not immediately accepted, partly due to the relatively short and undermanned period of excavation he was able to undertake. In mid-1929 Gertrude Caton Thompson concluded, after a twelve-day visit of a three-person team and the digging of several trenches, that
9316-403: The area and possessed knowledge of the hinterland. He indicates that the edifices were locally known as Symbaoe , which meant "royal court" in the vernacular. As to the actual identity of the builders of Great Zimbabwe, de Barros writes: When and by whom, these edifices were raised, as the people of the land are ignorant of the art of writing, there is no record, but they say they are the work of
9453-511: The area and the ancient Egyptians during the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1077 BC), if not a relic of an old Egyptian station near the local gold mines. Johann Heinrich Schäfer later appraised the statuette, and argued that it belonged to a well-known group of forgeries. After having received the ushabti, Felix von Luschan suggested that it was of more recent origin than the New Kingdom. He asserted that
9590-453: The area. Gertrude Caton-Thompson recognised that the builders were indigenous Africans, but she characterised the site as the "product of an infantile mind" built by a subjugated society. The official line in Rhodesia during the 1960s and 1970s was that the structures were built by non-blacks. Archaeologists who disputed the official statement were censored by the government. According to Paul Sinclair, interviewed for None But Ourselves : I
9727-400: The area. In 1893 and 1894, with the help of their new Maxim guns, the BSAP would go on to defeat the Ndebele in the First Matabele War . Rhodes additionally sought permission to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the Limpopo River and Lake Tanganyika , then known as "Zambesia". In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and treaties, mass settlement
9864-592: The areas of living standards, public health (with a major cholera outbreak in December) and various basic affairs. During this period, NGOs took over from government as a primary provider of food during this period of food insecurity in Zimbabwe. A 2011 survey by Freedom House suggested that living conditions had improved since the power-sharing agreement. The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs stated in its 2012–2013 planning document that
10001-520: The arrival of Christopher Soames , the new governor on 12 December 1979, Britain formally took control of Zimbabwe Rhodesia as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia. Britain lifted sanctions on 12 December and the United Nations on 16 December. During the elections of February 1980 , Mugabe and the ZANU party secured a landslide victory. Prince Charles , as the representative of Britain, formally granted independence to
10138-478: The belief that Great Zimbabwe's decline was due to a shortage of resources). Great Zimbabwe also predates the Khami and Nyanga cultures. The first European visit may have been made by the Portuguese traveler António Fernandes in 1513–1515, who crossed twice and reported in detail the region of present-day Zimbabwe (including the Shona kingdoms) and also fortified centers in stone without mortar. However, passing en route
10275-471: The carvings have now been returned to Zimbabwe, but one remains at Rhodes' old home, Groote Schuur , in Cape Town . In the early 21st century, the government of Zimbabwe endorsed the creation of a university in the vicinity of the ruins. This university is an arts and culture based university which draws from the rich history of the monuments. The university main site is near the monuments with other campuses in
10412-746: The central plateau receive frost in winter. The Zambezi valley is known for its extreme heat, and the Eastern Highlands usually experience cool temperatures and the highest rainfall in the country. The country's rainy season generally runs from late October to March, and the hot climate is moderated by increasing altitude. Zimbabwe is faced with recurring droughts. In 2019, at least 55 elephants died because of drought. Severe storms are rare. Zimbabwe contains seven terrestrial ecoregions: Kalahari acacia–baikiaea woodlands , Southern Africa bushveld , Southern miombo woodlands , Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands , Zambezian and mopane woodlands , Zambezian halophytics , and Eastern Zimbabwe montane forest-grassland mosaic in
10549-500: The city and its proposed state, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe , flourished from 1200 to 1500, although a somewhat earlier date for its demise is implied by a description transmitted in the early 16th century to João de Barros . Its growth has been linked to the decline of Mapungubwe from around 1300, due to climatic change or the greater availability of gold in the hinterland of Great Zimbabwe. Traditional estimates are that Great Zimbabwe had as many as 18,000 inhabitants at its peak. However,
10686-455: The city formed part of a trade network linked to Kilwa and extending as far as China . Copper coins found at Kilwa Kisiwani appear to be of the same pure ore found on the Swahili coast . This international trade was mainly in gold and ivory . That international commerce was in addition to the local agricultural trade, in which cattle were especially important. The large cattle herd that supplied
10823-442: The city moved seasonally and was managed by the court. Chinese pottery shards, coins from Arabia, glass beads and other non-local items have been excavated at Zimbabwe. Despite these strong international trade links, there is no evidence to suggest exchange of architectural concepts between Great Zimbabwe and centres such as Kilwa. The causes for the decline and ultimate abandonment of the site around 1450 have been suggested as due to
10960-430: The coast and placed under the governorship of donatários or lord-proprietors. Barros was one of the first to be granted a captaincy at Maranhão . He formed a partnership with two merchants, Aries da Cunha and Alvares de Andrade, and sent an expedition consisting of ten vessels and 900 men to Brazil. Owing to the ignorance of the pilots, the whole fleet was shipwrecked, which entailed serious financial loss to Barros. As
11097-558: The complexes represent the work of successive kings: some of the new rulers founded a new residence. The focus of power moved from the Hill Complex in the 12th century, to the Great Enclosure, the Upper Valley and finally the Lower Valley in the early 16th century. The alternative "structuralist" interpretation holds that the different complexes had different functions: the Hill Complex as an area for rituals , perhaps related to rain making,
11234-473: The construction of Great Zimbabwe to the Shona people. Some evidence also suggests an early influence from the probably Venda -speaking peoples of the Mapungubwe civilization. Damage to the ruins has taken place throughout the last century. The removal of gold and artefacts in amateurist diggings by early colonial antiquarians caused widespread damage, notably diggings by Richard Nicklin Hall . More extensive damage
11371-518: The country is covered by miombo woodland, dominated by brachystegia species and others. Among the numerous flowers and shrubs are hibiscus , flame lily , snake lily , spider lily , leonotis , cassia , tree wisteria and dombeya . There are around 350 species of mammals that can be found in Zimbabwe. There are also many snakes and lizards, over 500 bird species, and 131 fish species. Large parts of Zimbabwe were once covered by forests with abundant wildlife. Deforestation and poaching has reduced
11508-618: The country's leading export-producing sector. Some 58,000 independent black farmers have since experienced limited success in reviving the gutted cash crop sectors through efforts on a smaller scale. President Mugabe and the ZANU–PF party leadership found themselves beset by a wide range of international sanctions. In 2002, the nation was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations due to the reckless farm seizures and blatant election tampering . The following year, Zimbabwean officials voluntarily terminated its Commonwealth membership. In 2001,
11645-565: The country, setting aside large areas solely for the purchase of the white minority. This act, which led to rapidly rising inequality, became the subject of frequent calls for subsequent land reform. In 1953, in the face of African opposition, Britain consolidated the two Rhodesias with Nyasaland (Malawi) in the ill-fated Central African Federation , which Southern Rhodesia essentially dominated. Growing African nationalism and general dissent, particularly in Nyasaland, persuaded Britain to dissolve
11782-475: The country. In November 2017, the army led a coup d'état following the dismissal of Vice-president Emmerson Mnangagwa , placing Mugabe under house arrest. The army denied that their actions constituted a coup . On 19 November 2017, ZANU–PF sacked Robert Mugabe as party leader and appointed former Vice-president Emmerson Mnangagwa in his place. On 21 November 2017, Mugabe tendered his resignation prior to impeachment proceedings being completed. Although under
11919-554: The courts. In a surprising moment of candour at the ZANU–PF congress in December 2014, President Robert Mugabe accidentally let slip that the opposition had in fact won the contentious 2008 polls by an astounding 73%. After winning the election, the Mugabe ZANU–PF government re-instituted one party rule , doubled the civil service and, according to The Economist , embarked on "misrule and dazzling corruption". A 2017 study conducted by
12056-524: The deaths of at least three million Zimbabweans in 37 years. According to World Food Programme, over two million people are facing starvation because of the recent droughts the country is going through. In 2018, President Mnangagwa announced that his government would seek to rejoin the Commonwealth , which is as of 2023 conducting a fact-finding mission prior to asking the Secretary-General to issue
12193-488: The departure from the country of prominent archaeologists of Great Zimbabwe, including Peter Garlake , Senior Inspector of Monuments for Rhodesia, and Roger Summers of the National Museum. To black nationalist groups, Great Zimbabwe became an important symbol of achievement by Africans: reclaiming its history was a major aim for those seeking majority rule. In 1980 the new internationally recognised independent country
12330-482: The devil, for in comparison with their power and knowledge it does not seem possible to them that they should be the work of man. Additionally, with regard to the purpose of the Great Zimbabwe ruins, de Barros asserted that: "in the opinion of the Moors who saw it [Great Zimbabwe] it is very ancient and was built to keep possessions of the mines, which are very old, and no gold has been extracted from them for years, because of
12467-533: The early 16th century. The ruins were rediscovered during a hunting trip in 1867 by Adam Render , a German-American hunter, prospector and trader in southern Africa, who in 1871 showed the ruins to Karl Mauch , a German explorer and geographer of Africa. Karl Mauch recorded the ruins 3 September 1871, and immediately speculated about a possible Biblical association with King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba , an explanation which had been suggested by earlier writers such as
12604-411: The early days of the use of that method and now viewed as inaccurate, support the 12th-to-15th-centuries chronology. In the 1970s, a beam that produced some of the anomalous dates in 1952 was reanalysed and gave a 14th-century date. Dated finds such as Chinese, Persian and Syrian artefacts also support the 12th- and 15th-century dates. Archaeologists generally agree that the builders probably spoke one of
12741-522: The economy experienced consistent decline (and in the latter years, hyperinflation ), though it has since seen rapid growth after the use of currencies other than the Zimbabwean dollar was permitted. In 2017, in the wake of over a year of protests against his government as well as Zimbabwe's rapidly declining economy, a coup d'état resulted in Mugabe's resignation. Emmerson Mnangagwa has since served as Zimbabwe's president. The name "Zimbabwe" stems from
12878-493: The election results claiming voter fraud, and subsequently filed a petition to the Constitution Court of Zimbabwe. The court confirmed Mnangagwa's victory, making him the newly elected president after Mugabe. In December 2017 the website Zimbabwe News, calculating the cost of the Mugabe era using various statistics, said that at the time of independence in 1980, the country was growing economically at about five per cent
13015-644: The figurine instead appeared to date to the subsequent Ptolemaic era (c. 323–30 BC), when Alexandria -based Greek merchants would export Egyptian antiquities and pseudo-antiquities to southern Africa. J. Theodore Bent undertook a season at Zimbabwe with Cecil Rhodes 's patronage and funding from the Royal Geographical Society and the British Association for the Advancement of Science. This, and other excavations undertaken for Rhodes, resulted in
13152-461: The focus shifted to stressing the natural evolution of an accumulation of wealth and power within a ruling elite. An example of the former is Ken Mufuka's booklet, although the work has been heavily criticised. A tower of the Great Zimbabwe is also depicted on the coat of arms of Zimbabwe. Some of the carvings had been taken from Great Zimbabwe around 1890 and sold to Cecil Rhodes , who was intrigued and had copies made which he gave to friends. Most of
13289-410: The former to hold the office of prime minister. Due to ministerial differences between their respective political parties, the agreement was not fully implemented until 13 February 2009. By December 2010, Mugabe was threatening to completely expropriate remaining privately owned companies in Zimbabwe unless "western sanctions" were lifted. In late 2008, problems in Zimbabwe reached crisis proportions in
13426-463: The government initiated " Operation Murambatsvina ", an effort to crack down on illegal markets and slums emerging in towns and cities, leaving a substantial section of urban poor homeless. The Zimbabwean government has described the operation as an attempt to provide decent housing to the population, although according to critics such as Amnesty International , authorities have yet to properly substantiate their claims. On 29 March 2008, Zimbabwe held
13563-403: The government pressed ahead with its Fast Track Land Reform programme, a policy involving compulsory land acquisition aimed at redistributing land from the minority white population to the majority black population. Confiscations of white farmland, continuous droughts, and a serious drop in external finance and other support led to a sharp decline in agricultural exports, which were traditionally
13700-472: The international trade linkages of the Kingdom. In the extensive stone ruins of the great city, which still remain today, include eight, monolithic birds carved in soapstone. It is thought that they represent the bateleur eagle – a good omen, protective spirit and messenger of the gods in Shona culture. Archaeological evidence suggests that Great Zimbabwe became a centre for trading, with artefacts suggesting that
13837-467: The king of Viantana's killing of the Portuguese ambassadors to Malacca with boiling water and then throwing their bodies to the dogs. Diogo de Couto continued the Décadas , adding nine more, and a modern edition of the whole appeared in Lisbon in 14 vols. in 1778—1788 as Da Asia de João de Barros, dos feitos que os Portuguezes fizeram no descubrimento e conquista dos mares e terras do Oriente . The edition
13974-560: The lower Great Enclosure and in the Valley Ruins, which unearthed domestic ironwork, glass beads, and a gold bracelet. Caton Thompson immediately announced her Bantu origin theory to a meeting of the British Association in Johannesburg. Examination of all the existing evidence, gathered from every quarter, still can produce not one single item that is not in accordance with the claim of Bantu origin and medieval date Caton Thompson's claim
14111-503: The mid-2nd millennium CE and the system could hold more than 18,000 m of water storage. The most important artefacts recovered from the Monument are the eight Zimbabwe Birds . These were carved from a micaceous schist ( soapstone ) on the tops of monoliths the height of a person. Slots in a platform in the Eastern Enclosure of the Hill Complex appear designed to hold the monoliths with the Zimbabwe birds, but as they were not found in situ,
14248-486: The middle Limpopo River valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands. The Zimbabwean plateau became the centre of subsequent Shona states, beginning around the 10th century. Around the early 10th century, trade developed with Arab merchants on the Indian Ocean coast, helping to develop the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in the 11th century. This was the precursor to the Shona civilisations that dominated
14385-592: The militant communists. In March 1978, Smith reached an accord with three African leaders, led by Bishop Abel Muzorewa , who offered to leave the white population comfortably entrenched in exchange for the establishment of a biracial democracy. As a result of the Internal Settlement , elections were held in April 1979 , concluding with the United African National Council (UANC) carrying a majority of parliamentary seats. On 1 June 1979, Muzorewa,
14522-446: The modern-day Masvingo province. Archaeologist Peter Garlake claims that "Zimbabwe" represents a contracted form of dzimba-hwe , which means "venerated houses" in the Zezuru dialect of Shona and usually references chiefs' houses or graves. Zimbabwe was formerly known as Southern Rhodesia (1898), Rhodesia (1965), and Zimbabwe Rhodesia (1979). The first recorded use of "Zimbabwe" as a term of national reference dates from 1960 as
14659-790: The new nation of Zimbabwe at a ceremony in Harare in April 1980. Zimbabwe's first president after its independence was Canaan Banana in what was originally a mainly ceremonial role as head of state . Mugabe was the country's first prime minister and head of government. In 1980, Samora Machel told Mugabe that Zimbabwe was the "Jewel of Africa" but added: "Don't tarnish it!". New names for 32 places were gazetted on 18 April 1982 and by February 1984, there had been 42 changes, which included three rivers (Umniati/ Munyati ; Lundi/ Runde ; Nuanetsi/ Mwenezi ), and several changes from colonial names (such as Salisbury/Harare; Enkeldoorn/ Chivhu ; Essexvale/ Esigodini ; Fort Victoria/ Masvingo ) Opposition to what
14796-557: The number of deaths during the five-year Gukurahundi campaign ranged from 3,750 to 80,000. Thousands of others were tortured in military internment camps. The campaign officially ended in 1987 after Nkomo and Mugabe reached a unity agreement that merged their respective parties, creating the Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front ( ZANU–PF ). Elections in March 1990 resulted in another victory for Mugabe and
14933-448: The organisation complied, imposing the first mandatory trade embargo on an autonomous state. These sanctions were expanded again in 1968. A civil war ensued when Joshua Nkomo 's Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) and Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), supported actively by communist powers and neighbouring African nations, initiated guerrilla operations against Rhodesia's predominantly white government. ZAPU
15070-518: The original location of each monolith and bird within the enclosure cannot be determined . Other artefacts include soapstone figurines (one of which is in the British Museum ), pottery, iron gongs, elaborately worked ivory , iron and copper wire, iron hoes, bronze spearheads, copper ingots and crucibles, and gold beads, bracelets, pendants and sheaths. Glass beads and porcelain from China and Persia among other foreign artefacts were also found, attesting
15207-424: The population had been infected by HIV in a pandemic that was affecting most of southern Africa. Land redistribution re-emerged as the main issue for the ZANU–PF government around 1997. Despite the existence of a "willing-buyer-willing-seller" land reform programme since the 1980s, the minority white Zimbabwean population of around 0.6% continued to hold 70% of the country's most fertile agricultural land. In 2000,
15344-406: The population would have been 31 million. Instead, as of 2018, it is about 13 million. The discrepancies were believed to be partly caused by death from starvation and disease, and partly due to decreased fertility. The life expectancy has halved, and deaths from politically motivated violence sponsored by the government exceed 200,000 since 1980. The Mugabe government has directly or indirectly caused
15481-709: The population, followed by the Northern Ndebele and other smaller minorities . Zimbabwe has 16 official languages , with English, Shona , and Ndebele the most common. Zimbabwe is a member of the United Nations , the Southern African Development Community , the African Union , and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa . Beginning in the 9th century, during its late Iron Age ,
15618-466: The post of treasurer of the India House , which he held until 1528. To escape from an outbreak of bubonic plague in 1530 Barros moved from Lisbon to his country house near Pombal , where he finished a moral dialogue, Rho pica Pneuma , which was praised by Juan Luís Vives . On his return to Lisbon in 1532 the king appointed Barros factor of the "Casa da Índia e da Mina" (House of India and Mina) —
15755-447: The prime ministerial posts to form an executive president—a presidential system. His ZANU-PF party has won every election since independence—in the 1990 election the second-placed party, Edgar Tekere 's Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM), obtained 20% of the vote. During the 1995 parliamentary elections, most opposition parties, including the ZUM, boycotted the voting, resulting in a near sweep by
15892-440: The region during the 13th to 15th centuries, evidenced by ruins at Great Zimbabwe , near Masvingo , and by other smaller sites. The main archaeological site used a unique dry stone architecture. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of trading states which had developed in Zimbabwe by the time the first European explorers arrived from Portugal. These states traded gold, ivory, and copper for cloth and glass. By 1220,
16029-600: The ruins revealed either the Phoenicians or the Arabs as builders, and he favoured the possibility of great antiquity for the fortress. By the third edition of his book (1902) he was more specific, with his primary theory being "a Semitic race and of Arabian origin" of "strongly commercial" traders living within a client African city. The construction of Great Zimbabwe is also claimed by the Lemba , as documented by William Bolts in 1777 (to
16166-478: The ruling party. When the opposition returned to the polls in 2000, they won 57 seats, only five fewer than ZANU-PF. Presidential elections were again held in 2002 amid allegations of vote-rigging, intimidation and fraud. The 2005 Zimbabwe parliamentary elections were held on 31 March, and multiple claims of vote rigging, election fraud and intimidation were made by the Movement for Democratic Change party and Jonathan Moyo , calling for investigations into 32 of
16303-459: The site was indeed created by Bantu. She had first sunk three test pits into what had been refuse heaps on the upper terraces of the hill complex, producing a mix of unremarkable pottery and ironwork. She then moved to the Conical Tower and tried to dig under the tower, arguing that the ground there would be undisturbed, but nothing was revealed. Some further test trenches were then put down outside
16440-402: The site were undertaken by David Randall-MacIver for the British Association in 1905–1906. In Medieval Rhodesia , he rejected the claims made by Adam Render , Carl Peters and Karl Mauch , and instead wrote of the existence in the site of objects that were of Bantu origin. Randall-MacIver concluded that all available evidence led him to believe that the Zimbabwe structures were constructed by
16577-559: The stone buildings started in the 11th century and continued for over 300 years. The ruins at Great Zimbabwe are some of the oldest and largest structures located in Southern Africa, and are the second oldest after nearby Mapungubwe in South Africa. Its most formidable edifice, commonly referred to as the Great Enclosure, has walls as high as 11 m (36 ft) extending approximately 250 m (820 ft). David Beach believes that
16714-417: The structures at the site. These are in conjunction with damages due to the natural weathering that occurs over time due to vegetation growth, the foundations settling, and erosion from the weather. Martin Hall writes that the history of Iron Age research south of the Zambezi shows the prevalent influence of colonial ideologies, both in the earliest speculations about the nature of the African past and in
16851-503: The union in 1963, forming three separate divisions. While multiracial democracy was finally introduced to Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Southern Rhodesians of European ancestry continued to enjoy minority rule . Following Zambian independence (effective from October 1964), Ian Smith 's Rhodesian Front government in Salisbury dropped the designation "Southern" in 1964 (once Northern Rhodesia had changed its name to Zambia , having
16988-560: The wars ... it would seem that some prince who has possession of these mines ordered it to be built as a sign thereof, which he afterwards lost in the course of time and through their being so remote from his kingdom". De Barros further remarked that Symbaoe "is guarded by a nobleman, who has charge of it, after the manner of a chief alcaide, and they call this officer Symbacayo ... and there are always some of Benomotapa's wives therein of whom Symbacayo takes care." Thus, Great Zimbabwe appears to have still been inhabited as recently as
17125-422: The word Southern before the name Rhodesia became unnecessary and the country simply became known as Rhodesia afterwards). Intent on effectively repudiating the recently adopted British policy of " no independence before majority rule ", Smith issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. This marked the first such course taken by a rebel British colony since
17262-449: The world's largest and most spectacular waterfalls, is located in the country's extreme northwest and is part of the Zambezi river. Over geological time Zimbabwe has experienced two major post- Gondwana erosion cycles (known as African and post-African), and a very subordinate Plio-Pleistocene cycle. Zimbabwe has a subtropical climate with many local variations. The southern areas are known for their heat and aridity, while parts of
17399-474: Was a daily occurrence. Once a member of the Museum Board of Trustees threatened me with losing my job if I said publicly that blacks had built Zimbabwe. He said it was okay to say the yellow people had built it, but I wasn't allowed to mention radio carbon dates ... It was the first time since Germany in the thirties that archaeology has been so directly censored. This suppression of archaeology culminated in
17536-446: Was built by members of the Gokomere culture, who were the ancestors of the modern Shona in Zimbabwe. The Great Zimbabwe area was settled by the 4th century AD. Between the 4th and the 7th centuries, communities of the Gokomere or Ziwa cultures farmed the valley, and mined and worked iron, but built no stone structures. These are the earliest Iron Age settlements in the area identified from archaeological diggings. Construction of
17673-409: Was caused by the mining of some of the ruins for gold. Reconstruction attempts since 1980 caused further damage, leading to alienation of the local communities from the site. Another source of damage to the ruins has been due to the site being open to visitors with many cases of people climbing the walls, walking over archaeological deposits, and the over-use of certain paths all have had major impacts on
17810-496: Was encouraged, with the British maintaining control over labour as well as over precious metals and other mineral resources. In 1895, the BSAC adopted the name "Rhodesia" for the territory, in honour of Rhodes. In 1898 "Southern Rhodesia" became the official name for the region south of the Zambezi, which later adopted the name "Zimbabwe". The region to the north, administered separately,
17947-663: Was later termed Northern Rhodesia (present-day Zambia). Shortly after the disastrous Rhodes-sponsored Jameson Raid on the South African Republic , the Ndebele rebelled against white rule, led by their charismatic religious leader, Mlimo. The Second Matabele War of 1896–1897 lasted in Matabeleland until 1896, when Mlimo was assassinated by American scout Frederick Russell Burnham . Shona agitators staged unsuccessful revolts (known as Chimurenga ) against company rule during 1896 and 1897. Following these failed insurrections,
18084-467: Was not immediately favoured, although it had strong support among some scientific archaeologists due to her modern methods. Her most important contribution was in helping to confirm the theory of a medieval origin for the masonry work of the 14th and 15th centuries. By 1931, she had modified her Bantu theory somewhat, allowing for a possible Arabian influence for the towers through the imitation of buildings or art seen at coastal Arabian trading cities. Since
18221-424: Was perceived as a Shona takeover immediately erupted around Matabeleland. The Matabele unrest led to what has become known as Gukurahundi (Shona: 'the early rain which washes away the chaff before the spring rains'). The Fifth Brigade , a North Korean-trained elite unit that reported directly to Mugabe, entered Matabeleland and massacred thousands of civilians accused of supporting "dissidents". Estimates for
18358-535: Was published posthumously in 1615 at Madrid by the Cosmographer and Chronicler-Royal Joao Baptista Lavanha, who edited and compiled Barros' scattered manuscript. His Decades contain the early history of the Portuguese in India and Asia and reveal careful study of Eastern historians and geographers, as well as of the records of his own country. They are distinguished by clearness of exposition and orderly arrangement. They are also lively accounts, for example describing
18495-496: Was renamed for the site, and its famous soapstone bird carvings were retained from the Rhodesian flag and Coat of Arms as a national symbol and depicted in the new Zimbabwean flag . After the creation of the modern state of Zimbabwe in 1980, Great Zimbabwe has been employed to mirror and legitimise shifting policies of the ruling regime. At first it was argued that it represented a form of pre-colonial "African socialism" and later
18632-638: Was supported by the Soviet Union , the Warsaw Pact and associated nations such as Cuba, and adopted a Marxist–Leninist ideology; ZANU meanwhile aligned itself with Maoism and the bloc headed by the People's Republic of China. Smith declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970, following the results of a referendum the previous year , but this went unrecognised internationally. Meanwhile, Rhodesia's internal conflict intensified, eventually forcing him to open negotiations with
18769-518: Was the archaeologist stationed at Great Zimbabwe. I was told by the then-director of the Museums and Monuments organisation to be extremely careful about talking to the press about the origins of the [Great] Zimbabwe state. I was told that the museum service was in a difficult situation, that the government was pressurising them to withhold the correct information. Censorship of guidebooks, museum displays, school textbooks, radio programmes, newspapers and films
#752247