Grand duke (feminine: grand duchess ) is a European hereditary title , used either by certain monarchs or by members of certain monarchs' families. In status, a grand duke traditionally ranks in order of precedence below an emperor , king , grand prince , archduke , or prince-archbishop , and above a sovereign prince or sovereign duke . The title is used in some current and former independent monarchies in Europe, particularly:
134-458: The term grand duke as a monarch reigning over an independent state was a later invention (in Western Europe at first in 1569 for the ruler of Tuscany ) to denote either a particularly mighty duke or a monarchy playing an important political, military and/or economic role, but not large enough to be a kingdom . It arose because the title of duke had gradually lost status and precedence during
268-525: A cognatic descendant of the Medici, succeeded the family and ascended the throne of his Medicean ancestors. Tuscany was governed by a viceroy, Marc de Beauvau-Craon , for his entire rule. His descendants ruled, and resided in, the grand duchy until its end in 1859, barring one interruption, when Napoleon Bonaparte gave Tuscany to the House of Bourbon-Parma ( Kingdom of Etruria , 1801–1807), then annexed it directly to
402-593: A Tuscan colony in America , with the intention of establishing a Tuscan settlement in the area of what is now French Guiana . Despite all of these incentives to economic growth and prosperity, the population of Florence, at dawn of the 17th century, was a mere 75,000 souls, far smaller than the other capitals of Italy: Rome , Milan , Venice , Palermo and Naples . Francesco and Ferdinando, due to lax distinction between Medici and Tuscan state property, are thought to have been wealthier than their ancestor, Cosimo de' Medici ,
536-698: A connotation of dictatorial powers and style, fitting since "autocrat" was an official title of the Russian Emperor (informally referred to as 'the tsar'). Similarly, Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed was called "Czar Reed" for his dictatorial control of the House of Representatives in the 1880s and 1890s. In the United States and in the United Kingdom, the title "czar" is a colloquial term for certain high-level civil servants, such as
670-461: A court rank could be even more accurate. Unlike usage in Western Europe, Central Europe, or in various Slavic lands from Central to North-East Europe, where analogy between grand duke and grand prince was significant, with both titles corresponding to sovereign lower than king but higher than duke. In Bosnia, the title grand duke corresponded more to the Byzantine military title megas doux . It
804-534: A decade. Like the Empire's other loyal Italian subjects, the Tuscans were "hawks" who supported prosecuting the war to its conclusion. Francesco de' Medici , Mattias de'Medici, and Ottavio Piccolomini (an Imperial general of Sienese origin) were among the ringleaders in the plot to assassinate field marshal Albrecht von Wallenstein , for which they were rewarded with spoils by Emperor Ferdinand II . Tuscany participated in
938-582: A flotilla of 5 Algerian pirate vessels (including a large flagship). In the 10-hour battle, punctuated by cannon fire and boarding actions, 600 pirates were killed or captured and they lost 4 of the 5 ships (3 sunk, 1 captured), while the Italians lost 60 dead. Tsar Philosophers Works Tsar ( / z ɑːr , ( t ) s ɑːr / ; also spelled czar , tzar , or csar ; Bulgarian : цар , romanized : tsar ; Russian : царь , romanized : tsar' ; Serbian : цар , car )
1072-524: A higher title than King, and yet they call David Czar , and our kings, Kirrols , probably from Carolus Quintus , whose history they have among them". The title tsar remained in common usage, and also officially as part of various titles signifying rule over various states absorbed by the Russian monarchy (such as the former Tatar khanates and the Georgian Orthodox kingdom). In the 18th century, tsar
1206-616: A larger portion, and that the specific origins of the troops have very little information to go on. He also cites the fact that many Italians served as mercenaries outside of Italy, though he admits that (other than the well-known mercenary tradition of Corsica) there is no information on their state origins. The duchy's largest military deployment came during this war, when in June 1643 over 10,000 troops (7,000 Tuscans in eight regiments of infantry recruited from militia, garrison troops, and veteran mercenaries; 1 regiment of German infantry; 2,400 cavalry,
1340-461: A liberal constitution in 1848. He was briefly deposed by a provisional government in 1849, but restored to power the same year by Austrian troops. The government was finally dissolved upon its annexation to the United Provinces of Central Italy in 1859. The court moved to Salzburg and lived there in exile until 1918. In addition to its regular army, the duchy maintained a citizen-militia. This
1474-616: A makeshift imperial coronation performed by the Patriarch of Constantinople in 913. After an attempt by the Byzantine Empire to revoke this major diplomatic concession and a decade of intensive warfare, the imperial title of the Bulgarian ruler was recognized by the Byzantine government in 924 and again at the formal conclusion of peace in 927. Since in Byzantine political theory there was place for only two emperors, Eastern and Western (as in
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#17330859102081608-536: A marriage with Vittoria della Rovere , the granddaughter of Francesco Maria II della Rovere, Duke of Urbino , in 1634. Together they had two children: Cosimo (III) , in 1642, and Francesco , in 1660. Ferdinando was obsessed with new technology, and had several hygrometers , barometers , thermometers , and telescopes installed in the Pitti . In 1657, Leopoldo de' Medici , the Grand Duke's youngest brother, established
1742-437: A month later, but fortunately for the Medici his successor Pope Paul V was also pro-Medici. Ferdinando's pro-Papal foreign policy, however, had drawbacks. Tuscany was overcome with religious orders, all of whom were not obliged to pay taxes. Ferdinando died in 1609, leaving an affluent realm; however, his inaction in international affairs drew Tuscany into the provincial yolk of politics. Ferdinando's elder son, Cosimo, mounted
1876-475: A quarter of whom were Germans; and 1 regiment of Tuscan dragoons) with 18 cannons invaded the Papal States holding of Umbria, while other troops and militia were left garrisoning the grand duchy's major citadels, coastal forts, and border forts. Militia were recruited into the army as needed to replace losses. Tuscany's economic and military strength cratered from the second half of the 17th century onward, which
2010-481: A referendum that voted overwhelmingly (95% ) in favour of a union with Sardinia, Tuscany was formally annexed to Sardinia as part of the new Kingdom of Italy . Strongly attached to its ideal traditions, it remained the only region in Italy to maintain the abolition of capital punishment in force until 1889, when it was eventually extended to the whole Kingdom with the promulgation of the new Zanardelli penal code . Tuscany
2144-535: A remote claim to the grand duchy (through some Medici descent), but died before he could press the matter. The Treaty of the Hague reconfirmed the statuses of Tuscany and Parma-Piacenza as imperial fiefs. Cosimo married Marguerite Louise d'Orléans , a granddaughter of Henry IV of France and Marie de' Medici. Their union wrought a high level of discontentment, but despite the tension they had three children, Ferdinando , Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici, Electress Palatine and
2278-424: A sovereign grand duke was styled as " Royal Highness " (abbreviated "HRH"), possibly because of the connection of many grand-ducal houses to royal ones or as the highest style beneath that of a king (sometimes styled "Royal Highness"). The heir to the throne (a hereditary grand duke) was sometimes styled as "Royal Highness", otherwise as " Grand Ducal Highness " (HGDH). Junior members of the family also generally bore
2412-556: A standing army of 3,000 poorly-trained troops. A modest plan to create a 5,000-strong Tuscan army under German officers was only semi-successful. Tuscan troops served the Emperor in Silesia during the Seven Years' War . The first contingent of 3,000 troops arrived in 1758, followed by a second contingent of 1,500, and subsequent smaller ones to replace losses from battle and disease. The fear that
2546-606: A success). From 1560 to 1609, the Tuscan fleet captured 76 galiots, 7 galleys, 2 large roundships, and 67 minor craft, taking 9,620 slaves and liberating 2,076 Christians. The preponderance of small vessels among the prizes indicates that most of the trophies were easy victories. The Tuscans were early pioneers in the deployment of roundships, as technology made manpower-heavy galleys less efficient. They launched several big ships at Portoferraio after 1601, with an armament of 40 guns each yet only 60 seamen each. 8 of them around 1610 floated
2680-534: A total of 200 guns. They began to raid independently of the galleys on long voyages to the Levant. In 1608, they intercepted a Turkish convoy of 42 vessels off Rhodes , seizing 9 and netting 600 slaves and a booty of 1 million ducats, equivalent to two years of revenue for the whole grand duchy. Under Grand Duke Cosimo II, 7 roundships carrying 1,800 soldiers were sent to the Mediterranean from 1609 to 1611. This expedition
2814-481: A two-month term); in their place was the consigliere , a four-man council elected for a three-month term, headed by the "Duke of the Florentine Republic" (and later the Grand Duke of Tuscany). The Senate, composed of forty-eight men, chosen by the constitutional reform commission, was vested with the prerogative of determining Florence's financial, security, and foreign policies. Additionally, the senate appointed
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#17330859102082948-546: Is a more precise translation, it is neither standard nor widely used in English. In German, however, grand duke was known as a Großfürst, and in Latin as magnus princeps . With the decline of Kiev under the Mongols in the 13th century, Danylo of Galicia would be crowned as king of Ruthenia to show succession between Kiev and Galicia, while keeping the title of Grand Duke of Kiev. With
3082-480: Is a title historically used by Slavic monarchs . The term is derived from the Latin word caesar , which was intended to mean emperor in the European medieval sense of the term—a ruler with the same rank as a Roman emperor , holding it by the approval of another emperor or a supreme ecclesiastical official—but was usually considered by Western Europeans to be equivalent to "king". Tsar and its variants were
3216-436: Is also a clear linguistic difference between a sovereign grand duke reigning over a state of central and western Europe ( Großherzog , Groothertog ) and a non-sovereign, purely ceremonial grand duke of either the Russian imperial family or other non-sovereign territories that are de facto dependencies of a major power ( Großfürst , Grootvorst ). In 1582, King John III of Sweden added " Grand Duke of Finland " to
3350-540: Is best remembered for dying on the same day as his second wife, Bianca Cappello , spurring rumours of poisoning. He was succeeded by Ferdinando de' Medici, his younger brother, whom he loathed. Ferdinando eagerly assumed the government of Tuscany. He commanded the draining of the Tuscan marshlands, built a road network in Southern Tuscany, and cultivated trade in Livorno . To augment the Tuscan silk industry, he oversaw
3484-450: Is possible to register some similarities with equivalent titles in neighboring Slavic lands, such as Serbia; however, in neighboring countries, the title duke , in Slavic vojvoda , also had military significance, but in that sense "grand duke" was specifically, even exclusively, Bosnian title. "Grand duke" is the traditional translation of the title Velyky Knyaz (Великий Князь), which from
3618-632: The Accademia del Cimento , which set up to attract scientists from all over Tuscany to Florence for mutual study. Tuscany was one of the states of the Holy Roman Empire that sided with the Emperor in the Thirty Years War , sending thousands of troops to support the pro-Imperial side from 1631. Among the commanders of the detachment were three of the grand duke's brothers; two died and one, Mattias de'Medici , became general of artillery and served for
3752-646: The Congress of Vienna , ceded the State of Presidi and the Principality of Piombino to a restored Tuscany. Ferdinand III resumed his rule, and died in 1824. Italian nationalism exploded in the post-Napoleonic years, leading to the establishment of secret societies bent on a unified Italy. When these leagues arrived in Tuscany, a concerned Ferdinand requisitioned an Austrian garrison, from his brother Emperor Francis of Austria , for
3886-538: The Duchy of Florence for 32 years. During his reign, Florence purchased the island of Elba from the Republic of Genoa (in 1548), conquered Siena (in 1555) and developed a well-equipped and powerful naval base on Elba. Cosimo also banned the clergy from holding administrative positions and promulgated laws of freedom of religion, which were unknown during his time. Cosimo also was a long-term supporter of Pope Pius V , who in
4020-555: The Duchy of Lucca , a state created by the Congress of Vienna solely to accommodate the House of Bourbon-Parma until they could re-assume their Parmese sovereignty upon the death of the Duchess of Parma for life, Marie Louise of Austria . In October 1847, as she was still alive and reigning, the Duke of Lucca decided to prematurely abdicate his throne in favour of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, while
4154-575: The First French Empire . Following the collapse of the Napoleonic system in 1814, the grand duchy was restored. The United Provinces of Central Italy , a client state of the Kingdom of Sardinia , annexed Tuscany in 1859. Tuscany was formally annexed in 1860, as a part of the unification of Italy , following a landslide referendum, in which 95% of voters approved. In 1569, Cosimo de' Medici had ruled
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4288-661: The House of Habsburg-Lorraine was formally deposed by the Tuscan National Assembly on 16 August 1859. In December 1859, not before the provisional government had abolished the abhorred death penalty for the third time, the Grand Duchy was joined to the Duchies of Modena and Parma to form the United Provinces of Central Italy , which were annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia a few months later. On 22 March 1860, after
4422-452: The House of Medici until the extinction of its senior branch in 1737. While not as internationally renowned as the old republic, the grand duchy thrived under the Medici and it bore witness to unprecedented economic and military success under Cosimo I and his sons, until the reign of Ferdinando II , which saw the beginning of the state's long economic decline. That economic decline continued under Cosimo III . Francis Stephen of Lorraine ,
4556-586: The Kabardinian lands and Armenian territories ; hereditary Ruler and Lord of the Cherkess and Mountain Princes and others; Lord of Turkestan , Heir of Norway , Duke of Schleswig-Holstein , Stormarn , Dithmarschen , Oldenburg ". Like many lofty titles, such as mogul , tsar or czar has been used in English as a metaphor for positions of high authority since 1866 (referring to U.S. President Andrew Johnson ), with
4690-471: The Kingdom of Naples . Vittoria della Rovere brought the Duchies of Montefeltro and Rovere into the family in 1631, upon her death in 1694, they passed to her younger son, Francesco Maria de' Medici . They reverted to the crown with the ascension of Gian Gastone. Gian Gastone, the last Medici, resigned the grand duchy to Francis Stephen of Lorraine. Under him, Tuscany was ruled by a viceroy , Marc de Beauvau-Craon, Prince de Craon . Francis Stephen altered
4824-497: The Middle Ages by having been granted to rulers of relatively small fiefs (feudal territories), instead of the large tribal regions or even national territories to which the title was once attached. One of the first examples occurred when Count Gonçalo I Mendes of Portucale (in northwest Portugal and considered as that country's original nucleus) took, in 987, the personal title of Magnus Dux Portucalensium ("Grand Duke of
4958-545: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . The first monarchs ever officially titled grand duke were the Medici sovereigns of Tuscany , starting from the late 16th century. This official title was granted by Pope Pius V in 1569 to Cosimo I de' Medici . Napoleon I awarded the title extensively: during his era, several of his allies (and de facto vassals) were allowed to assume the title of grand duke, usually at
5092-402: The Republic of Florence . The grand duchy's capital was Florence . In the 19th century the population of the Grand Duchy was about 1,815,000 inhabitants. Having brought nearly all Tuscany under his control after conquering the Republic of Siena , Cosimo I de' Medici , was elevated by a papal bull of Pope Pius V to Grand Duke of Tuscany on 27 August 1569. The Grand Duchy was ruled by
5226-493: The Siege of Florence , Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor issued a proclamation explicitly stating that he and he alone could determine the government of Florence. On 12 August 1530, the Emperor created the Medici hereditary rulers ( capo ) of the Republic of Florence. Pope Clement VII willed his relative Alessandro de' Medici to be the monarchical ruler of Florence, and went about requisitioning that dignity carefully; he wanted to give
5360-508: The Treaty of Fontainebleau (27 October 1807), Etruria was to be annexed by France . The negotiations had been between Spain and France, and the Etrurian regent was kept entirely in the dark, only being informed that she would have to leave her young son's kingdom on 23 November 1807. She and her court left on 10 December. On 30 May 1808, Etruria was formally annexed to France. An "Extraordinary Giunta"
5494-539: The Wars of Castro (the last time Medicean Tuscany proper was involved in a conflict) and inflicted a defeat on the forces of Pope Urban VIII in 1643. The treasury was so empty that when the Castro mercenaries were paid for, the state could no longer afford to pay interest on government bonds. The interest rate was lowered by 0.75%. The economy was so decrepit that barter trade became prevalent in rural market places. The exchequer
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5628-514: The " drug czar " for the director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy (not to be confused with a drug baron ), "terrorism czar" for a presidential advisor on terrorism policy, "cybersecurity czar" for the highest-ranking Department of Homeland Security official on computer security and information security policy, and " war czar " to oversee the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan . More specifically,
5762-694: The 11th century was at first the title of the leading prince ( Kniaz ) of Kievan Rus' , then of several other East Slavic princes. The title of Grand Duke of Kiev was usually given by a father to his eldest son, and with his death passed to the next oldest sibling. This system didn’t last very long, and in 12th century multiple northern princes of the Rurikid Dynasty could compete for their dominance in Kiev. Some of them would prefer to establish themselves as grand dukes independently from Kiev. Another translation of this title would be grand prince. While this term
5896-535: The 19th century saw a new group of monarchs titled grand duke in central Europe, especially in present-day Germany. The title was also used for the part of Poland granted to Prussia – the Grand Duchy of Posen – which was formally held in a personal union with Prussia (and so nominally separate) until its incorporation in 1848. In the same century, the purely ceremonial version of the title grand duke in Russia (in fact
6030-539: The Bulgarian as in the Greek vernacular, the meaning of the title had shifted (although Paisius ' Slavonic-Bulgarian History (1760–1762) had still distinguished between the two concepts). The title of tsar (Serbian car ) was used officially by two monarchs, the previous monarchial title being that of king ( kralj ). In 1345, Stefan Dušan began to style himself "Emperor of Serbs and Greeks" (the Greek renderings read " basileus and autokrator of Serbs and Romans"), and
6164-422: The Bulgarian ruler Kaloyan and Pope Innocent III , Kaloyan—whose self-assumed Latin title was "Imperator Bulgarorum et Blachorum"—claims that the imperial crowns of Simeon I , his son Peter I , and Samuel were somehow derived from the papacy . The pope, however, only speaks of reges (kings) of Bulgaria in his replies, and eventually grants only that lesser title to Kaloyan, who nevertheless proceeds to thank
6298-413: The Congress had originally stipulated that they should be assigned to Modena, but, with the annexation of Lucca, they were no longer territorially separated from the rest of the Grand Duchy and loudly refused to be handed over to the unbeloved Modena House of Austria-Este . On taking possession of his new state, Leopold unexpectedly granted it the abolition of the death penalty, a measure whose effectiveness
6432-466: The Electress Palatine, she should succeed and the republic be re-instituted following her death. The proposal sank, and ultimately died with Cosimo in 1723. As Grand Prince Ferdinando, Gian Gastone's elder brother, predeceased Cosimo III, Gian Gastone succeeded his father in 1723. Gian Gastone for most of his life, kept to his bed and acted in an unregal manner, rarely appearing to his subjects, to
6566-574: The Emperor during the Battle of Vienna . Tuscany was neutral during the War of the Spanish Succession , partly due to Tuscany's ramshackle military; a 1718 military review revealed that the army numbered less than 3,000 men, many of whom were infirm and elderly. Meanwhile, the state's capital, Florence, had become full of beggars. Europe heard of the perils of Tuscany, and Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor asserted
6700-668: The Emperor during the Thirty Years War . From 1629 to 1630 he also sent 6,000 troops to join the Spanish in the War of the Mantuan Succession , plus a naval detachment and funds to pay for 4,000 Swiss mercenaries. In 1643, during the Castro War, the Tuscan army was between 5,000 and 10,000 good troops, including foreign mercenaries but not including militia. Yves-Marie Berce figures that most of those troops were of French or Swiss origin, but Hanlon disputes this, saying that Italians comprised
6834-521: The Emperor would impose conscription on the duchy caused 2% of the population to flee to the Papal States . In 1763, when nuptial agreements for the marriage of the imperial couple's second surviving son, Leopold , and the Infanta of Spain , Maria Luisa of Bourbon , were stipulated, Tuscany was erected into a secundogeniture . Thus, upon the death of Francis I, it was Leopold who directly succeeded him on
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#17330859102086968-583: The Late Roman Empire ), the Bulgarian ruler was crowned basileus as "a spiritual son" of the Byzantine basileus . It has been hypothesized that Simeon's title was also recognized by a papal mission to Bulgaria in or shortly after 925, as a concession in exchange for a settlement in the Bulgarian- Croatian conflict or a possible attempt to return Bulgaria to union with Rome. Thus, in the later diplomatic correspondence conducted in 1199–1204 between
7102-510: The Latin title for the Roman emperors, caesar . The Greek equivalent of the Latin word imperator was the title autokrator . The term basileus was another term for the same position, but it was used differently depending on whether it was in a contemporary political context or in a historical or Biblical context. In 705 Emperor Justinian II named Tervel of Bulgaria "caesar" ( Greek : καῖσαρ ),
7236-479: The Latin version and its Polish equivalent wielki książę (literally "grand prince"), the monarchic title of the rulers of Lithuania as well as of (western) Russia, Prussia, Mazovia, Samogithia, Kiev, Volhynia, Podolia, Podlachia, Livonia, Smolensk, Severia and Chernigov (including hollow claims nurtured by ambition), were used as part of their full official monarchic titles by the Kings (Polish: król ) of Poland during
7370-512: The Lithuanian kunigas (today translated as "priest") are cognates of the word king in its original meaning of "ruler". Thus, the literal meaning of Veliki Knjaz and Didysis kunigaikštis was more like "great ruler" than "grand duke". With the growing importance and size of their countries, those monarchs claimed a higher title, such as king or tsar (also spelled "czar" in English) which
7504-457: The Lucca exclaves of Montignoso , Gallicano , Minucciano and Castiglione were given to the Duchy of Modena in accordance with the resolutions of the Congress of Vienna. Tuscany in turn ceded its Lunigiana domains either to Modena (Vicariate of Fivizzano ), or to Parma (Vicariate of Pontremoli and other minor territories), retaining instead its ancient exclaves of Pietrasanta and Barga :
7638-662: The Medici acquired several territories, which included: the County of Pitigliano , purchased from the Orsini family in 1604; the County of Santa Fiora , acquired from the House of Sforza in 1633; Spain ceded Pontremoli in 1650, Silvia Piccolomini sold her estates, the Marquisate of Castiglione at the time of Cosimo I , Lordship of Pietra Santa , and the Duchy of Capistrano and the city of Penna in
7772-529: The Portuguese") and rebelled against his feudal lord, King Bermudo II of León . He was defeated by the royal armies but nevertheless obtained a remarkable autonomy as a Magnus Dux (Grand Duke), leading ultimately to Portuguese independence from the Spanish kingdom of Castille-León. Another example was the line of self-proclaimed grand dukes (legally dukes) of Burgundy in the 15th century, when they ruled most of present-day northeastern France as well as almost
7906-602: The Russian emperor assumed the title "tsar of Poland". Among the indigenous peoples of Siberia and the Muslims of the Volga region , Central Asia and the Caucasus , the autocracy of the Russian Empire often became identified with the image of the "White Tsar" ( Russian : Белый царь ). By 1894, when Nicholas II ascended the throne, the full title of the Russian rulers was "By
8040-498: The Spanish Infante . The Tuscans despised the new occupying "Lorrainers", as they interfered with the Tuscan government, while the occupying Spaniards had not done so. On 9 July 1737, Gian Gastone died; the last male Medici of the grand ducal line. Francis I (as Francis Stephen became known) lived in Florence briefly with his wife, the Habsburg heiress Maria Theresa , who became Tuscany's grand duchess. Francis had to cede his ancestral Duchy of Lorraine in order to accommodate
8174-548: The Spanish Empire. The Holy League inflicted a crushing defeat against the Ottomans at the Battle of Lepanto . Cosimo's reign was one of the most militaristic Tuscany had ever seen. Cosimo experienced several personal tragedies during the later years of his reign. His wife, Eleanor of Toledo , died in 1562, along with four of his children due to a plague epidemic in Florence. These deaths were to affect him greatly, which, along with illness, forced Cosimo to unofficially abdicate in 1564. This left his eldest son, Francesco , to rule
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#17330859102088308-431: The Tuscan banner. Ferdinand I expanded the Tuscan fleet after expanding the arsenal at Livorno, and oversaw many raids by both the navy and Order, including on Chios in 1599 (a failure), Preveza in 1605 (5 galleys with 400 Tuscan militia; a success), various Turkish ports in 1606 (6 galleys, some roundships, and 750 Tuscan soldiers; a success), and Bone in 1607 (8 galleys, 9 bertoni , and 1 galleon, with 2,300 soldiers;
8442-420: The capital of his wife's realm, Vienna. He was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1745. He died at Innsbruck from a stroke in 1765; his wife pledged the rest of her life to mourning him, while co-ruling with her first son, her own heir apparent , and Francis' imperial successor Joseph II . The administrative structure of the grand duchy itself would see little change under Francis I. Since their accession to
8576-443: The claim to the throne of his closest male relative, the Prince of Ottajano , he allowed Tuscany to be bestowed upon Don Carlos. During the War of the Polish Succession , Don Carlos conquered the Kingdom of Naples and was forced to give up the Tuscan succession by the Treaty of Vienna (1738) . Soon after, Francis Stephen of Lorraine became heir to the Tuscan throne. Gian Gastone had no say in events and had become quite attached to
8710-426: The commissions of war and public security, and the governors of Pisa , Arezzo , Prato , Voltera and Cortona and ambassadors. To be eligible, one had to be male and a noble. The Council of Two Hundred was a petitions court; membership was for life. This constitution was still in effect through the Medicean grand duchy, albeit the institutions were decayed and powerless by the rule of Ferdinando II . Over time,
8844-414: The country's population continued to decline. By 1705, the grand ducal treasury was virtually bankrupt, and the population of Florence had declined by approximately 50%, while the population of the entire grand duchy had decreased by an estimated 40%. The once powerful navy was reduced to a pitiful state. Cosimo frequently paid the Holy Roman Emperor, his feudal overlord, high dues. He sent munitions to
8978-444: The country). An anonymous Venetian intelligence report from the late 16th century stated that Tuscany could spend 800,000 ducats annually on war (half as much as the Spanish-held Kingdom of Naples despite having a quarter of its population), and could raise 40,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry, counting soldiers, militia, and mercenaries from nearby Corsica and Romagna, a force massively out of proportion to its population. Hanlon considers
9112-415: The deeply rooted convictions of his people and brought him into collision with the pope, were not successful. Leopold also approved and collaborated on the development of a political constitution, said to have anticipated by many years the promulgation of the French constitution and which presented some similarities with the Virginia Bill of Rights of 1778. Leopold's concept of this was based on respect for
9246-437: The defence of the state. Ferdinand aligned Tuscany with Austria. Following Ferdinand's death, his elder son, Leopold II , succeeded him. Leopold was contemporarily acknowledged as a liberal monarch. Despite his merits, most his subjects still dismissed him as a foreigner. His affinity for Austria was equally unpalatable. In 1847, in application of the 1844 secret Treaty of Florence [ it ] , Leopold II annexed
9380-451: The deposed ruler of Poland, whose daughter Marie Leszczyńska was Queen of France. Marie's father Stanisław Leszczyński ruled Lorraine as compensation for his loss of the Kingdom of Poland . Francis was reluctant to resign the duchy, but Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor (Maria Theresa's father) stated that if he did not relinquish his rights to Lorraine, he could not marry Maria Theresa. Francis did not live in his Tuscan realm, and lived in
9514-450: The duchies of Brabant and Limburg as well as the counties of Holland, Zeeland, Friesland, Hainaut and Namur into his possession. His son and successor Charles the Bold (reigned 1467–77) continued to use the same style and title. The title magnus dux or grand duke ( Kunigų kunigas , Didysis kunigaikštis in Lithuanian) has been used by the rulers of Lithuania , who after Jogaila also became kings of Poland . From 1573, both
9648-438: The duchy. Cosimo I died in 1574 of apoplexy , leaving a stable and extremely prosperous Tuscany behind him, having been the longest ruling Medici yet. Francesco had little interest in governing his realm, instead participating in scientific experiments. The administration of the state was delegated to bureaucrats. He continued his father's Austrian/Imperial alliance, cementing it by marrying Johanna of Austria . Francesco
9782-486: The end of Spanish subsidies, in 1574 the navy shrunk to 4 galleys. Grand Duke Ferdinand I sought to expand Tuscany's naval strength during his reign, and cooperated with the Order of Saint Stephen , which often blurred the line between itself and the Tuscan navy. The Order in 1604 counted among its fleet 6 galleys, 3 roundships/ bertoni , 2 transports, 1 galleon, and 1 galleass, supplemented by other ships financed by corsairs flying
9916-570: The entire Low Countries. They tried—ultimately without success—to create from these territories under their control a new unified country between the Kingdom of France in the west and the Holy Roman Empire (mainly present-day Germany) in the east. Philip III, Duke of Burgundy (reigned 1419–67) assumed the subsidiary, legally void style and title of "Grand Duke of the West" in 1435, having previously brought
10050-486: The expansion of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into Ukrainian lands, Lithuanian princes would take the title of Grand Dukes of Ruthenia, until their unification with Poland. Throughout the history of Lithuania from 1230s to 1795, most of its leaders were referred to as Grand Duke of Lithuania , even when they jointly held the title King of Poland and other titles. From 1328 the Velikii Kniaz of Muscovy appeared as
10184-484: The extent that, at times, he had been thought dead. Gian Gastone would repeal his father's puritan laws. In 1731, the Powers gathered at Vienna to decide who would succeed Gian Gastone. They drew up the Treaty of Vienna , which gave the grand ducal throne to Don Carlos, Duke of Parma . Gian Gastone was not as steadfast in negotiating Tuscany's future as his father was. He capitulated to foreign demands, and instead of endorsing
10318-401: The first foreigner to receive this title, but his descendants continued to use Bulgar title " Kanasubigi ". The sainted Boris I is sometimes retrospectively referred to as tsar, because at his time Bulgaria was converted to Christianity . However, the title "tsar" (and its Byzantine Greek equivalent basileus ) was actually adopted and used for the first time by his son Simeon I , following
10452-503: The first of its kind to be introduced in Europe, allowing steps to be taken to hospitalize individuals deemed insane. A few years later Leopold undertook the project of building a new hospital, the Bonifacio. He used his skill at choosing collaborators to put a young physician, Vincenzo Chiarugi , at its head. Chiarugi and his collaborators introduced new humanitarian regulations in the running of
10586-597: The founder of the dynasty. The Grand Duke alone had the prerogative to exploit the state's mineral and salt resources. The fortunes of the Medici were directly tied to the Tuscan economy. Ferdinando, despite no longer being a cardinal, exercised much influence at successive Papal conclaves ; elections which chose the Pope , the head of the Catholic Church . In 1605, Ferdinando succeeded in getting his candidate, Alessandro de' Medici, elected as Pope Leo XI . Leo XI died less than
10720-758: The grace of God Almighty, the Emperor and Supreme Autocrat of all the Russias, Tsar of Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir , Novgorod , Kazan , Astrakhan , Poland , Siberia , Tauric Chersonese, and Georgia , Lord of Pskov , Grand Duke of Smolensk , Lithuania , Volhynia , Podolia and Finland , Prince of Estonia , Livonia , Courland and Semigalia , Samogitia , Białystok , Karelia , Tver , Yugra , Perm , Vyatka , Bulgaria , and other territories; Lord and Grand Duke of Nizhny Novgorod , Chernigov ; Ruler of Ryazan , Polotsk , Rostov , Yaroslavl , Beloozero , Udoria , Obdoria , Kondia , Vitebsk , Mstislav , and all northern territories ; Ruler of Iveria , Kartalinia , and
10854-458: The grand duke for "all of Russia" until Ivan IV of Russia in 1547 was crowned as tsar . Thereafter the title was given to sons and grandsons (through male lines) of the Tsars and Emperors of Russia. The daughters and paternal granddaughters of Russian emperors, as well as the consorts of Russian grand dukes, were generally called "grand duchesses" in English. From 1809 to 1917 the Emperor of Russia
10988-450: The grand duke. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor proclaimed Alessandro de' Medici , Duke of Florence "for his lifetime, and after his death to be succeeded by his sons, male heirs and successors, of his body, by order of primogeniture, and failing them by the closest male of the Medici family, and likewise in succession forever, by order of primogeniture." Following the Republic's surrender in
11122-405: The hospital and caring for the mentally ill patients, including banning the use of chains and physical punishment, and in so doing have been recognized as early pioneers of what later came to be known as the moral treatment movement. Leopold attempted to secularize the property of the religious houses or to put the clergy entirely under the control of the government. These measures, which disturbed
11256-524: The imperial family of Austria, were styled as " Imperial and Royal Highness " (HI&RH). Grand dukes and grand duchesses from Russia were styled as " Imperial Highness " (HIH), being members of the Russian Imperial Family . Grand Duchy of Tuscany The Grand Duchy of Tuscany ( Italian : Granducato di Toscana ; Latin : Magnus Ducatus Etruriae ) was an Italian monarchy that existed, with interruptions, from 1569 to 1860, replacing
11390-584: The impression that the Florentines democratically chose Alessandro to be their monarch. In April 1532, the Pope convinced the Balía , Florence's ruling commission, to draw up a new constitution. The document in question was officiated on the 27th of that month. It formally created a hereditary monarchy, abolished the age-old signoria (elective government) and the office of gonfaloniere (titular ruler of Florence elected for
11524-414: The last Medicean grand duke of Tuscany, Gian Gastone de' Medici . Cosimo contemplated restoring the Republic of Florence , a decision that was complicated by the Grand Duchy's feudal status: Florence was an Imperial fief, Siena a Spanish one. The plan was about to be approved by the powers convened at Geertruidenberg when Cosimo abruptly added that if himself and his two sons predeceased his daughter,
11658-467: The latter was called to Vienna, to assume the rule of his family's Austrian dominions and become Emperor, his second-born son Ferdinand immediately succeeded him as head of the Grand Duchy. Leopold himself died in 1792. Following the serious Sanfedist disorders that occurred in Tuscany upon Leopold's departure for Austria, the new emperor partially revoked the abolition of the death penalty ordered 4 years earlier, and in 1795 Ferdinand further expanded
11792-576: The laws of succession in 1763, when he declared his second son , Leopold, heir to the grand duchy. If Leopold's line were to become extinct, it would revert to the main line. Should Leopold or any of his direct successors somehow come into possession of the main domains of the Habsburg monarchy , the grand duchy would then pass on to their second son and the latter's successors. Every grand duke after Leopold resided in Florence. Grand Duke Leopold II agreed to ratify
11926-640: The light of Florence's expansion in August 1569, declared Cosimo Grand Duke of Tuscany, a title unprecedented in Italy. The international reaction to Cosimo's elevation was bleak. Queen Catherine of France , though herself a Medici, viewed Cosimo with the utmost disdain. Rumours circulated at the Viennese court that had Cosimo as a candidate for King of England. Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor and his cousin King Philip II of Spain reacted quite angrily, as Florence
12060-579: The lower title of prince or princess with the style of "Grand Ducal Highness". However, in other grand duchies (e.g., Oldenburg ), junior members of the family bore the title of duke or duchess, with the style of "Highness" (HH). The Grand Ducal Family of Luxembourg styles all its members as "Royal Highness" since 1919, due to their being also cadet members of the Royal and Ducal House of Bourbon-Parma as male-line descendants of Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma . The Habsburg grand dukes of Tuscany, being members of
12194-413: The new Tuscan alliance, he married the deceased Francesco's younger daughter, Marie , to Henry IV of France . Henry explicitly stated that he would defend Tuscany from Spanish aggression, but later reneged. Ferdinando was forced to marry his heir, Cosimo II , to Archduchess Maria Maddalena of Austria to assuage Spain (where Maria Maddalena's sister was the incumbent Queen consort). Ferdinando sponsored
12328-570: The official titles in the First Bulgarian Empire (681–1018), Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396), the Kingdom of Bulgaria (1908–1946), the Serbian Empire (1346–1371), and the Tsardom of Russia (1547–1721). The first ruler to adopt the title tsar was Simeon I of Bulgaria . Simeon II , the last tsar of Bulgaria , is the last person to hold this title. The title tsar is derived from
12462-507: The period of Kievan Rus' never styled themselves as tsars. The first Russian ruler to openly break with the khan of the Golden Horde , Mikhail of Tver ( r. 1285–1318 ), assumed the title basileus ton Ros , as well as tsar . Following his assertion of independence from the khan in 1476, Ivan III , the grand prince of Moscow ( r. 1462–1505 ), adopted the title of sovereign of all Russia , and he later also started to use
12596-406: The planting of Mulberry trees along the major roads (silk worms feed on Mulberry leaves). He shifted Tuscany away from Habsburg hegemony by marrying the first non-Habsburg candidate since Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence , Christina of Lorraine , a granddaughter of Catherine de' Medici . The Spanish reaction was to construct a citadel on their portion of the island of Elba. To strengthen
12730-409: The political rights of citizens and on a harmony of power between the executive and the legislative. However, the constitution was so radically new that it garnered opposition even from those who might have benefited from it. In 1790, Emperor Joseph II died without issue before carrying out his project for the abolition of secundogeniture in Tuscany, partly due to Leopold's latent resistance. Thus, when
12864-494: The pope for the "imperial title" conferred upon him. After Bulgaria's liberation from the Ottomans in 1878, its new monarchs were at first autonomous prince ( knyaz ). With the declaration of full independence, Ferdinand I of Bulgaria adopted the traditional title "tsar" in 1908 and it was used until the abolition of the monarchy in 1946. However, these titles were not generally perceived as equivalents of "emperor" any longer. In
12998-572: The regime sprang up in August, in Livorno. Leopold II lent his support to the Kingdom of Sardinia in the First Italian War of Independence . In February 1849, Leopold II had to abandon Tuscany to republicans and sought refuge in the Neapolitan city of Gaeta . A provisional republic was established in his stead. It was only with Austrian assistance that Leopold could return to Florence. The constitution
13132-521: The register of prizes of the Order of Saint Stephen. It lists some 238 vessels captured from 1563 to 1688; enemy galleys captured from 1568 to 1599 were 11 (for the loss of an identical number), and another 17 were seized between 1602 and 1635. Only 1 was captured after 1635. A notable incident in this time was a naval battle off Sardinia in October 1624, in which 15 Tuscan, Papal, and Neapolitan galleys converged on
13266-752: The report overly optimistic, but with some basis in fact. In response to the Türkenkriege during the Long Turkish War starting in 1593, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany sent 100,000 scudi and 3,600 soldiers (3,000 infantry and 600 cavalry) to support the Holy Roman Emperor in Hungary , plus smaller detachments thereafter (there were 2,000 Tuscans in the Imperial army in Hungary by 1601). A Tuscan-Spanish treaty that bound
13400-574: The same time as their inherited fiefs (or fiefs granted by Napoleon) were enlarged by annexed territories previously belonging to enemies defeated on the battlefield. After Napoleon's downfall, the victorious powers who met at the Congress of Vienna , which dealt with the political aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, agreed to abolish the Grand Duchies created by Bonaparte and to create a group of monarchies of intermediate importance with that title. Thus
13534-522: The scope of its application. Leopold was succeeded by Ferdinand III . Ferdinand was the son of Leopold I, and Grand Duchess Maria Louisa . He was forced out by the French during the French Revolutionary Wars , first in spring 1799 when a jacobin provisional government was created by the French army, and then after the Treaty of Aranjuez (1801) , becoming instead Elector of Salzburg , ruling
13668-468: The similarly non-sovereign Großfürstentum Siebenbürgen ( Grand Principality of Transylvania ) in 1765, and the (purely nominal) Großherzogtum Krakau ( Grand Duchy of Kraków ) in 1846. The Latin title dux (the etymological root of duke ), which was phonetically rendered doux (δούξ) in Greek, was a common title for imperial generals in the Late Roman Empires (west and east), but note it
13802-571: The size and quality of the duchy's militia varied throughout its existence, as did its army. From 1553 to 1559, Tuscany raised 30,000 troops for their participation in the Last Italian War , which saw the Republic of Siena being added to the duchy. For the decades thereafter, the grand dukes only maintained a peacetime force of 2,500 soldiers, 500 cavalry to patrol the coasts and 2,000 infantry to man castles (Cosimo I having significantly expanded Tuscany's fortification network in an effort to defend
13936-462: The subsidiary titles of the Swedish kings, but without any political consequences, as Finland was already a part of the Swedish realm. After the Russian conquests, the title continued to be used by the Russian emperors in their role as rulers of both ( de facto non-sovereign) Lithuania (1793–1917) and the (equally non-sovereign) autonomous Finland (1809–1917). The Habsburg monarchy also instituted
14070-602: The succession and claimed the same titles as a dynast in Thessaly. After his death around 1370, he was succeeded in his claims by his son John Uroš , who retired to a monastery in about 1373. The title tsar was used once by church officials of Kievan Rus' in the naming of Yaroslav the Wise , the grand prince of Kiev ( r. 1019–1054 ). This may have related to Yaroslav's war against Byzantium and to his efforts to distance himself from Constantinople . However, other princes during
14204-525: The supreme court of Florence hastened to extend to the entire territory of the Grand Duchy, at the beginning of 1848. In Leopold's years Italy was engulfed in popular rebellion, culminating in the Revolutions of 1848 . The said revolution toppled the throne of France, and caused disarray across Europe. In Tuscany, Leopold II sanctioned a liberal constitution; and instituted a liberal ministry. Despite his attempts at acquiescence, street fighting in opposition to
14338-405: The taxation and tariff system. Smallpox vaccination was made systematically available (Leopold's mother Maria Theresa had been a huge supporter of inoculation against smallpox), and an early institution for the rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents was founded. Leopold also abolished capital punishment . On 30 November 1786, after having de facto blocked capital executions (the last
14472-409: The territory of the former archbishopric . The Grand Duchy was then dissolved, and replaced by the Kingdom of Etruria under the House of Bourbon-Parma , in compensation for their loss of Duchy of Parma . In 1803, the first King of Etruria, Louis I , died and was succeeded by his infant son, Charles Louis , under the regency of his mother, Queen María Luisa . Etruria lasted less than a decade. By
14606-750: The throne following his death. Like his uncle, Francesco I, government held no appeal for him, and Tuscany was ruled by his ministers. Cosimo II's twelve-year reign was punctuated by his contented marriage with Maria Maddalena and his patronage of astronomer Galileo Galilei . When Cosimo died, his oldest son, Ferdinando , was still a minor. This led to a regency of Ferdinand's grandmother, Dowager Grand Duchess Christina , and his mother, Maria Maddalena of Austria. Christina heavily relied on priests as advisors, lifting Cosimo I's ban on clergy holding administrative roles in government, and promoted monasticism. Christina dominated her grandson long after he came of age until her death in 1636. His mother and grandmother arranged
14740-595: The throne of Grand Dukes, however, the Habsburgs continually tried to make Tuscany a source of military power, to little success, as Tuscany had declined and demilitarized in the 18th century. Such was the failure of their initial effort that Vienna declared Tuscany to be neutral during the War of the Austrian Succession , and enemy troops crossed it unopposed. At that time the Habsburgs' efforts had only managed to muster
14874-429: The throne of the Grand Duchy. Leopold , usually referred to in Italy as "Pietro Leopoldo", ruled the country until his brother Joseph's death and his own election as Holy Roman Emperor in 1790. He was unpopular among his subjects, though his many reforms brought the Grand Duchy to a level of stability that had not been seen in quite a while. Leopold developed and supported many social and economic reforms. He revamped
15008-636: The time, the title was usually translated as " king ", sometimes also as "minor king" or "little king" ( German : Kleinkönig ). However, grand princes did not have the same monarchic precedence as later Western European kings, and thus they were considered lower in rank, particularly in later literature. Grand princes reigned in Central and Eastern Europe, notably among Slavs and Lithuanians. The title "grand prince" translates to velikiy knjaz ( Великий князь ) in Ukrainian and Russian. The Slavic word knjaz and
15142-467: The title of "tsar" is more honorable for Muscovites than "kaiser" or "king" exactly because it was God and not some earthly potentate who ordained to apply it to David, Solomon, and other kings of Israel. Samuel Collins , a court physician to Tsar Alexis in 1659–66, styled the latter "Great Emperor", commenting that "as for the word Czar , it has so near relation to Cesar ... that it may well be granted to signifie Emperor. The Russians would have it to be
15276-527: The title of tsar regularly in diplomatic relations with the West. From about 1480, he is designated as imperator in his Latin correspondence, as keyser in his correspondence with the Swedish regent, and as kejser in his correspondence with the Danish king, Teutonic Knights , and the Hanseatic League . Ivan's son Vasily III continued using these titles. Sigismund von Herberstein (1486–1566) observed that
15410-500: The titles of kaiser and imperator were attempts to render the Russian term tsar into German and Latin, respectively. The title-inflation related to Russia's growing ambitions to become an Orthodox " third Rome ", after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The monarch in Moscow was recognized as an emperor by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I in 1514. However, the first Russian ruler to be formally crowned as tsar of all Russia
15544-575: The two at the end of the Italian Wars demanded that Tuscany send 5,000 troops to the Spanish army if ever the Duchy of Milan or Naples was attacked. In 1613, Cosimo II sent 2,000 infantry and 300 cavalry, along with an undisclosed number of Tuscan adventurers, to aid the Spanish after Savoy launched an invasion of the Duchy of Montferrat . In 1631, the grand duke sent 7,000 troops (6,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry) to join Wallenstein's army in support of
15678-465: The western translation of the Russian title "grand prince" granted to the siblings of the tsar ) expanded massively because of the large number of progeny of the ruling House of Romanov during those decades. In the German and Dutch languages, which have separate words for a prince as the issue (child) of a monarch (respectively Prinz , Prins ) and for a sovereign prince ( Fürst , Vorst ), there
15812-517: Was Ivan IV ("the Terrible"), in 1547. Some foreign ambassadors—namely, Herberstein (in 1516 and 1525), Daniel Printz a Buchau (in 1576 and 1578) and Just Juel (in 1709)—indicated that the word "tsar" should not be translated as "emperor", because it is applied by Russians to David , Solomon and other Biblical kings, who are simple reges . On the other hand, Jacques Margeret , a bodyguard of False Demetrius I ( r. 1605–1606 ), argues that
15946-453: Was lower in rank than comes (the etymological root of count ). Under the latter, exclusively Byzantine theme system , the commander of a theme was often styled a doux instead of the earlier strategos from the 10th century on. The title of "Grand Duke" ( megas doux ) was created by Alexios I Komnenos and was conferred upon the commanding admiral of the Byzantine navy . As such, it
16080-579: Was also the Grand Duke of Finland , which he held as an autonomous state. Before the Russian conquest Finland had been held by the Kings of Sweden, first as a royal duchy , since 1581 with the King assuming the secondary title Grand Duke of Finland (Finnish: Suomen suuriruhtinas , Swedish: Storfurste av Finland ). Grand princes (or sometimes great princes ) were medieval monarchs who usually ruled over several tribes and/or were feudal overlords of other princes. At
16214-618: Was an actual office rather than a court rank (although it also became a grade in the court order of precedence under the Palaiologan emperors ), and was always held by one individual. Grand Duke of Bosnia ( Serbo-Croatian : Veliki Vojvoda Bosanski ; Latin : Bosne supremus voivoda / Sicut supremus voivoda regni Bosniae ) was a court title in the Kingdom of Bosnia , bestowed by the king to highest military commanders, usually reserved for most influential and most capable among highest Bosnian nobility. To interpret it as an office post rather than
16348-568: Was barely adequate to cover the state's current expenditure, resulting in a complete termination of banking operations for the Medici. Ferdinando II died in 1670, succeeded by his oldest surviving son Cosimo. Cosimo III's reign was characterised by drastic changes and a sharp decline of the Grand Duchy. Cosimo III was of a puritan character, banning May celebrations, forcing prostitutes to pay for licenses, and beheading sodomites. He also instituted several laws censoring education and introduced anti-Jewish legislation. He imposed crippling taxes while
16482-457: Was crowned as such in Skopje on Easter (April 16) 1346 by the newly elevated Serbian patriarch, alongside the Bulgarian patriarch and archbishop of Ohrid. On the same occasion, he had his wife Helena of Bulgaria crowned as empress and his son associated in power as king. When Dušan died in 1355, his son Stefan Uroš V became the next emperor. The new emperor's uncle Simeon Uroš (Siniša) contested
16616-551: Was derived from the Latin caesar ("emperor") and based on the claim to be the legitimate successors of the Byzantine-East Roman Emperors. Grand Prince Ivan IV of Muscovy was the last monarch to reign without claiming any higher title, until he finally assumed the style Tsar of Russia in 1547. The rulers of the Turkish vassal state of Transylvania ( German : Siebenbürgen ) used the title of grand prince; this title
16750-422: Was divided into two main administrative districts: the stato nuovo (the new state) consisting of the former Republic of Siena , and the stato vecchio (the old state), the old Republic of Florence and her dependencies. The two areas were governed by separate laws. They were divided because the stato nuovo was a Spanish fief and the stato vecchio an Imperial one. Siena was ruled by a governor appointed by
16884-413: Was in 1769), Leopold promulgated the reform of the penal code that abolished the death penalty and ordered the destruction of all the instruments for capital execution in his land. Torture was also banned. Leopold also introduced radical reforms to the system of neglect and inhumane treatment of the mentally ill . On 23 January 1774, the legge sui pazzi (law regarding the insane) was established,
17018-526: Was in theory an Imperial fief and declared Pius V's actions invalid. However, Maximilian eventually confirmed the elevation with an Imperial diploma in 1576. Subsequently, to end animosities with Maximilian, Cosimo "bought" the grand ducal title from him for 100,000 ducats. During the Holy League of 1571 , Cosimo fought against the Ottoman Empire , siding with the other Catholic powers, such as Venice and
17152-512: Was increasingly viewed as inferior to "emperor" or as highlighting the oriental side of the rank. Upon annexing Crimea in 1783, Catherine the Great adopted the hellenicized title "tsaritsa of Tauric Chersonesos ", rather than "tsaritsa of the Crimea". By 1815, when Russia annexed a large part of Poland, the title had clearly come to be interpreted in Russia as the equivalent of Polish król ("king"), and
17286-566: Was later assumed by the Habsburgs after their conquest of Hungary. The Polish kings of the Swedish House of Vasa also used the grand-princely title for their non-Polish territories. In the late Middle Ages, the title "grand prince/grand duke" became increasingly a purely ceremonial courtesy title for close relatives of ruling monarchs, such as the Tsar of Russia, who granted his brothers the title Grand Duke of Russia ( veliki knjaz ). Most often,
17420-513: Was less successful, costing 800 men and 4 ships disabled. The grand duke also enticed English corsairs in North Africa to use Livorno as a base instead, in exchange for amnesty and a share of their profits; Livorno quickly became a corsair capital, with the corsairs preying on both Muslim and Christian shipping. After 1612, the Tuscans progressively stopped sending out expeditions and limited their naval operations to patrols. This can be observed in
17554-484: Was placed in charge under General Jacques François Menou . Tuscany was divided into the départements of Arno , Méditerranée and Ombrone . In March 1809 a "General Government of the Departments of Tuscany" was set up, and Napoleon put his sister Elisa Bonaparte at its head, with the title of Grand Duchess of Tuscany. The Napoleonic system collapsed in 1814, and the following territorial settlement agreed to at
17688-524: Was reflected in the quality of its army; by 1740 it only consisted of a few thousand poorly-trained men and was considered impotent to such a degree that its Habsburgs rulers allowed enemy troops to cross the duchy unopposed. The grand duchy had two sources of naval power: the state navy and the Order of Saint Stephen . In 1572 the Tuscan navy consisted of 11 galleys, 2 galleasses, 2 galleons, 6 frigates, and various transports, carrying in all 200 guns, manned by 100 knights, 900 seamen, and 2,500 oarsmen. With
17822-624: Was revoked in 1852, as was the abolition of capital punishment. The Austrian garrison was withdrawn in 1855. The Second Italian War of Independence broke out in the summer of 1859. Leopold felt obliged to espouse Austria's cause. The Royal Sardinian Army of Victor Emmanuel II captured Tuscany in its entirety, and held it for the duration of the conflict; Leopold fled Tuscany as a result. The Peace of Villafranca stipulated that Leopold be allowed to return, although in practise this never happened. He abdicated in favour of his elder son, Ferdinand . Ferdinand IV's hypothetical reign did not last long;
17956-411: Was used both for the protection of towns and fortresses that the army was not able to garrison, and as a reserve from which semi-trained men would be drawn into the army. The militia had its origins in 1498 , in the predecessor state of the Florentine Republic. By 1506, it numbered 20,000 men, of whom 70% carried pikes, 20% halberds/bills and hog-spears , and 10% either arquebuses or crossbows. However,
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