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81-483: The QGEA is a tailored EA which delivers a comprehensive set of processes, frameworks, policies, guidelines and tools to describe how the Queensland Government organises its resources to support service delivery. The QGEA assists agencies, multi-agency projects, shared service providers and whole-of-Government initiatives to: The QGEA is a federated architecture, which acknowledges that the Queensland Government

162-429: A recognition-primed decision that fits their experience, and arrive at a course of action without weighing alternatives. The decision-maker's environment can play a part in the decision-making process. For example, environmental complexity is a factor that influences cognitive function. A complex environment is an environment with a large number of different possible states which come and go over time. Studies done at

243-417: A two-alternative forced choice task involving rhesus monkeys found that neurons in the parietal cortex not only represent the formation of a decision but also signal the degree of certainty (or "confidence") associated with the decision. A 2012 study found that rats and humans can optimally accumulate incoming sensory evidence, to make statistically optimal decisions. Another study found that lesions to

324-405: A decision turned out to be sub-optimal). The psychologist Daniel Kahneman , adopting terms originally proposed by the psychologists Keith Stanovich and Richard West, has theorized that a person's decision-making is the result of an interplay between two kinds of cognitive processes : an automatic intuitive system (called "System 1") and an effortful rational system (called "System 2"). System 1

405-501: A decision-making process called GOFER, which they taught to adolescents, as summarized in the book Teaching Decision Making To Adolescents . The process was based on extensive earlier research conducted with psychologist Irving Janis . GOFER is an acronym for five decision-making steps: In 2007, Pam Brown of Singleton Hospital in Swansea , Wales , divided the decision-making process into seven steps: In 2008, Kristina Guo published

486-438: A decline in decision-making skills. People who make decisions in an extended period of time begin to lose mental energy needed to analyze all possible solutions. Impulsive decision-making and decision avoidance are two possible paths that extend from decision fatigue. Impulse decisions are made more often when a person is tired of analysis situations or solutions; the solution they make is to act and not think. Decision avoidance

567-836: A greater risk to health than they thought), but do not differ from adults in their ability to alter beliefs in response to good news. This creates biased beliefs, which may lead to greater risk taking. Adults are generally better able to control their risk-taking because their cognitive-control system has matured enough to the point where it can control the socioemotional network, even in the context of high arousal or when psychosocial capacities are present. Also, adults are less likely to find themselves in situations that push them to do risky things. For example, teens are more likely to be around peers who peer pressure them into doing things, while adults are not as exposed to this sort of social setting. Biases usually affect decision-making processes. They appear more when decision task has time pressure,

648-419: A group improves the quality of decisions, while the majority of opinions (called consensus norms) do not. Conflicts in socialization are divided in to functional and dysfunctional types. Functional conflicts are mostly the questioning the managers assumptions in their decision making and dysfunctional conflicts are like personal attacks and every action which decrease team effectiveness. Functional conflicts are

729-411: A group or individual is unable to make it through the problem-solving step on the way to making a decision, they could be experiencing analysis paralysis. Analysis paralysis is the state that a person enters where they are unable to make a decision, in effect paralyzing the outcome. Some of the main causes for analysis paralysis is the overwhelming flood of incoming data or the tendency to overanalyze

810-409: A group or one's life. Analysis paralysis is the exact opposite where a group's schedule could be saturated by too much of a structural checks and balance system. Groupthink is another occurrence that falls under the idea of extinction by instinct. Groupthink is when members in a group become more involved in the “value of the group (and their being part of it) higher than anything else”; thus, creating

891-569: A habit of making decisions quickly and unanimously. In other words, a group stuck in groupthink is participating in the phenomenon of extinction by instinct. Information overload is "a gap between the volume of information and the tools we have to assimilate" it. Information used in decision-making is to reduce or eliminate the uncertainty. Excessive information affects problem processing and tasking, which affects decision-making. Psychologist George Armitage Miller suggests that humans' decision making becomes inhibited because human brains can only hold

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972-719: A lack of logic or reasoning, but more due to the immaturity of psychosocial capacities that influence decision-making. Examples of their undeveloped capacities which influence decision-making would be impulse control, emotion regulation, delayed gratification and resistance to peer pressure . In the past, researchers have thought that adolescent behavior was simply due to incompetency regarding decision-making. Currently, researchers have concluded that adults and adolescents are both competent decision-makers, not just adults. However, adolescents' competent decision-making skills decrease when psychosocial capacities become present. Research has shown that risk-taking behaviors in adolescents may be

1053-422: A limited amount of information. Crystal C. Hall and colleagues described an "illusion of knowledge", which means that as individuals encounter too much knowledge, it can interfere with their ability to make rational decisions. Other names for information overload are information anxiety, information explosion, infobesity, and infoxication. Decision fatigue is when a sizable amount of decision-making leads to

1134-406: A particular style of application integration. Research points to EA promoting the use of SOA as an enterprise-wide integration pattern. The broad reach of EA has resulted in this business role being included in the information technology governance processes of many organizations. Analyst firm Real Story Group suggested that EA and the emerging concept of the digital workplace are "two sides to

1215-578: A person's decision-making process depends to a significant degree on their cognitive style. Myers developed a set of four bi-polar dimensions, called the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The terminal points on these dimensions are: thinking and feeling ; extroversion and introversion ; judgment and perception ; and sensing and intuition . She claimed that a person's decision-making style correlates well with how they score on these four dimensions. For example, someone who scored near

1296-417: A reduction of business risks from system failures and security breaches. EA also helps reduce risks of project delivery. Establishing EA as an accepted, recognized, functionally integrated and fully involved concept at operational and tactical levels is one of the biggest challenges facing Enterprise Architects today and one of the main reasons why many EA initiatives fail. A key concern about EA has been

1377-500: A sense of reward from risk-taking behaviors, their repetition becomes ever more probable due to the reward experienced. In this, the process mirrors addiction . Teens can become addicted to risky behavior because they are in a high state of arousal and are rewarded for it not only by their own internal functions but also by their peers around them. A recent study suggests that adolescents have difficulties adequately adjusting beliefs in response to bad news (such as reading that smoking poses

1458-401: A set of common goals and collaborate to provide specific products or services to customers. In that sense, the term enterprise covers various types of organizations, regardless of their size, ownership model, operational model, or geographical distribution. It includes those organizations' complete sociotechnical system , including people, information, processes, and technologies. Enterprise as

1539-406: A single choice about how to face the problem. Although these steps are relatively ordinary, judgements are often distorted by cognitive and motivational biases, include "sins of commission", "sins of omission", and "sins of imprecision". Herbert A. Simon coined the phrase " bounded rationality " to express the idea that human decision-making is limited by available information, available time and

1620-430: A sociotechnical system defines the scope of EA. The term architecture refers to fundamental concepts or properties of a system in its environment; and embodied in its elements, relationships, and in the principles of its design and evolution. A methodology for developing and using architecture to guide the transformation of a business from a baseline state to a target state, sometimes through several transition states,

1701-430: A solution deemed to be optimal, or at least satisfactory. It is therefore a process which can be more or less rational or irrational and can be based on explicit or tacit knowledge and beliefs. Tacit knowledge is often used to fill the gaps in complex decision-making processes. Usually, both of these types of knowledge, tacit and explicit, are used together in the decision-making process. Human performance has been

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1782-423: Is a bottom-up, fast, and implicit system of decision-making, while system 2 is a top-down, slow, and explicit system of decision-making. System 1 includes simple heuristics in judgment and decision-making such as the affect heuristic , the availability heuristic , the familiarity heuristic , and the representativeness heuristic . Styles and methods of decision-making were elaborated by Aron Katsenelinboigen ,

1863-406: Is a multi-step process for making choices between alternatives. The process of rational decision making favors logic, objectivity, and analysis over subjectivity and insight. Irrational decision is more counter to logic. The decisions are made in haste and outcomes are not considered. One of the most prominent theories of decision making is subjective expected utility (SEU) theory, which describes

1944-463: Is a reasoning process based on assumptions of values , preferences and beliefs of the decision-maker. Every decision-making process produces a final choice , which may or may not prompt action. Research about decision-making is also published under the label problem solving , particularly in European psychological research . Decision-making can be regarded as a problem-solving activity yielding

2025-442: Is a region of intense study in the fields of systems neuroscience , and cognitive neuroscience . Several brain structures, including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), orbitofrontal cortex , and the overlapping ventromedial prefrontal cortex are believed to be involved in decision-making processes. A neuroimaging study found distinctive patterns of neural activation in these regions depending on whether decisions were made on

2106-520: Is a single enterprise composed of autonomous agencies. Agencies are responsible for their own enterprise architectures, yet are able to leverage and contribute to whole of-Government architectures and investments through a single consistent framework. The current state assessment of each department's business, information, application and technology component assets (called the ICT Baseline reporting activity) enables ICT portfolio investment analysis both at

2187-434: Is done under high stress and/or task is highly complex. Here is a list of commonly debated biases in judgment and decision-making : In groups, people generate decisions through active and complex processes. One method consists of three steps: initial preferences are expressed by members; the members of the group then gather and share information concerning those preferences; finally, the members combine their views and make

2268-417: Is generally seen as the best or most likely decision to achieve the set goals or outcome. It has been found that, unlike adults, children are less likely to have research strategy behaviors. One such behavior is adaptive decision-making, which is described as funneling and then analyzing the more promising information provided if the number of options to choose from increases. Adaptive decision-making behavior

2349-405: Is somewhat present for children, ages 11–12 and older, but decreases in presence the younger they are. The reason children are not as fluid in their decision making is because they lack the ability to weigh the cost and effort needed to gather information in the decision-making process. Some possibilities that explain this inability are knowledge deficits and lack of utilization skills. Children lack

2430-450: Is that more complex principles of fairness in decision making such as contextual and intentional information do not come until children get older. During their adolescent years, teens are known for their high-risk behaviors and rash decisions. Research has shown that there are differences in cognitive processes between adolescents and adults during decision-making. Researchers have concluded that differences in decision-making are not due to

2511-455: Is too complex and extensive to document in its entirety, so knowledge management techniques provide a way to explore and analyze these hidden, tacit, or implicit areas. In return, EA provides a way of documenting the components of an organization and their interaction in a systemic and holistic way that complements knowledge management. In various venues, EA has been discussed as having a relationship with Service Oriented Architecture (SOA),

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2592-512: Is usually known as an enterprise architecture framework . A framework provides a structured collection of processes, techniques, artifact descriptions , reference models, and guidance for the production and use of an enterprise-specific architecture description. Paramount to changing the EA is the identification of a sponsor . Their mission, vision , strategy, and the governance framework define all roles, responsibilities, and relationships involved in

2673-471: Is when a person evades the situation entirely by not ever making a decision. Decision avoidance is different from analysis paralysis because this sensation is about avoiding the situation entirely, while analysis paralysis is continually looking at the decisions to be made but still unable to make a choice. Evaluation and analysis of past decisions is complementary to decision-making. See also mental accounting and Postmortem documentation . Decision-making

2754-542: The Federal Enterprise Architecture 's reference guide aids federal agencies in the development of their architectures. As a discipline, EA "proactively and holistically lead[s] enterprise responses to disruptive forces by identifying and analyzing the execution of change" towards organizational goals. EA gives business and IT leaders recommendations for policy adjustments and provides best strategies to support and enable business development and change within

2835-492: The University of Colorado have shown that more complex environments correlate with higher cognitive function, which means that a decision can be influenced by the location. One experiment measured complexity in a room by the number of small objects and appliances present; a simple room had less of those things. Cognitive function was greatly affected by the higher measure of environmental complexity, making it easier to think about

2916-594: The ACC in the macaque resulted in impaired decision-making in the long run of reinforcement guided tasks suggesting that the ACC may be involved in evaluating past reinforcement information and guiding future action. It has recently been argued that the development of formal frameworks will allow neuroscientists to study richer and more naturalistic paradigms than simple 2AFC decision tasks; in particular, such decisions may involve planning and information search across temporally extended environments. Emotion appears able to aid

2997-513: The DECIDE model of decision-making, which has six parts: In 2009, professor John Pijanowski described how the Arkansas Program, an ethics curriculum at the University of Arkansas , used eight stages of moral decision-making based on the work of James Rest : There are four stages or phases that should be involved in all group decision-making: It is said that establishing critical norms in

3078-553: The Federation of Enterprise Architecture Professional Organizations is "a well-defined practice for conducting enterprise analysis, design, planning, and implementation, using a comprehensive approach at all times, for the successful development and execution of strategy. Enterprise architecture applies architecture principles and practices to guide organizations through the business, information, process, and technology changes necessary to execute their strategies. These practices utilize

3159-573: The GEA. The QGEA 2.0 was developed in 2008 and released to agencies for consultation. "QGEA" was adopted in preference to "GEA" to better reflect it as a Queensland Government developed framework. The QGEA 2.0 was officially launched on 21 April 2009. Enterprise Architecture Enterprise architecture ( EA ) is a business function concerned with the structures and behaviours of a business, especially business roles and processes that create and use business data . The international definition according to

3240-497: The IT/IS aspects of the enterprise and other aspects service only as inputs. The Enterprise Integrating school believes that the purpose of EA is to create a greater coherency between the various concerns of an enterprise (HR, IT, Operations, etc.), including the link between strategy formulation and execution. Architecture proposals and decisions here encompass all aspects of the enterprise. The Enterprise Ecosystem Adaption school states that

3321-642: The META Group Enterprise Architecture Service methodology the first version was published in May 2001. After an internal review of IT management across the Queensland Government in 2005 this original effort was replaced by the expanded Government Enterprise Architecture (GEA). At the same time the notion of enterprise architecture became enshrined in legislation in the form of the Financial Management Standard . This became one of

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3402-404: The anticipated transformation. Changes considered by enterprise architects typically include innovations in the structure or processes of an organization; innovations in the use of information systems or technologies; the integration and/or standardization of business processes; and improvement of the quality and timeliness of business information. According to the standard ISO/IEC/IEEE 42010 ,

3483-559: The areas related to design and re-design of the organizational structures during mergers, acquisitions, or general organizational change; enforcement of discipline and business process standardization, and enablement of process consolidation, reuse, and integration ; support for investment decision-making and work prioritization; enhancement of collaboration and communication between project stakeholders and contribution to efficient project scoping and to defining more complete and consistent project deliverabless ; and an increase in

3564-406: The basis of perceived personal volition or following directions from someone else. Patients with damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex have difficulty making advantageous decisions. A common laboratory paradigm for studying neural decision-making is the two-alternative forced choice task (2AFC), in which a subject has to choose between two alternatives within a certain time. A study of

3645-478: The better ones to gain higher quality decision making caused by the increased team knowledge and shared understanding. In economics , it is thought that if humans are rational and free to make their own decisions, then they would behave according to rational choice theory . Rational choice theory says that a person consistently makes choices that lead to the best situation for themselves, taking into account all available considerations including costs and benefits;

3726-412: The capture of material (the main constituent element of a chess position). The objective is implemented via a well-defined, and in some cases, unique sequence of moves aimed at reaching the set goal. As a rule, this sequence leaves no options for the opponent. Finding a combinational objective allows the player to focus all his energies on efficient execution, that is, the player's analysis may be limited to

3807-457: The cognitive-control network changes more gradually. Because of this difference in change, the cognitive-control network, which usually regulates the socioemotional network, struggles to control the socioemotional network when psychosocial capacities are present. When adolescents are exposed to social and emotional stimuli, their socioemotional network is activated as well as areas of the brain involved in reward processing. Because teens often gain

3888-402: The decision-making process. Decision-making often occurs in the face of uncertainty about whether one's choices will lead to benefit or harm (see also Risk ). The somatic marker hypothesis is a neurobiological theory of how decisions are made in the face of uncertain outcomes. This theory holds that such decisions are aided by emotions, in the form of bodily states, that are elicited during

3969-431: The deliberation of future consequences and that mark different options for behavior as being advantageous or disadvantageous. This process involves an interplay between neural systems that elicit emotional/bodily states and neural systems that map these emotional/bodily states. A recent lesion mapping study of 152 patients with focal brain lesions conducted by Aron K. Barbey and colleagues provided evidence to help discover

4050-437: The department and whole-of-Government level. The former Department of Communication and Information, Local Government, Planning and Sport commenced a project in early 1999 to define what was called at the time a Government Information Architecture with the aim of improving the interoperability of communication and information systems and the sharing of information resources across Queensland Government agencies. Loosely based on

4131-402: The difficulty in arriving at metrics of success because of the broad-brush and often opaque nature of EA projects. Additionally, there have been a number of reports, including those written by Ivar Jacobson , Gartner , Erasmus University Rotterdam and IDS Scheer , Dion Hinchcliffe , and Stanley Gaver , that argue that the frequent failure of EA initiatives makes the concept not worth

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4212-620: The effort and that the methodology will fade out quickly. According to the Federation of Enterprise Architecture Professional Organizations (FEAPO), EA interacts with a wide array of other disciplines commonly found in business settings such as performance engineering and management , process engineering and management , IT and enterprise portfolio management , governance and compliance , IT strategic planning, risk analysis , information management , metadata management , organization development , design thinking , systems thinking , and user experience design . The EA of an organization

4293-1089: The enterprise." Important players within EA include enterprise architects and solutions architects. Enterprise architects are at the top level of the architect hierarchy, meaning they have more responsibilities than solutions architects. While solutions architects focus on their own relevant solutions, enterprise architects focus on solutions for and the impact on the whole organization. Enterprise architects oversee many solution architects and business functions. As practitioners of EA, enterprise architects support an organization's strategic vision by acting to align people, process, and technology decisions with actionable goals and objectives that result in quantifiable improvements toward achieving that vision. The practice of EA "analyzes areas of common activity within or between organizations, where information and other resources are exchanged to guide future states from an integrated viewpoint of strategy, business, and technology." The term enterprise can be defined as an organizational unit , organization , or collection of organizations that share

4374-539: The first known examples of enterprise architecture being explicitly mandated by a government body. In 2006, the first GEA alignment report was completed by all agencies. As recommended in the former Service Delivery Performance Commission's Review of ICT governance in the Queensland Government, the Queensland Government Chief Information Office and Queensland Government Chief Technology Office were established and assigned joint management of

4455-529: The founder of predispositioning theory . In his analysis on styles and methods, Katsenelinboigen referred to the game of chess, saying that "chess does disclose various methods of operation, notably the creation of predisposition-methods which may be applicable to other, more complex systems." Katsenelinboigen states that apart from the methods (reactive and selective) and sub-methods randomization , predispositioning, programming), there are two major styles: positional and combinational. Both styles are utilized in

4536-423: The game of chess. The two styles reflect two basic approaches to uncertainty : deterministic (combinational style) and indeterministic (positional style). Katsenelinboigen's definition of the two styles are the following. The combinational style is characterized by: In defining the combinational style in chess, Katsenelinboigen wrote: "The combinational style features a clearly formulated limited objective, namely

4617-442: The information systems the business depends on. EA provides a guide for decision making towards these objectives. The National Computing Centre 's EA best practice guidance states that an EA typically "takes the form of a comprehensive set of cohesive models that describe the structure and functions of an enterprise. The individual models in an EA are arranged in a logical manner that provides an ever-increasing level of detail about

4698-417: The interfaces and... [i]ntegration of all the components of a system" is necessary. Zachman in particular urged for a " strategic planning methodology ." Within the field of enterprise architecture, there are three overarching schools: Enterprise IT Design, Enterprise Integrating, and Enterprise Ecosystem Adaption. Which school one subscribes to will impact how they see the EA's purpose and scope, as well as

4779-416: The means of achieving it, the skills needed to conduct it, and the locus of responsibility for conducting it. Under Enterprise IT Design, the main purpose of EA is to guide the process of planning and designing an enterprise's IT / IS capabilities to meet the desired organizational objectives, often by greater alignment between IT/IS and business concerns. Architecture proposals and decisions are limited to

4860-441: The metacognitive knowledge necessary to know when to use any strategies they do possess to change their approach to decision-making. When it comes to the idea of fairness in decision making, children and adults differ much less. Children are able to understand the concept of fairness in decision making from an early age. Toddlers and infants, ranging from 9–21 months, understand basic principles of equality. The main difference found

4941-530: The mind's information-processing ability. Further psychological research has identified individual differences between two cognitive styles: maximizers try to make an optimal decision , whereas satisficers simply try to find a solution that is "good enough". Maximizers tend to take longer making decisions due to the need to maximize performance across all variables and make tradeoffs carefully; they also tend to more often regret their decisions (perhaps because they are more able than satisficers to recognize that

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5022-450: The neural mechanisms of emotional intelligence . Decision-making techniques can be separated into two broad categories: group decision-making techniques and individual decision-making techniques. Individual decision-making techniques can also often be applied by a group. A variety of researchers have formulated similar prescriptive steps aimed at improving decision-making. In the 1980s, psychologist Leon Mann and colleagues developed

5103-493: The organization's mission. The main difference between these two definitions is that Zachman's concept was the creation of individual information systems optimized for business, while NIST's described the management of all information systems within a business unit. The definitions in both publications, however, agreed that due to the "increasing size and complexity of the [i]mplementations of [i]nformation systems... logical construct[s] (or architecture) for defining and controlling

5184-509: The pieces directly partaking in the combination. This approach is the crux of the combination and the combinational style of play. The positional style is distinguished by: "Unlike the combinational player, the positional player is occupied, first and foremost, with the elaboration of the position that will allow him to develop in the unknown future. In playing the positional style, the player must evaluate relational and material parameters as independent variables. ... The positional style gives

5265-441: The player the opportunity to develop a position until it becomes pregnant with a combination. However, the combination is not the final goal of the positional player – it helps him to achieve the desirable, keeping in mind a predisposition for the future development. The pyrrhic victory is the best example of one's inability to think positionally." The positional style serves to: According to Isabel Briggs Myers ,

5346-456: The product of interactions between the socioemotional brain network and its cognitive-control network . The socioemotional part of the brain processes social and emotional stimuli and has been shown to be important in reward processing . The cognitive-control network assists in planning and self-regulation. Both of these sections of the brain change over the course of puberty . However, the socioemotional network changes quickly and abruptly, while

5427-551: The product used to describe the architecture of a system is called an architectural description . In practice, an architectural description contains a variety of lists, tables, and diagrams. These are models known as views . In the case of EA, these models describe the logical business functions or capabilities, business processes , human roles and actors, the physical organization structure, data flows and data stores , business applications and platform applications, hardware, and communications infrastructure. The first use of

5508-504: The purpose of EA is to foster and maintain the learning capabilities of enterprises so they may be sustainable. Consequently, a great deal of emphasis is put on improving the capabilities of the enterprise to improve itself, to innovate, and to coevolve with its environment. Typically, proposals and decisions encompass both the enterprise and its environment. The benefits of EA are achieved through its direct and indirect contributions to organizational goals. Notable benefits include support in

5589-399: The rational behavior of the decision maker. The decision maker assesses different alternatives by their utilities and the subjective probability of occurrence. Rational decision-making is often grounded on experience and theories that are able to put this approach on solid mathematical grounds so that subjectivity is reduced to a minimum, see e.g. scenario optimization . Rational decision

5670-482: The rationality of these considerations is from the point of view of the person themselves, so a decision is not irrational just because someone else finds it questionable. In reality, however, there are some factors that affect decision-making abilities and cause people to make irrational decisions – for example, to make contradictory choices when faced with the same problem framed in two different ways (see also Allais paradox ). Rational decision making

5751-508: The relative total priority of each alternative (for instance, if alternatives represent projects competing for funds) when all the criteria are considered simultaneously. Solving such problems is the focus of multiple-criteria decision analysis (MCDA). This area of decision-making, although long established, has attracted the interest of many researchers and practitioners and is still highly debated as there are many MCDA methods which may yield very different results when they are applied to exactly

5832-435: The same coin." The Cutter Consortium described EA as an information and knowledge-based discipline. Decision making In psychology , decision-making (also spelled decision making and decisionmaking ) is regarded as the cognitive process resulting in the selection of a belief or a course of action among several possible alternative options. It could be either rational or irrational. The decision-making process

5913-586: The same data. This leads to the formulation of a decision-making paradox . Logical decision-making is an important part of all science-based professions, where specialists apply their knowledge in a given area to make informed decisions. For example, medical decision-making often involves a diagnosis and the selection of appropriate treatment. But naturalistic decision-making research shows that in situations with higher time pressure, higher stakes, or increased ambiguities, experts may use intuitive decision-making rather than structured approaches. They may follow

5994-462: The situation and make a better decision. It is important to differentiate between problem solving , or problem analysis, and decision-making. Problem solving is the process of investigating the given information and finding all possible solutions through invention or discovery. Traditionally, it is argued that problem solving is a step towards decision making, so that the information gathered in that process may be used towards decision-making. When

6075-447: The situation at hand. There are said to be three different types of analysis paralysis. On the opposite side of analysis paralysis is the phenomenon called extinction by instinct. Extinction by instinct is the state that a person is in when they make careless decisions without detailed planning or thorough systematic processes. Extinction by instinct can possibly be fixed by implementing a structural system, like checks and balances into

6156-419: The subject of active research from several perspectives: A major part of decision-making involves the analysis of a finite set of alternatives described in terms of evaluative criteria. Then the task might be to rank these alternatives in terms of how attractive they are to the decision-maker(s) when all the criteria are considered simultaneously. Another task might be to find the best alternative or to determine

6237-473: The system's implementation and operational costs, and minimization of replicate infrastructure services across business units; reduction in IT complexity, consolidation of data and applications, and improvement of interoperability of the systems; more open and responsive IT as reflected through increased accessibility of data for regulatory compliance , and increased transparency of infrastructure changes; and

6318-401: The term "enterprise architecture" is often incorrectly attributed to John Zachman 's 1987 A framework for information systems architecture . The first publication to use it was instead a National Institute of Standards (NIST) Special Publication on the challenges of information system integration. The NIST article describes EA as consisting of several levels. Business unit architecture is

6399-441: The timeliness of requirements elicitation and the accuracy of requirement definitions through publishing of the EA documentation. Other benefits include contribution to optimal system designs and efficient resource allocation during system development and testing; enforcement of discipline and standardization of IT planning activities and contribution to a reduction in time for technology-related decision making; reduction of

6480-571: The top level and might be a total corporate entity or a sub-unit. It establishes for the whole organization necessary frameworks for "satisfying both internal information needs" as well as the needs of external entities, which include cooperating organizations , customers , and federal agencies . The lower levels of the EA that provide information to higher levels are more attentive to detail on behalf of their superiors. In addition to this structure, business unit architecture establishes standards , policies , and procedures that either enhance or stymie

6561-497: The various aspects of an enterprise to identify, motivate, and achieve these changes." The United States Federal Government is an example of an organization that practices EA, in this case with its Capital Planning and Investment Control processes. Companies such as Independence Blue Cross , Intel , Volkswagen AG , and InterContinental Hotels Group also use EA to improve their business architectures as well as to improve business performance and productivity . Additionally,

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