This article discusses the organizational and administrative structure of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth .
86-669: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a confederative mixed monarchy of the period 1569–1795, comprising the Kingdom of Poland , the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and their fiefs . The Commonwealth was governed by the Parliament ( Sejm ) consisting of the King , the King-appointed Senate (Voivodes, Castellans, Ministers, Bishops) and the rest of hereditary nobility either in person or through
172-503: A confederacy or league ) is a political union of sovereign states united for purposes of common action. Usually created by a treaty , confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issues, such as defence, foreign relations, internal trade or currency, with the central government being required to provide support for all its members. Confederalism represents a main form of intergovernmentalism , defined as any form of interaction around states that takes place on
258-721: A field marshal or imperial marshal in the Holy Roman Empire ). First used by the Czechs in Bohemia in the 15th century, it was the title of the second-highest military commander after the king in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the 16th to 18th centuries. Throughout much of the history of Romania and the Moldavia , hetmans were the second-highest army rank. In
344-521: A single economic market , a common customs territory , (mainly) open internal borders , and a common currency among most member-states. However, unlike a federation, the EU does not have exclusive powers over foreign affairs, defence, taxation, along with the immigration and transit of non-EU nationals. Furthermore, most EU laws , which have been developed by consensus between relevant national government ministers and then scrutinised and approved or rejected by
430-621: A Europe dominated by monarchies and free trade), and it ensured peace between the different cultural entities of the area. After the Sonderbund War of 1847 , when some of the Catholic cantons of Switzerland attempted to set up a separate union ( Sonderbund in German) against the Protestant majority, a vote was held and the majority of the cantons approved the new Federal Constitution which changed
516-525: A confederation under the pressure of separatist movements, especially in Flanders . For example, C. E. Lagasse declared that Belgium was "near the political system of a Confederation" regarding the constitutional reform agreements between Belgian Regions and between Communities , and the director of the Centre de recherche et d'information socio-politiques (CRISP) Vincent de Coorebyter called Belgium "undoubtedly
602-440: A federation but be confederal (or the reverse), and may not show any qualities that 21st-century political scientists might classify as those of a confederation. Some have more the characteristics of a personal union , but appear here because of their self-styling as a "confederation": Hetman Hetman is a political title from Central and Eastern Europe , historically assigned to military commanders (comparable to
688-645: A federation...[with] some aspects of a confederation" in Le Soir . Also in Le Soir , Michel Quévit of the Catholic University of Louvain wrote that the "Belgian political system is already in dynamics of a Confederation". Nevertheless, the Belgian regions and the linguistic communities do not have the autonomy to leave the Belgian state. As such, federal aspects still dominate. Also, for fiscal policy and public finances,
774-545: A hetman was the head of the whole Ukrainian State — Hetmanshchyna and heads of the Cossack Hetmanate . As supreme military commanders and lawmakers (by administrative decree), they had very broad powers, although they were elected. After the split of Ukraine along the Dnieper River by the 1667 Polish – Russian Treaty of Andrusovo , Ukrainian Cossacks (and Cossack hetmans) became known as Left-bank Cossacks (of
860-601: A modern country that traditionally refers to itself as a confederation because the official (and traditional) name of Switzerland in German ( the majority language of the Swiss ) is Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft (literally "Swiss Comradeship by Oath"), an expression which was translated into the Latin Confoederatio Helvetica (Helvetic Confederation). It had been a confederacy since its inception in 1291 as
946-591: A number of professionals: secretaries, scribes and clerks. Outside the chancellery were the Metricants, in charge of keeping the Metrics, i.e. the books in which all the documents arriving and departing from each chancellery were entered. There were four chancelleries, four Metricants and two Metrics (Crown and Lithuanian) in the whole of the Commonwealth. The Treasurers were also supported by a number of professional officials,
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#17330861164051032-418: A perfect state.... The deliberations in common will offer no violence to the sovereignty of each member". Under a confederation, compared to a federal state , the central authority is relatively weak. Decisions made by the general government in a unicameral legislature, a council of the member states, require subsequent implementation by the member states to take effect; they are not laws acting directly upon
1118-546: A region in the central Andean highlands in present-day Colombia. The Hoa ruled the northern section of the confederation, while the Zipa ruled the southern portion. The Andean civilizations consisted of loose confederations, such as the Aymara kingdoms and the Diaguita , with the former being composed of distinct diarchies. In 2003, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was transformed into
1204-694: A specific kind of offices, as they referred to the territories which Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost in the second half of the 17th century either to the Swedish Empire or the Tsardom of Russia . Following the Treaty of Oliva (1660), the Commonwealth officially lost Wenden Voivodeship , Parnawa Voivodeship , and Dorpat Voivodeship . Furthermore, as a result of the Truce of Andrusovo (1667), Poland-Lithuania lost Smolensk Voivodeship and Czernihow Voivodeship . Despite
1290-478: A subsequent federal law, set forth negotiating conditions for a Canadian province (though not a territory ) to leave the Canadian federal state (addressed also by a related Quebec law ). Importantly, negotiation would first need triggering by referendum and executing by constitutional amendment using a current amending mechanism of Canada's constitution—meaning that, while not legal under the current constitution, it
1376-659: A title, albeit fictional, emphasized the position of an individual nobleman as a keen citizen and co-creator of the Commonwealth. After Czernihow Voivodeship was detached from Poland in 1667, sejmiks of the former province took place at Wlodzimierz Wolynski , some 500 kilometers west of Czernihow . Polish kings continued to present fictional titles of voivodes , senators , deputies, and starostas of Czernihow to their courtiers. In 1785, Stanisław August Poniatowski gave fictitious title of starosta of Nowogrod Siewierski to Tadeusz Czacki . Confederation List of forms of government A confederation (also known as
1462-558: A treaty or of a treaty amendment is required. Such a form may thus be described as a semi-intergovernmental confederation. However, some academic observers more usually discuss the EU in the terms of it being a federation. As the international law professor Joseph H. H. Weiler (of the Hague Academy and New York University ) wrote, "Europe has charted its own brand of constitutional federalism". Jean-Michel Josselin and Alain Marciano see
1548-509: A weak common president , ministerial council and parliament . The two constituent republics functioned separately throughout the period of its short existence, and they continued to operate under separate economic policies and to use separate currencies (the euro was and still is the only legal tender in Montenegro, and the dinar was and still is the legal tender in Serbia). On 21 May 2006,
1634-475: Is composed of two or more constituent states, referred to as confederated states . Regarding their political systems , confederated states can have republican or monarchical forms of government. Those that have a republican form (confederated republics) are usually called states (like states of the American Confederacy , 1861–1865) or republics (like republics of Serbia and Montenegro within
1720-552: Is democratically feasible without resorting to extralegal means or international involvement. Its unique nature and the political sensitivities surrounding it cause there to be no common or legal classification for the European Union (EU). However, it bears some resemblance to both a confederation (or a "new" type of confederation) and a federation. The term supranational union has also been applied. The EU operates common economic policies with hundreds of common laws, which enable
1806-509: Is possible it was introduced to Czechs by the Cumans . The Polish title Grand Crown Hetman ( Polish : hetman wielki koronny ) dates from 1505. The title of Hetman was given to the leader of the Polish Army . Until 1581 the hetman position existed only during specific campaigns and wars. After that, it became a permanent title, as were all the titles in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and
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#17330861164051892-524: Is today the term for the elected governor of a Czech region ( kraj ). For much of the history of Romania and the Principality of Moldavia , hetmans were second in rank in the army, after the ruling prince, who held the position of voivode . Hetman has often been used figuratively to mean 'commander' or simply 'leader'. Examples: Queen (chess piece) is called hetman in Polish and coded as H in
1978-519: The Basque Country (both part of Spain ), Northern Ireland and Scotland (both part of the United Kingdom ) and parts of Italy , where a massive voter turnout for regional (and often separatist) political parties has become the rule in the last decades, and nationwide parties advocating national unity draw around half or sometimes less of the votes. The Benelux is a politico-economic union of
2064-515: The Belarusian government . The confederation was created with the objective of co-ordinating common action on economic integration and foreign affairs. However, many of the treaty's provisions have not yet been implemented. Consequently, The Times , in 2020, described it as "a mostly unimplemented confederation". On July 6, 2024, at the end of the first summit of the Alliance of Sahel States (AES),
2150-603: The Cossack Hetmanate ) and Right-bank Cossacks. In the Russian Empire , the office of Cossack Hetman was abolished by Catherine II of Russia in 1764. The last Hetman of the Zaporozhian Army (the formal title of the hetman of Ukraine) was Kyrylo Rozumovsky , who reigned from 1751 until 1764. The title was revived in Ukraine during the revolution of 1917 to 1921. In early 1918, a conservative German-supported coup overthrew
2236-694: The EPP , the S&;D Group and Renew Europe , support a federal model for the European Union. The ECR Group argues for a reformed European Union along confederal lines. The Brothers of Italy party, led by Giorgia Meloni , campaigns for a confederal Europe. On her election as President of the ECR Party in September 2020 Meloni said, "Let us continue to fight together for a confederate Europe of free and sovereign states". In
2322-638: The European Court of Justice in Luxembourg City as being a primary force behind the building of a federal legal order for the EU, with Josselin stating that a "complete shift from a confederation to a federation would have required to straight-forwardly replace the principality of the member states vis-à-vis the Union by that of the European citizens. As a consequence, both confederate and federate features coexist in
2408-542: The European Parliament , must be transposed into national law by national parliaments. Most collective decisions by member states are taken by weighted majorities and blocking minorities typical of upper houses in federations. On the other hand, the absolute unanimity typical of intergovernmentalism is required only in respect to the Common Foreign and Security Policy , as well as in situations when ratification of
2494-522: The Montenegrin independence referendum was held. The final official results indicated on 31 May that 55.5% of voters voted in favor of independence. The confederation effectively came to an end after Montenegro's formal declaration of independence on 3 June 2006 and Serbia's formal declaration of independence on 5 June. Switzerland , officially known as the Swiss Confederation , is an example of
2580-543: The Old Swiss Confederacy , which was originally created as an alliance among the valley communities of the central Alps , until it became a federation in 1848 but it retains the name of Confederacy for reasons of historical tradition. The confederacy facilitated management of common interests (such as freedom from external domination especially from the Habsburg Empire , the development of republican institutions in
2666-502: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . At any given time the Commonwealth had four hetmans – a Great Hetman and Field (deputy) Hetman each for both Poland and Lithuania. From 1585, the title could not be taken away without a proven charge of treachery, so most hetmans served for life. Jan Karol Chodkiewicz literally commanded the army from his deathbed (1621). Hetmans were not paid by the royal treasury. Hetmans were
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2752-512: The Starosta remained in charge of the City Courts ( sądy grodzkie ), which dealt with most criminal matters and had jurisdiction over all local and visiting nobility. They dealt with the most severe cases (killings, rapes, robberies) and were quite harsh ( highway robbery was punishable with death), which generally made Poland a safer country than its neighbors. The Starosta s also held the "power of
2838-624: The State Union of Serbia and Montenegro , a confederation of the Republic of Montenegro and the Republic of Serbia . The state was constituted as a loose political union , but formally functioned as a sovereign subject of international law, and member of the United Nations . As a confederation, the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro had very few shared functions, such as defense, foreign affairs and
2924-485: The Wabanaki Confederacy , Western Confederacy , Tsenacommacah , Seven Nations of Canada , Pontiac's Confederacy , Pennacook Confederacy , Illinois Confederation , Tecumseh's Confederacy , Muscogee Confederacy , Great Sioux Nation , Blackfoot Confederacy , Warm Springs Confederacy , Manahoac Confederacy , Iron Confederacy and Council of Three Fires . The Haudenosaunee Confederacy, historically known as
3010-546: The "Crown", District Marshals were chosen only for the duration of the parliament session, and so were much less powerful than those of Lithuania, who were chosen for life). The most important official was the Starosta . He was supported by a Borough Substarosta ( podstarości grodowy ), Burgrave ( Burgrabia ), Notary ( Notariusz ) and Scriptor ( Pisarz ). The Borough Substarosta assisted the Starosta and in his absence acted in his name with all his powers. Lower city officials were
3096-559: The "Numb Diet" barred non-Roman Catholics from being elected Envoys (to the Parliament), and to any other land offices if there was another Roman Catholic contender. The rights of the "Dissidents", as they were called, were reinstated in 1768, and in 1772 their representation in the Diet was limited to a statutory of two members. These rules were finally abolished in 1792 by the 3rd May Constitution. These offices were very stable, having evolved about
3182-654: The 13th century and lasting almost unchanged to the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The administrative system had come from Germany together with Magdeburg law . Every city (without exception) had a Council and a Bench, the Council being the administrative branch and the Bench the judicial branch. A new Council was chosen by the old one whose term had expired. The Council was responsible for administration, law, privileges, security, finances, guild oversight, and
3268-463: The Bench, but often criminals sentenced by other non-military courts in Poland. They were well paid, sometimes functioned as physicians, but were also often considered social outcasts and lived outside the city walls. A village mayor was called the sołtys and was the administrative, executive and judicial chief for the village, responsible only to the village's owner. Fictional or fictitious offices were
3354-504: The Borough Regent ( rejent grodzki ), Borough Notary ( notariusz grodzki ), Borough Scriptor ( pisarz grodzki ) and common clerks ("subclerks" — podpiskowie ). In the eastern territories bordering on Russia, from 1667, a "Border Judge" cooperated with Russian judges in cases involving parties from the two countries; his rulings were final. Judges were chosen from among the local hereditary nobles and had little formal training; therefore
3440-671: The Commonwealth, there were two Grand Marshals: the Crown Grand Marshal and the Lithuanian Grand Marshal. In Lithuania, there was a separate office of Court (Hospodar) Marshal in the 15th-16th century, which over time lost its importance and became a land office. Both the Chancellor and the Sub-Chancellor stood at the head of the chancelleries (‘greater’ and ‘lesser’), which were headed by Regents. Each chancellery employed
3526-609: The District Court, which had jurisdiction over civil and some criminal matters involving local nobility. The Starosta generalny ("General Starosta") was the official in charge of a specific territory. The Starosta grodowy ("City Starosta") was in charge of cities, while the Starosta niegrodowy ("Non-City Starosta") was responsible for administration of the Crown lands . These were to be kept in good financial and military order. While in time these administrative responsibilities became smaller (as Kings gave away more and more land),
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3612-478: The EU as a federal system". Thomas Risse and Tanja A. Börzel claim that the "EU only lacks two significant features of a federation. First, the Member States remain the "masters" of the treaties, i.e., they have the exclusive power to amend or change the constitutive treaties of the EU. Second, the EU lacks a real "tax and spend" capacity, in other words, there is no fiscal federalism". Valéry Giscard d'Estaing ,
3698-541: The Grand Oboźny, whose tasks were actually carried out by the Field Oboźny. Other offices were still truly military in the 17th century, only becoming solely dignitaries in the 18th century. The following list covers only military offices, apart from these there were a number of other posts which were not dignitaries and were usually filled by professionals, there was also a separate cadre of officers. Of secular Senators,
3784-1059: The Iroquois League or the League of Five (later Six) Nations, is the country of Native Americans (in what is now the United States) and First Nations (in what is now Canada) that consists of six nations: the Mohawk , the Oneida , the Onondaga , the Cayuga , the Seneca and the Tuscarora . The Six Nations have a representative government known as the Grand Council which is the oldest governmental institution still maintaining its original form in North America. Each clan from
3870-407: The Mayor was the Council Clerk, who ran the City Chancellery. The City Clerk ( Syndyk Miejski ) collected city taxes and supervised the tax collectors. Security and order in the city were the responsibility of the Hutman . He also supervised the city jail and the keyman who unlocked and locked the city gates at dawn and dusk. The Lonar was the city treasurer, who oversaw its finances. He supervised
3956-509: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . District officials were appointed by the King, with a few exceptions (local parliaments— sejmiki —chose Chamberlains, District Judges, Deputy District Judges, District Clerks, and in Lithuania also Standard-bearers and District Marshals). Chamberlains, except for the name, had nothing in common with the Court officials of the same name. They administered a court of law (the Chamberlain's Court) which had jurisdiction over property disputes. The District Judge headed
4042-519: The Sejm proper (consisting of deputies representing their lands). The nobility's constitutional domination of the state made the King very weak and the commoners (burgesses and peasants) almost entirely unrepresented in the Commonwealth's political system. The division between public and court offices in the realities of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is unclear, as all central offices originated from court positions. Some of them gained full autonomy, while others continued to perform service functions for
4128-463: The basis of sovereign independence or government. The nature of the relationship among the member states constituting a confederation varies considerably. Likewise, the relationship between the member states and the general government and their distribution of powers varies. Some looser confederations are similar to international organisations . Other confederations with stricter rules may resemble federal systems . These elements of such confederations,
4214-408: The chairman of the body of experts commissioned to elaborate a constitutional charter for the European Union, was confronted with strong opposition from the United Kingdom towards including the words "federal" or "federation" in the unratified European Constitution and the word was replaced with either "Community" or "Union". A majority of the Political Groups in the European Parliament , including
4300-462: The colonies of British North America , and to the subsequent incorporation of other colonies and territories. Beginning on 1 July 1867, it was initially a self-governing dominion of the British Empire with a federal structure , whose government was led by Sir John A. Macdonald . The initial colonies involved were the Province of Canada (becoming Quebec from Canada East, formerly the colony of Lower Canada ; and Ontario from Canada West, formerly
4386-585: The colony of Upper Canada ), Nova Scotia , and New Brunswick . Later participants were Manitoba , British Columbia , Prince Edward Island , Alberta and Saskatchewan (the latter two created in 1905 as federated provinces from parts of the directly federally administered Northwest Territories , first transferred to the Dominion in 1869 and now possessing devolved governments as itself, Yukon and Nunavut ), and finally Newfoundland (now Newfoundland and Labrador ) in 1949. A Canadian judicial constitutional interpretation, Reference Re Secession of Quebec , and
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#17330861164054472-421: The context of the history of the indigenous peoples of the Americas , a confederacy may refer to a semi-permanent political and military alliance consisting of multiple nations (or "tribes", "bands", or "villages"), which maintained their separate leadership. One of the most well-known is the Haudenosaunee (or Iroquois), but there were many others during different eras and locations across North America , such as
4558-433: The court ( Polish : urzędy dworu ) and the court offices ( Polish : urzędy nadworne ). The court offices attended to the king's service, while the offices of the court managed and administered the court as an institution. The court offices were further divided into the offices of the royal table and the representatives of royal majesty. Most of these offices were of a purely honorary nature, their holders did not perform
4644-400: The emergence of a standing army in the Crown in the early 16th century and the office of Hetman, a staff of military officials formed around him to assist him in his tasks. The most important among them was the Field Scribe, closely followed by the Grand Warden. Over time, the offices began to lose their professional character and became purely dignitaries, the earliest of which was the office of
4730-542: The fact that these territories did not belong to the Commonwealth any longer, and were under foreign rule, their administration existed for further 100 years, until the Partitions of Poland , with a complex hierarchy of all kinds of regional offices. The existence of fictional titles was the result of the special role of offices in the minds of the Polish–Lithuanian nobility : even though these offices were only honorary, without any material privileges and salaries, they determined social status of their bearers. Furthermore, having
4816-505: The federal state dominates the other levels of government. The increasingly-confederal aspects of the Belgian Federal State appear to be a political reflection of the profound cultural, sociological and economic differences between the Flemish (Belgians who speak Dutch or Dutch dialects) and the Walloons (Belgians who speak French or French dialects). For example, in the last several decades, over 95% of Belgians have voted for political parties that represent voters from only one community,
4902-427: The final communiqué announced the creation of a confederation of the three countries of the AES, namely Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger. it was in February 2024 that the military powers of the three countries announced the creation of the AES after their withdrawal from ECOWAS. Historical confederations (especially those predating the 20th century) may not fit the current definition of a confederation, may be proclaimed as
4988-412: The five nations sends chiefs to act as representatives and make decisions for the whole confederation. It has been operating since its foundation in 1142 despite limited international recognition today. Several of the Pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia , such as the Muisca and Tairona were composed of loose confederations. The Muisca form of government consisted of two different rulers that governed
5074-416: The foremost was the Castellan ( Kasztelan ) of Kraków . Other Castellans, however, were considered to be lesser dignitaries than the Voivodes. The power of the Voivodes had declined since that title had been introduced about the 12th century; in the 17th century, however, they were still the highest regional dignitaries. They were the highest representatives of their Voivodeships to the Senat . They were
5160-405: The former State Union of Serbia and Montenegro , 2003–2006). Those that have a monarchical form of government (confederated monarchies) are defined by various hierarchical ranks (like kingdoms of Iraq and Jordan within the Hashemite Arab Union in 1958). Many scholars have claimed that the Kingdom of Belgium , a country with a complicated federal structure has adopted some characteristics of
5246-463: The functions associated with them, or if they did, they did so very rarely, mainly during rare grand royal ceremonies (coronations, weddings, homages etc.). Apart from the aforementioned offices, the court included a significantly larger group of people, both honorary courtiers and servants. The highest military officials were the Hetmans , they could not be removed. Until the beginning of the 18th century, hetmans were not paid for their services. With
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#17330861164055332-475: The individual but have more the character of interstate agreements. Also, decision-making in the general government usually proceeds by consensus (unanimity), not by the majority. Historically, those features limit the union's effectiveness. Hence, political pressure tends to build over time for the transition to a federal system of government, as in the American, Swiss and German cases of regional integration . In terms of internal structure, every confederal state
5418-413: The international organization and federalist perspective, has been combined as supranational unions . Since the member states of a confederation retain their sovereignty, they have an implicit right of secession . The political philosopher Emmerich de Vattel said: "Several sovereign and independent states may unite themselves together by a perpetual confederacy without each, in particular, ceasing to be
5504-438: The judicial landscape". Rutgers political science professor R. Daniel Kelemen said: "Those uncomfortable using the 'F' word in the EU context should feel free to refer to it as a quasi-federal or federal-like system. Nevertheless, the EU has the necessary attributes of a federal system. It is striking that while many scholars of the EU continue to resist analyzing it as a federation, most contemporary students of federalism view
5590-426: The leaders of the Land Parliaments ( Sejmiki Wojewódzkie , Voivodeship Sejmiks ). They were in charge of assembling local nobility's military forces in the event of a pospolite ruszenie ( levée en masse ). Each chose a Deputy Voivode, who was responsible for setting local prices and measures. Voivodes were chosen by the King, except for those of Połock Voivode and Vilnius Voivode, who were elected by (and from)
5676-474: The like. The Council chose the Mayor, and its members' decision was final—even the Starosta or Voivode could only listen to the Mayor's swearing-in and could not refuse to give him his seal. The Council met daily in the larger cities, less often in smaller ones. The Mayor headed the Council and controlled the executive branch. He was responsible for conciliation, the care of the poor, and maintaining order by suppressing alcohol abuse and games of chance. Second to
5762-536: The local nobility (but still had to be appointed by the King). Except for the Castellan of Kraków Land (which has its seat in a privileged city, as the Commonwealth's capital until 1596), Castellans were often considered subordinate to Voivodes. A Castellan was in charge of part of a Voivodeship (till the 15th century called a Castellany , and thereafter divided into provinces for Major Castellans and powiats for Minor Castellans). A 1611 Constitution (amended 1633 and 1635) prescribed many officials. Exceptions to
5848-403: The main commanders of the military forces, second only to the monarch in the army's chain of command . The fact that they could not be removed by the monarch made them very independent, and thus often able to pursue independent policies. This system worked well when a hetman had great ability and the monarch was weak, but sometimes produced disastrous results in the opposite case. The security of
5934-481: The member-states could be integrated into "Benelux Armed Forces" one day. Because of this the Benelux is sometimes labeled as a "kind of confederation" by, for example, Belgian Minister of State Mark Eyskens. Canada is an unusually decentralized federal state , not a confederate association of sovereign states, the usual meaning of confederation in modern terms. In Canada , the word confederation has an additional unrelated meaning. " Confederation " refers to
6020-409: The modern Czech Republic , the title is used for regional governors . The term hetman was a Polish borrowing, most likely stemming via Czech from the Turkic title ataman (literally 'father of horsemen'), however it could also come from the German Hauptmann – captain. Since hetman as a title first appeared in Czechia in the 15th century, assuming it stems from a Turkic language, it
6106-424: The most important of whom were Treasury Scribes (two in the Crown, three in Lithuania). He was assisted in matters of coinage issuance by a Mincer. In addition, a number of other functionaries: dispensers, superintendents, tax collectors, customs officers and toll collectors. Originally, all central offices were simultaneously court offices. However, in the Kingdom of Poland , the concept of the Crown , representing
6192-501: The officials who controlled marketplace scales to ensure fair trade. Large cities also had scores of less common officials, such as Pipemasters, responsible for pipes and wells; Fire Chiefs; and City Translators, who assisted foreigners and looked out for spies. The Bench was chaired by a wójt . He and the other Bench members were chosen by the Council for a year's term from among lesser city officials (writers, clerks, etc.). City Chief Executioners executed not only criminals sentenced by
6278-404: The political system to one of a federation . In 1999, Russia and Belarus signed a treaty to form a confederation, which came into force on 26 January 2000. Although it was given the name Union State , and has some characteristics of a federation, it remains a confederation of two sovereign states. Its existence has been seen as an indication of Russia's political and economic support for
6364-537: The position notably contrasted with that of military leaders in states bordering the commonwealth, where sovereigns could dismiss their army commanders at any time. In 1648 the Zaporizhian Host (a Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth subject) elected a hetman of its own, Bohdan Khmelnytsky , igniting the Ukrainian struggle for independence. The military reform of 1776 curtailed the powers of the hetmans. The Hetman office
6450-597: The process of (or the event of) establishing or joining the Canadian federal state. In modern terminology, Canada is a federation, not a confederation. However, to contemporaries of the Constitution Act, 1867 , confederation did not have the same connotation of a weakly-centralized federation. Canadian Confederation generally refers to the Constitution Act, 1867 , which formed the Dominion of Canada from three of
6536-410: The quality of the courts varied from judge to judge, and levels of corruption were high. Attorneys, on the other hand, were required to have professional training. Sometimes a court included an asesor , who assisted the judge and collected fines and fees. Prosecutors were extremely rare. Instygator s maintained order and security on court grounds, and a court runner ( woźny ) delivered summons. In 1717
6622-487: The radical socialist Ukrainian Central Rada and its Ukrainian People's Republic , establishing a hetmanate monarchy headed by Pavlo Skoropadskyi , who claimed the title Hetman of Ukraine . This regime lasted until late 1918, when it was overthrown by a new Directorate of Ukraine , of a re-established Ukrainian People's Republic. Used by the Czechs in Bohemia from the Hussite Wars (15th century) onward, hejtman
6708-459: The rule, however, were the rule; Sejm rules were treated as mere recommendations. Thus Bełz Voivodeship had only 4 of the 15 prescribed dignitaries; most northern voivodeships had about 5; and in Wołyń and Bracław Voivodeships the hierarchical order was almost reversed. Each province or district had its own set of officials—a list of provinces may be found in the article on provinces and geography of
6794-422: The ruler. The state and court hierarchies overlapped, and the officials' competencies were not clearly defined. After 1565, the principle of " incompatibilitas " ("incompatibility") forbade Voivodes and Castellans to hold a second title as a Minister , except for the post of Hetman . The system of offices in the Commonwealth was the result of equalizing the administrative hierarchies of both constituent parts of
6880-733: The separatist N-VA being the party with the most voter support among the Flemish population. Parties that strongly advocate Belgian unity and appeal to voters of both communities usually play only a marginal role in nationwide general elections. The system in Belgium is known as consociationalism . That makes Belgium fundamentally different from federal countries like Switzerland , Canada , Germany and Australia . National parties receive over 90% of voter support in those countries. The only geographical areas comparable with Belgium within Europe are Catalonia ,
6966-463: The so-called coequation of laws . However, the direction of influence was sometimes reversed, such as in the case of the office of the court huntsman, which appeared in Poland later than in Lithuania. Essentially, almost every central office was dual, one for Poland and the other for Lithuania. This was reflected in the title, to which an appropriate adjective was added: Crown or Lithuanian . Thus, in
7052-439: The state itself, was distinguished relatively early from the person of the mortal monarch. Consequently, some offices lost their direct association with the monarch and his court, becoming state offices primarily responsible for state administration. This division was never complete, but there was a group of offices whose roles were essentially limited to serving the court and the monarch. Among them, we distinguish between offices of
7138-473: The state: the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . Lithuania had its own separate court tradition, but after drawing closer to Poland at the end of the 14th century, there was a trend of copying Polish models and creating offices analogous to those existing in Poland. This process culminated in the acts of the Union of Lublin , but it continued in practice until the 18th century as part of
7224-504: The states of Belgium , the Netherlands , and Luxembourg bound through treaties and based on consensus between the representatives of the member states. They partially share a common foreign policy, especially in regards to their navies through the BeNeSam . The Dutch defence minister (2010–2012) Hans Hillen even said on Belgian radio that it is not impossible that the three armed forces of
7310-520: The sword", which meant that they enforced the verdicts of all other courts. Non-City Starosta s had no juridical powers. Standard-bearers carried the local banner during Royal ceremonies, and in war when local troops served in the Army. During war, Wojski s maintained order and security in their territories. In Lithuania, the responsibilities of Ciwun s were similar to those of non-city starosta s (elders). District marshals presided over local parliaments (in
7396-680: Was abolished after the Third Partition of Poland (1795). At the end of the sixteenth century, the commanders of the Zaporizhian Cossacks were titled Koshovyi Otaman or Hetman ; Christof Kosynsky was the first Zaporizhian hetman . In 1572, a hetman was a commander of the Registered Cossack Army ( Ukrainian : Реєстрове козацьке військо ) of the Commonwealth . From 1648, the start of Bohdan Khmelnytsky 's uprising ,
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