101-407: In modern Hebrew and Yiddish , goy ( / ɡ ɔɪ / ; גוי , pl. : goyim / ˈ ɡ ɔɪ . ɪ m / , גוים or גויים ) is a term for a gentile , a non- Jew . Through Yiddish, the word has been adopted into English ( pl. : goyim or goys ) also to mean "gentile", sometimes in a pejorative sense. As a word principally used by Jews to describe non-Jews, it
202-554: A goy gadol ("great nation"). There are two exceptions where a “Kingdom of Goyim” is mentioned. One is in Genesis 14:1 , where it states that the "King of Goyim" was Tidal . Bible commentaries suggest that the term may refer to Gutium . The other is in Joshua 12:23 , where a “King of Goyim in Gilgal ” is included in the list of kings slain by Joshua . In all other cases the meaning of goyim
303-485: A Geresh , represent the consonants [ t͡ʃ ] , [ d͡ʒ ] , [ ʒ ] . The consonant [ t͡ʃ ] may also be written as "תש" and "טש". [ w ] is represented interchangeably by a simple vav "ו", non-standard double vav "וו" and sometimes by non-standard geresh modified vav "ו׳". Modern Hebrew has fewer phonemes than Biblical Hebrew but it has developed its own phonological complexity. Israeli Hebrew has 25 to 27 consonants, depending on whether
404-704: A Hungarian antisemitic motorcycle association refers to themselves as the Goyim riders , and in 2020 Kyle Chapman tried to rename the far-right group the Proud Boys to the Proud Goys . In a similar vein, the far-right American Traditionalist Worker Party , in 2017, created the crowdfunding platform called GoyFundMe, a wordplay on the popular crowdfunding platform GoFundMe . The Goyim Defense League (GDL) and its website, GoyimTV, are another example. Europol 's 2021 report on Terrorism Situations and Trends discusses
505-540: A Gentile, Greek audience, notably at Antioch, which had a large Jewish community and significant numbers of Gentile "God-fearers." From Antioch the mission to the Gentiles started, which would fundamentally change the character of the early Christian movement, eventually turning it into a new, Gentile religion. When a famine occurred in Judea , around 45–46, Paul and Barnabas journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial support from
606-507: A Hebrew form. Medieval Hebrew added 6421 words to (Modern) Hebrew. The approximate number of new lexical items in Israeli is 17,000 (cf. 14,762 in Even-Shoshan 1970 [...]). With the inclusion of foreign and technical terms [...], the total number of Israeli words, including words of biblical, rabbinic and medieval descent, is more than 60,000. Modern Hebrew has loanwords from Arabic (both from
707-567: A Jewish wedding" and "goyishe kop" where the word is used in a pejorative sense. She admits that the word can have non-pejorative uses, such as "goyishe restaurant" - one that doesn't serve kosher food - but contends that the word is "neutral, at best, and extremely offensive, at worst." She advocates that the Jewish community stop using the word "goy." Andrew Silow Carroll writes: But the word "goy" has too much historical and linguistic baggage to be used as casually as "non-Jew" or "gentile." It starts with
808-682: A belief in conspiracy theories about Jews. The word goy means "nation" in Biblical Hebrew . In the Torah , goy and its variants appear 560 times in reference to both the Israelites and the non-Israelite nations. The first recorded usage of goyim occurs in Genesis 10:5 and applies to non-Israelite nations. The first mention of goy in relation to the Israelites comes in Genesis 12:2 , when God promises Abraham that his descendants will form
909-622: A common noun. It was originally used to describe a blazed trail. The flower Anemone coronaria , called in Modern Hebrew kalanit , was formerly called in Hebrew shoshanat ha-melekh ('the king's flower'). For a simple comparison between the Sephardic and Yemenite versions of Mishnaic Hebrew, see Yemenite Hebrew . Modern Hebrew is classified as an Afroasiatic language of the Semitic family ,
1010-505: A derogatory manner. The Yiddish lexicographer Leo Rosten in The New Joys of Yiddish defines goy as someone who is non-Jewish or someone who is dull, insensitive, or heartless. Goy also occurs in many pejorative Yiddish expressions: Several authors have opined on whether the word is derogatory. Dan Friedman, executive director of The Forward in "What 'Goy' Means, And Why I Keep Using It" writes that it can be used as an insult but that
1111-587: A general category of human beings, into a central element of his thought... ...In the centuries that followed, both the Church and the Jewish sages evoked Paul's binary dichotomy." The Latin words gentes/gentilis – which also referred to peoples or nations – began to be used to describe non-Jews in parallel with the evolution of the word goy in Hebrew. Based on the Latin model, the English word "gentile" came to mean non-Jew from
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#17328943390791212-526: A lesser extent Latin. In the Middle Ages, Hebrew made heavy semantic borrowing from Arabic, especially in the fields of science and philosophy. Here are typical examples of Hebrew loanwords: Saint Paul Paul also named Saul of Tarsus , commonly known as Paul the Apostle and Saint Paul , was a Christian apostle ( c. 5 – c. 64/65 AD) who spread the teachings of Jesus in
1313-562: A meal with Gentile Christians in Antioch because they did not strictly adhere to Jewish customs. Writing later of the incident, Paul recounts, "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong", and says he told Peter, "You are a Jew, yet you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew . How is it, then, that you force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs ?" Paul also mentions that even Barnabas, his traveling companion and fellow apostle until that time, sided with Peter. The outcome of
1414-644: A minority view considers it may have been penned while he was imprisoned in Rome. Paul went through Macedonia into Achaea and stayed in Greece, probably Corinth, for three months during 56–57 AD. Commentators generally agree that Paul dictated his Epistle to the Romans during this period. He then made ready to continue on to Syria , but he changed his plans and traveled back through Macedonia, putatively because certain Jews had made
1515-549: A plot against him. In Romans 15:19, Paul wrote that he visited Illyricum , but he may have meant what would now be called Illyria Graeca , which was at that time a division of the Roman province of Macedonia. On their way back to Jerusalem, Paul and his companions visited other cities such as Philippi , Troas , Miletus , Rhodes , and Tyre . Paul finished his trip with a stop in Caesarea , where he and his companions stayed with Philip
1616-665: A revisionist (and minority) dating of 47/51 AD. The meeting is described in Acts 15:2 and usually seen as the same event mentioned by Paul in Galatians 2:1–10 The key question raised was whether Gentile converts needed to be circumcised. At this meeting, Paul states in his letter to the Galatians, Peter , James , and John accepted Paul's mission to the Gentiles. The Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, and also in Paul's letters. For example,
1717-477: A servant girl, whose masters were then unhappy about the loss of income her soothsaying provided. They seized Paul and Silas and dragged them into the marketplace before the authorities and Paul and Silas were put in jail. After a miraculous earthquake, the gates of the prison fell apart and Paul and Silas could have escaped but remained; this event led to the conversion of the jailor. They continued traveling, going by Berea and then to Athens, where Paul preached to
1818-515: A slur — seldom used as a compliment, and never used in the presence of a non-Jew. adding That's a good litmus test: if you wouldn't use a word in the presence of someone you're describing, [there is a] good chance it's offensive. According to the Southern Poverty Law Center , white supremacists have ironically used the term "goy" in reference to themselves as a signal of their belief in conspiracy theories about Jews . For example,
1919-517: A spoken language. By the late 19th century, Russian-Jewish linguist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda had begun a popular movement to revive Hebrew as a living language, motivated by his desire to preserve Hebrew literature and a distinct Jewish nationality in the context of Zionism . Soon after, a large number of Yiddish and Judaeo-Spanish speakers were murdered in the Holocaust or fled to Israel , and many speakers of Judeo-Arabic emigrated to Israel in
2020-516: A validation of his teaching. Paul's narrative in Galatians states that 14 years after his conversion he went again to Jerusalem. It is not known what happened during this time, but both Acts and Galatians provide some details. At the end of this time, Barnabas went to find Paul and brought him to Antioch . The Christian community at Antioch had been established by Hellenised diaspora Jews living in Jerusalem, who played an important role in reaching
2121-611: A way to propagate the "anti-Semitic myth that we are a cabal with our own secret language and agenda." The Anti-Defamation League further deciphers the catchphrase, The language is typically used in references to antisemitic conspiracy theories depicting Jews as malevolent puppet-masters, manipulating the media , banks, and even entire governments to the benefit of themselves but to the detriment of other peoples. Modern Hebrew Modern Hebrew ( Hebrew : עִבְרִית חֲדָשָׁה [ʔivˈʁit χadaˈʃa] or [ʕivˈrit ħadaˈʃa] ), also called Israeli Hebrew or simply Hebrew ,
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#17328943390792222-483: Is 'nations.' In Exodus 19:6 , the Israelites are referred to as a goy kadosh , a "holy nation". One of the more poetic descriptions of the chosen people in the Hebrew Bible, and popular among Jewish scholars is goy ehad b'aretz , or "a unique nation upon the earth" ( 2 Samuel 7:23 and 1 Chronicles 17:21 ) In English language Christian bibles, nation has been used as the principal translation for goy in
2323-511: Is 8198, of which some 2000 are hapax legomena (the number of Biblical Hebrew roots, on which many of these words are based, is 2099). The number of attested Rabbinic Hebrew words is less than 20,000, of which (i) 7879 are Rabbinic par excellence, i.e. they did not appear in the Old Testament (the number of new Rabbinic Hebrew roots is 805); (ii) around 6000 are a subset of Biblical Hebrew; and (iii) several thousand are Aramaic words which can have
2424-532: Is a term for the ethnic out-group . The Biblical Hebrew word goy has been commonly translated into English as nation , meaning a group of persons of the same ethnic family who speak the same language (rather than the more common modern meaning of a political unit). In the Bible, goy is used to describe both the Nation of Israel and other nations. The meaning of the word goy in Hebrew evolved to mean "non-Jew" in
2525-439: Is called "Paul" for the first time on the island of Cyprus , much later than the time of his conversion. The author of Luke–Acts indicates that the names were interchangeable: "Saul, who also is called Paul." He refers to him as Paul through the remainder of Acts. This was apparently Paul's preference since he is called Paul in all other Bible books where he is mentioned, including those that he authored . Adopting his Roman name
2626-404: Is genealogically a hybrid with Indo-European. Those theories have not been met with general acceptance, and the consensus among a majority of scholars is that Modern Hebrew, despite its non-Semitic influences, can correctly be classified as a Semitic language. Although European languages have had an impact on Modern Hebrew, the impact may often be overstated. Although Modern Hebrew has more of
2727-484: Is mentioned in Acts 23:16. In Romans 16:7, he states that his relatives, Andronicus and Junia , were Christians before he was and were prominent among the Apostles. The family had a history of religious piety. Apparently, the family lineage had been very attached to Pharisaic traditions and observances for generations. Acts says that he was an artisan involved in the leather crafting or tent-making profession. This
2828-454: Is not the consensus among scholars. Modern Hebrew is considered to be a koiné language based on historical layers of Hebrew that incorporates foreign elements, mainly those introduced during the most critical revival period between 1880 and 1920, as well as new elements created by speakers through natural linguistic evolution. A minority of scholars argue that the revived language had been so influenced by various substrate languages that it
2929-450: Is now used for ' plum ', but formerly meant ' jujube '. The word kishū’īm (formerly 'cucumbers') is now applied to a variety of summer squash ( Cucurbita pepo var. cylindrica ), a plant native to the New World . Another example is the word kǝvīš ( כביש ), which now denotes a street or a road, but is actually an Aramaic adjective meaning 'trodden down' or 'blazed', rather than
3030-538: Is pervasive", among that of many other apostles and missionaries involved in the spread of the Christian faith. Christians, notably in the Lutheran tradition, have classically read Paul as advocating for a law-free Gospel against Judaism. Polemicists and scholars likewise, especially during the early 20th century, have alleged that Paul corrupted or hijacked Christianity , often by introducing pagan or Hellenistic themes to
3131-602: Is said to have performed numerous miracles, healing people and casting out demons, and he apparently organized missionary activity in other regions. Paul left Ephesus after an attack from a local silversmith resulted in a pro- Artemis riot involving most of the city. During his stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote four letters to the church in Corinth. The letter to the church in Philippi is generally thought to have been written from Ephesus, though
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3232-515: Is the standard form of the Hebrew language spoken today. Developed as part of the revival of Hebrew in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it is the official language of the State of Israel and the only Canaanite language still spoken as a native language. The revival of Hebrew predates the creation of the state of Israel, where it is now the national language . Modern Hebrew is often regarded as one of
3333-452: Is used in handwriting. When necessary, vowels are indicated by diacritic marks above or below the letters known as Nikkud , or by use of Matres lectionis , which are consonantal letters used as vowels. Further diacritics like Dagesh and Sin and Shin dots are used to indicate variations in the pronunciation of the consonants (e.g. bet / vet , shin / sin ). The letters " צ׳ ", " ג׳ ", " ז׳ ", each modified with
3434-435: Is used. Modern Hebrew maintains classical syntactic properties associated with VSO languages: it is prepositional , rather than postpositional, in marking case and adverbial relations, auxiliary verbs precede main verbs; main verbs precede their complements, and noun modifiers ( adjectives , determiners other than the definite article [ה-] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |3= ( help ) , and noun adjuncts ) follow
3535-830: Is usually Arabic ; and half a million are expatriate Israelis or diaspora Jews . Under Israeli law, the organization that officially directs the development of Modern Hebrew is the Academy of the Hebrew Language , headquartered at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem . The most common scholarly term for the language is "Modern Hebrew" ( עברית חדשה ). Most people refer to it simply as Hebrew ( עברית Hebrew pronunciation: [Ivrit] ). The term "Modern Hebrew" has been described as "somewhat problematic" as it implies unambiguous periodization from Biblical Hebrew . Haiim B. Rosén [ he ] (חיים רוזן) supported
3636-646: The Canaanite branch of the Northwest Semitic subgroup. While Modern Hebrew is largely based on Mishnaic and Biblical Hebrew as well as Sephardi and Ashkenazi liturgical and literary tradition from the Medieval and Haskalah eras and retains its Semitic character in its morphology and in much of its syntax, some scholars posit that Modern Hebrew represents a fundamentally new linguistic system, not directly continuing any previous linguistic state. Though this
3737-552: The Gospel not from man, but directly by "the revelation of Jesus Christ". He claimed almost total independence from the Jerusalem community (possibly in the Cenacle ), but agreed with it on the nature and content of the gospel. He appeared eager to bring material support to Jerusalem from the various growing Gentile churches that he started. In his writings, Paul used the persecutions he endured to avow proximity and union with Jesus and as
3838-637: The Hebrew Bible , from the earliest English language bibles such as the 1530 Tyndale Bible and the 1611 King James Version . The King James Version of the Bible translates the word goy / goyim as "nation" 374 times, "heathen" 143 times, "Gentile" 30 times (see Evolution of the Term below) and "people" 11 times. The New American Standard Bible translation uses the following words: "every nation" (2 times) Gentiles (1) Goiim (1), Harosheth-hagoyim* (3), herds (1), nation (120), nations (425), people (4). While
3939-457: The Hellenistic (300 BCE to 30 BCE) and Roman periods , as both Rabbinical texts and then Christian theology placed increasing emphasis on a binary division between Jews and non-Jews. In modern usage in English, the extent to which goy is derogatory is a point of discussion in the Jewish community. The word "goy" is sometimes used by white supremacists to refer to themselves when signaling
4040-613: The Jewish exodus from the Muslim world , where many adapted to Modern Hebrew. Currently, Hebrew is spoken by approximately 9–10 million people, counting native, fluent, and non-fluent speakers. Some 6 million of these speak it as their native language, the overwhelming majority of whom are Jews who were born in Israel or immigrated during infancy. The rest is split: 2 million are immigrants to Israel; 1.5 million are Israeli Arabs , whose first language
4141-812: The Pauline epistles are undisputed by scholars as being authentic , with varying degrees of argument about the remainder. Pauline authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews is not asserted in the Epistle itself and was already doubted in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. It was almost unquestioningly accepted from the 5th to the 16th centuries that Paul was the author of Hebrews, but that view is now almost universally rejected by scholars. The other six are believed by some scholars to have come from followers writing in his name, using material from Paul's surviving letters and letters written by him that no longer survive. Other scholars argue that
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4242-689: The first-century world . For his contributions towards the New Testament , he is generally regarded as one of the most important figures of the Apostolic Age , and he also founded several Christian communities in Asia Minor and Europe from the mid-40s to the mid-50s AD. The main source of information on Paul's life and works is the Acts of the Apostles in the New Testament . Approximately half of its content documents his travels, preaching and miracles . Paul
4343-511: The kingdoms of Israel and Judah , during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew remained a spoken vernacular following the Babylonian captivity , when Old Aramaic became the predominant international language in the region. Hebrew died out as a vernacular language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining after the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136 CE, which devastated
4444-537: The "Hebrews" and their continuing participation in the Temple cult. Paul's conversion to the movement of followers of Jesus can be dated to 31–36 AD by his reference to it in one of his letters . In Galatians 1:16, Paul writes that God "was pleased to reveal his son to me." In 1 Corinthians 15:8, as he lists the order in which Jesus appeared to his disciples after his resurrection, Paul writes, "last of all, as to one untimely born, He appeared to me also." According to
4545-569: The "speaker" assumes the role of a "panicking Jew " who reacts to an event that would reveal Jewish "manipulations" or Jewish "deceitfulness". According to the Anti-Defamation League , the antisemitic meme first appeared on 4chan in 2013. Einstein Schorr called the meme an instance of " linguistic appropriation " whereby Neo-Nazis cynically incorporated "pseudo- Yiddish phrases" into their vocabulary to ridicule Jews . Schorr describes that as
4646-603: The Antioch community. According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative center for Christians following the dispersion of the believers after the death of Stephen . It was in Antioch that the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians". The author of Acts arranges Paul's travels into three separate journeys. The first journey, for which Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by the Antioch community, and led initially by Barnabas, took Barnabas and Paul from Antioch to Cyprus then into southern Asia Minor, and finally returning to Antioch. In Cyprus, Paul rebukes and blinds Elymas
4747-511: The Apostles recounts more information but leaves several parts of Paul's life out of its narrative, such as his probable but undocumented execution in Rome. The Acts of the Apostles also appear to contradict Paul's epistles on multiple matters, in particular concerning the frequency of Paul's visits to the church in Jerusalem . Sources outside the New Testament that mention Paul include: The two main sources of information that give access to
4848-467: The Apostles said that John Mark had left them in a previous trip and gone home. Unable to resolve the dispute, Paul and Barnabas decided to separate; Barnabas took John Mark with him, while Silas joined Paul. Paul and Silas initially visited Tarsus (Paul's birthplace), Derbe and Lystra . In Lystra, they met Timothy , a disciple who was spoken well of, and decided to take him with them. Paul and his companions, Silas and Timothy, had plans to journey to
4949-434: The Church there. He then traveled north to Antioch, where he stayed for some time ( Ancient Greek : ποιήσας χρόνον τινὰ . Some New Testament texts suggest that he also visited Jerusalem during this period for one of the Jewish feasts, possibly Pentecost . Textual critic Henry Alford and others consider the reference to a Jerusalem visit to be genuine and it accords with Acts 21:29, according to which Paul and Trophimus
5050-528: The Ephesian had previously been seen in Jerusalem. According to Acts, Paul began his third missionary journey by traveling all around the region of Galatia and Phrygia to strengthen, teach and rebuke the believers. Paul then traveled to Ephesus , an important center of early Christianity , and stayed there for almost three years, probably working there as a tentmaker, as he had done when he stayed in Corinth . He
5151-862: The Evangelist before finally arriving in Jerusalem. Among the writings of the early Christians, Pope Clement I said that Paul was "Herald (of the Gospel of Christ) in the West", and that "he had gone to the extremity of the west". Where Lightfoot 's translation has "had preached" below (in the "Church tradition" section), the Hoole translation has "having become a herald". John Chrysostom indicated that Paul preached in Spain: "For after he had been in Rome, he returned to Spain, but whether he came thence again into these parts, we know not". Cyril of Jerusalem said that Paul, "fully preached
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#17328943390795252-473: The German Goyim Partei Deutschland ('Goyim Party Germany'), "a right-wing extremist organisation" founded in 2016 which "used its website to publish antisemitic and racist texts, pictures and videos." The slur is also featured in the far-right catchphrase or meme The Goyim Know, Shut It Down associated with Neo-Nazis on online forums like the 4chan and 8chan . In this context,
5353-458: The Gospel, and instructed even imperial Rome, and carried the earnestness of his preaching as far as Spain, undergoing conflicts innumerable, and performing Signs and wonders". The Muratorian fragment mentions "the departure of Paul from the city [of Rome] [5a] (39) when he journeyed to Spain". The following table is adapted from the book From Jesus to Christianity by Biblical scholar L. Michael White , matching Paul's travels as documented in
5454-498: The Jerusalem visit for famine relief apparently corresponds to the "first visit" (to Peter and James only). F. F. Bruce suggested that the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than from his first visit to Jerusalem. Despite the agreement achieved at the Council of Jerusalem, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted Peter in a dispute sometimes called the " Incident at Antioch ", over Peter's reluctance to share
5555-613: The Jews and God-fearing Greeks in the synagogue and to the Greek intellectuals in the Areopagus . Paul continued from Athens to Corinth . Around 50–52 AD, Paul spent 18 months in Corinth . The reference in Acts to Proconsul Gallio helps ascertain this date (cf. Gallio Inscription ). In Corinth, Paul met Priscilla and Aquila , who became faithful believers and helped Paul through his other missionary journeys. The couple followed Paul and his companions to Ephesus and stayed there to start one of
5656-462: The New Testament , published in 1997, a chronology of events in Paul's life is presented, illustrated from later 20th-century writings of biblical scholars . The first missionary journey of Paul is assigned a "traditional" (and majority) dating of 46–49 AD, compared to a "revisionist" (and minority) dating of after 37 AD. A vital meeting between Paul and the Jerusalem church took place in the year 49 AD by traditional (and majority) dating, compared to
5757-404: The account in the Acts of the Apostles, it took place on the road to Damascus , where he reported having experienced a vision of the ascended Jesus. The account says that "He fell to the ground and heard a voice saying to him, 'Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?' He asked, 'Who are you, Lord?' The reply came, 'I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting'." According to the account in Acts 9:1–22, he
5858-455: The area of Jerusalem . According to James Dunn , the Jerusalem community consisted of "Hebrews", Jews speaking both Aramaic and Greek, and "Hellenists", Jews speaking only Greek, possibly diaspora Jews who had resettled in Jerusalem. Paul's initial persecution of Christians probably was directed against these Greek-speaking "Hellenists" due to their anti-Temple attitude. Within the early Jewish Christian community, this also set them apart from
5959-589: The books of the Hebrew Bible often use goy to describe the Israelites, the later Jewish writings of the Hellenistic Period (from approximately 300 BCE to 30 BCE) tended to apply the term to other nations. Goy acquired the meaning of someone who is not Jewish in the first and second century CE. Before that time, academics Adi Ophir and Ishay Rosen-Zvi have argued, no crystallized dichotomy between Jew and non-Jew existed in Judaism. Ophir and Rosen-Zvi state that
6060-440: The earliest segments of Paul's career are the Acts of the Apostles and the autobiographical elements of Paul's letters to the early Christian communities. Paul was likely born between the years of 5 BC and 5 AD. The Acts of the Apostles indicates that Paul was a Roman citizen by birth, but Helmut Koester took issue with the evidence presented by the text. Some have suggested that Paul's ancestors may have been freedmen from among
6161-407: The early Jewish convert to Christianity, Paul , was key in developing the concept of "goy" to mean non-Jew: "This brilliant Hellenist Jew [Paul] considered himself the apostle of the Christian gospel "to the gentiles," and precisely because of this he needed to define that category more thoroughly and carefully than his predecessors. Paul made the conception that "goyim" are not "peoples," but rather
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#17328943390796262-487: The early Jewish immigrants to Ottoman Palestine was caused primarily by support from the organisations of Edmond James de Rothschild in the 1880s and the official status it received in the 1922 constitution of the British Mandate for Palestine . Ben-Yehuda codified and planned Modern Hebrew using 8,000 words from the Bible and 20,000 words from rabbinical commentaries. Many new words were borrowed from Arabic, due to
6363-461: The early church. There has since been increasing acceptance of Paul as a fundamentally Jewish figure in line with the original disciples in Jerusalem over past misinterpretations, manifested though movements like "Paul Within Judaism". Paul's Jewish name was "Saul" ( Hebrew : שָׁאוּל , Modern : Sha'ûl , Tiberian : Šā'ûl ), perhaps after the biblical King Saul ,
6464-477: The features attributed to Standard Average European than Biblical Hebrew, it is still quite distant, and has fewer such features than Modern Standard Arabic. Modern Hebrew is written from right to left using the Hebrew alphabet , which is an abjad , or consonant-only script of 22 letters based on the "square" letter form, known as Ashurit (Assyrian), which was developed from the Aramaic script . A cursive script
6565-531: The first king of Israel and, like Paul, a member of the Tribe of Benjamin ; the Latin name Paulus, meaning small, was not a result of his conversion as is commonly believed but a second name for use in communicating with a Greco-Roman audience. According to the Acts of the Apostles , he was a Roman citizen . As such, he bore the Latin name Paulus , which translates in biblical Greek as Παῦλος ( Paulos ). It
6666-421: The head noun; and in genitive constructions, the possessee noun precedes the possessor. Moreover, Modern Hebrew allows and sometimes requires sentences with a predicate initial. Modern Hebrew has expanded its vocabulary effectively to meet the needs of casual vernacular, of science and technology, of journalism and belles-lettres . According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann : The number of attested Biblical Hebrew words
6767-478: The heavens (in 2 Corinthians 12 ) are the earliest first-person accounts that are extant of a Merkabah mystic in Jewish or Christian literature. Conversely, Timothy Churchill has argued that Paul's Damascus road encounter does not fit the pattern of Merkabah. According to Acts : And immediately he proclaimed Jesus in the synagogues, saying, "He is the Son of God." And all who heard him were amazed and said, "Is not this
6868-515: The idea of a pseudonymous author for the disputed epistles raises many problems. Today, Paul's epistles continue to be vital roots of the theology, worship and pastoral life in the Latin and Protestant traditions of the West , as well as the Eastern Catholic and Orthodox traditions of the East . Paul's influence on Christian thought and practice has been characterized as being as "profound as it
6969-429: The incident at Antioch is Paul's letter to the Galatians . Paul left for his second missionary journey from Jerusalem, in late Autumn 49 AD, after the meeting of the Council of Jerusalem where the circumcision question was debated. On their trip around the Mediterranean Sea, Paul and his companion Barnabas stopped in Antioch where they had a sharp argument about taking John Mark with them on their trips. The Acts of
7070-504: The incident remains uncertain. The Catholic Encyclopedia suggests that Paul won the argument, because "Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that Peter saw the justice of the rebuke". However, Paul himself never mentions a victory, and L. Michael White 's From Jesus to Christianity draws the opposite conclusion: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as persona non grata , never again to return". The primary source account of
7171-429: The influence of different contact languages to which its speakers have been exposed during the revival period and over the past century. The word order of Modern Hebrew is predominately SVO ( subject–verb–object ). Biblical Hebrew was originally verb–subject–object (VSO), but drifted into SVO. In the modern language, a sentence may correctly be arranged in any order but its meaning might be hard to understand unless אֶת
7272-658: The language's common Semitic roots with Hebrew, but changed to fit Hebrew phonology and grammar, for example the words gerev (sing.) and garbayim (pl.) are now applied to 'socks', a diminutive of the Arabic ğuwārib ('socks'). In addition, early Jewish immigrants, borrowing from the local Arabs, and later immigrants from Arab lands introduced many nouns as loanwords from Arabic (such as nana , zaatar , mishmish , kusbara , ḥilba , lubiya , hummus , gezer , rayḥan , etc.), as well as much of Modern Hebrew's slang. Despite Ben-Yehuda's fame as
7373-509: The local Palestinian dialect and from the dialects of Jewish immigrants from Arab countries ), Aramaic , Yiddish , Judaeo-Spanish , German , Polish , Russian , English and other languages. Simultaneously, Israeli Hebrew makes use of words that were originally loanwords from the languages of surrounding nations from ancient times: Canaanite languages as well as Akkadian. Mishnaic Hebrew borrowed many nouns from Aramaic (including Persian words borrowed by Aramaic), as well as from Greek and to
7474-542: The magician who was criticizing their teachings. They sailed to Perga in Pamphylia . John Mark left them and returned to Jerusalem. Paul and Barnabas went on to Pisidian Antioch . On Sabbath they went to the synagogue. The leaders invited them to speak. Paul reviewed Israelite history from life in Egypt to King David. He introduced Jesus as a descendant of David brought to Israel by God. He said that his group had come to bring
7575-416: The majority of nouns and adjectives are formed by the classically Semitic devices of triconsonantal roots ( shoresh ) with affixed patterns ( mishkal ). Mishnaic attributive patterns are often used to create nouns, and Classical patterns are often used to create adjectives. Blended words are created by merging two bound stems or parts of words. The syntax of Modern Hebrew is mainly Mishnaic but also shows
7676-549: The man who made havoc in Jerusalem of those who called upon this name? And has he not come here for this purpose, to bring them bound before the chief priests?" But Saul increased all the more in strength, and confounded the Jews who lived in Damascus by proving that Jesus was the Christ. After his conversion, Paul went to Damascus , where Acts 9 states he was healed of his blindness and baptized by Ananias of Damascus. Paul says that it
7777-458: The message of salvation. He recounted the story of Jesus' death and resurrection. He quoted from the Septuagint to assert that Jesus was the promised Christos who brought them forgiveness for their sins. Both the Jews and the " God-fearing " Gentiles invited them to talk more next Sabbath. At that time almost the whole city gathered. This upset some influential Jews who spoke against them. Paul used
7878-534: The most influential cities in Asia Minor since the time of Alexander the Great , who died in 323 BC. Paul referred to himself as being "of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin , a Hebrew of the Hebrews; as touching the law, a Pharisee ". The Bible reveals very little about Paul's family. Acts quotes Paul referring to his family by saying he was "a Pharisee, born of Pharisees". Paul's nephew, his sister's son,
7979-664: The most successful instances of language revitalization . Hebrew, a Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic language family , was spoken since antiquity and the vernacular of the Jewish people until the 3rd century BCE, when it was supplanted by Western Aramaic , a dialect of the Aramaic language , the local or dominant languages of the regions Jews migrated to, and later Judeo-Arabic , Judaeo-Spanish , Yiddish , and other Jewish languages . Although Hebrew continued to be used for Jewish liturgy , poetry and literature , and written correspondence, it became extinct as
8080-408: The now widely used term "Israeli Hebrew" on the basis that it "represented the non-chronological nature of Hebrew". In 1999, Israeli linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann proposed the term "Israeli" to represent the multiple origins of the language. The history of the Hebrew language can be divided into four major periods: Jewish contemporary sources describe Hebrew flourishing as a spoken language in
8181-483: The obvious slurs – like "goyishe kopf," or gentile brains, which suggests (generously) a dullard, or "shikker iz a goy," a gentile is a drunkard. "Goyishe naches" describes the kinds of things that a Jew mockingly presumes only a gentile would enjoy, like hunting, sailing and eating white bread. Nahma Nadich, deputy director of the Jewish Community Relations of Greater Boston writes: I definitely see goy as
8282-454: The occasion to announce a change in his mission which from then on would be to the Gentiles. Antioch served as a major Christian home base for Paul's early missionary activities, and he remained there for "a long time with the disciples" at the conclusion of his first journey. The exact duration of Paul's stay in Antioch is unknown, with estimates ranging from nine months to as long as eight years. In Raymond E. Brown 's An Introduction to
8383-773: The population of Judea . After the exile , Hebrew became restricted to liturgical and literary use. Hebrew had been spoken at various times and for a number of purposes throughout the Diaspora, and during the Old Yishuv it had developed into a spoken lingua franca among the Jews of Palestine . Eliezer Ben-Yehuda then led a revival of the Hebrew language as a mother tongue in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Modern Hebrew used Biblical Hebrew morphemes , Mishnaic spelling and grammar, and Sephardic pronunciation. Many idioms and calques were made from Yiddish . Its acceptance by
8484-468: The renewer of Hebrew, the most productive renewer of Hebrew words was poet Haim Nahman Bialik . One of the phenomena seen with the revival of the Hebrew language is that old meanings of nouns were occasionally changed for altogether different meanings, such as bardelas ( ברדלס ), which in Mishnaic Hebrew meant ' hyena ', but in Modern Hebrew it now means ' cheetah '; or shezīph ( שְׁזִיף ) which
8585-473: The road to Damascus so that he might find any Christians there and bring them "bound to Jerusalem". At midday, a light brighter than the sun shone around both him and those with him, causing all to fall to the ground, with the risen Christ verbally addressing Paul regarding his persecution in a vision. Having been made blind, along with being commanded to enter the city, his sight was restored three days later by Ananias of Damascus . After these events, Paul
8686-410: The southwest portion of Asia Minor to preach the gospel but during the night, Paul had a vision of a man of Macedonia standing and begging him to go to Macedonia to help them. After seeing the vision, Paul and his companions left for Macedonia to preach the gospel to them. The Church kept growing, adding believers, and strengthening in faith daily. In Philippi , Paul cast a spirit of divination out of
8787-425: The speaker has pharyngeals . It has 5 to 10 vowels, depending on whether diphthongs and vowels are counted, varying with the speaker and the analysis. Modern Hebrew morphology (formation, structure, and interrelationship of words in a language) is essentially Biblical . Modern Hebrew showcases much of the inflectional morphology of the classical upon which it was based. In the formation of new words, all verbs and
8888-449: The strongest and most faithful churches at that time. In 52, departing from Corinth, Paul stopped at the nearby village of Cenchreae to have his hair cut off, because of a vow he had earlier taken. It is possible this was to be a final haircut before fulfilling his vow to become a Nazirite for a defined period of time. With Priscilla and Aquila, the missionaries then sailed to Ephesus and then Paul alone went on to Caesarea to greet
8989-507: The supervision of Gamaliel in Jerusalem, he was not preparing to become a scholar of Jewish law, and probably never had any contact with the Hillelite school. Some of his family may have resided in Jerusalem since later the son of one of his sisters saved his life there. Nothing more is known of his biography until he takes an active part in the martyrdom of Stephen , a Hellenised diaspora Jew. Some modern scholarship argues that while Paul
9090-584: The thousands of Jews whom Pompey took as slaves in 63 BC , which would explain how he was born into Roman citizenship , as slaves of Roman citizens gained citizenship upon emancipation. He was from a devout Jewish family based in the city of Tarsus , which had been made part of the Roman Province of Syria by the time of Paul's adulthood. Tarsus was of the larger centers of trade on the Mediterranean coast and renowned for its academy , it had been among
9191-539: The time of the first English-language Bible translations in the 1500s (see Gentile ). The twelfth century Jewish scholar Maimonides defines goy in his Mishneh Torah as a worshipper of idolatry, as he explains, "Whenever we refer to a gentile [goy] without any further description, we mean one who worships false deities". Maimonides saw Christians as idolators (because of concepts like the Trinity ) but not Muslims who he saw as more strictly monotheistic. Goy can be used in
9292-468: The word is not offensive. He compares it to the word "foreigners" which Americans can use dismissively but which isn't a derogatory word. Similarly, Jews for Racial and Economic Justice (JFREJ) has stated that "goy" is "Not an insult, just kinda sounds like it." Rebecca Einstein Schorr argues that the word has an established pejorative overtone. She refers to the observation "the goyishe groomsmen were all drunk and bawdy; of course, you'd never see that at
9393-491: Was baptized, beginning immediately to proclaim that Jesus of Nazareth was the Jewish messiah and the Son of God . He made three missionary journeys to spread the Christian message to non-Jewish communities in Asia Minor , the Greek provinces of Achaia , Macedonia , and Cyprus , as well as Judea and Syria , as narrated in the Acts. Fourteen of the 27 books in the New Testament have traditionally been attributed to Paul. Seven of
9494-523: Was blinded for three days and had to be led into Damascus by the hand. During these three days, Saul took no food or water and spent his time in prayer to God. When Ananias of Damascus arrived, he laid his hands on him and said: "Brother Saul, the Lord, [even] Jesus, that appeared unto thee in the way as thou camest, hath sent me, that thou mightest receive thy sight, and be filled with the Holy Ghost." His sight
9595-545: Was fluent in Koine Greek , the language he used to write his letters, his first language was probably Aramaic . In his letters, Paul drew heavily on his knowledge of Stoic philosophy , using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist his new Gentile converts in their understanding of the Gospel and to explain his Christology. Paul says that before his conversion , he persecuted early Christians "beyond measure", more specifically Hellenised diaspora Jewish members who had returned to
9696-589: Was in Damascus that he barely escaped death. Paul also says that he then went first to Arabia, and then came back to Damascus. Paul's trip to Arabia is not mentioned anywhere else in the Bible, although it has been theorized that he traveled to Mount Sinai for meditations in the desert. He describes in Galatians how three years after his conversion he went to Jerusalem . There he met James and stayed with Simon Peter for 15 days. Paul located Mount Sinai in Arabia in Galatians 4:24–25. Paul asserted that he received
9797-461: Was not one of the Twelve Apostles , and did not know Jesus during his lifetime. According to the Acts, Paul lived as a Pharisee and participated in the persecution of early disciples of Jesus, possibly Hellenised diaspora Jews converted to Christianity, in the area of Jerusalem , before his conversion . Some time after having approved of the execution of Stephen , Paul was traveling on
9898-647: Was restored, he got up and was baptized. This story occurs only in Acts, not in the Pauline epistles. The author of the Acts of the Apostles may have learned of Paul's conversion from the church in Jerusalem , or from the church in Antioch , or possibly from Paul himself. According to Timo Eskola, early Christian theology and discourse was influenced by the Jewish Merkabah tradition. John Bowker , Alan Segal and Daniel Boyarin have variously argued that Paul's accounts of his conversion experience and his ascent to
9999-413: Was to become an initial connection with Priscilla and Aquila , with whom he would partner in tentmaking and later become very important teammates as fellow missionaries. While he was still fairly young, he was sent to Jerusalem to receive his education at the school of Gamaliel , one of the most noted teachers of Jewish law in history. Although modern scholarship accepts that Paul was educated under
10100-450: Was typical for the Jews of that time to have two names: one Hebrew, the other Latin or Greek. Jesus called him "Saul, Saul" in "the Hebrew tongue" in the Acts of the Apostles, when he had the vision which led to his conversion on the road to Damascus. Later, in a vision to Ananias of Damascus , "the Lord" referred to him as "Saul, of Tarsus". When Ananias came to restore his sight, he called him "Brother Saul". In Acts 13:9 , Saul
10201-426: Was typical of Paul's missionary style. His method was to put people at ease and approach them with his message in a language and style that was relatable to them, as he did in 1 Corinthians 9 :19–23 . The main source for information about Paul's life is the material found in his epistles and in the Acts of the Apostles. However, the epistles contain little information about Paul's pre-conversion past. The Acts of
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