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59-571: The system is capable of capturing motion imagery of an entire city, which can then be analyzed by people or an artificial intelligence , such as the Mind's Eye project being developed by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency . This motion imagery is not considered video as it is collected at fewer frames per second than the standard definition of video; TV-like quality of video is 24–60 FPS. Gorgon Stare needs to utilize

118-581: A loss function . Variants of gradient descent are commonly used to train neural networks. Another type of local search is evolutionary computation , which aims to iteratively improve a set of candidate solutions by "mutating" and "recombining" them, selecting only the fittest to survive each generation. Distributed search processes can coordinate via swarm intelligence algorithms. Two popular swarm algorithms used in search are particle swarm optimization (inspired by bird flocking ) and ant colony optimization (inspired by ant trails ). Formal logic

177-472: A "degree of truth" between 0 and 1. It can therefore handle propositions that are vague and partially true. Non-monotonic logics , including logic programming with negation as failure , are designed to handle default reasoning . Other specialized versions of logic have been developed to describe many complex domains. Many problems in AI (including in reasoning, planning, learning, perception, and robotics) require

236-579: A 36 square mile area with enough detail to track individual pedestrians, vehicles or other objects of interest as long as the air asset remains circling above. Automatic object-tracking software called Persistics from the Lawrence Livermore labs allows users to auto-track every moving object within the field of regard (36 sq miles) and generate geolocation chronographs of each individual vehicle and pedestrian's movements, making them searchable via geolocation query. As ARGUS floats overhead for months at

295-407: A continuous basis in areas of interest. The overall objective is to increase situational awareness and understanding enabling an ability to find and fix critical events in a large area in enough time to influence events. ARGUS - IS provides military users an "eyes-on" persistent wide area surveillance capability to support tactical users in a dynamic battlespace or urban environment. A demonstration of

354-460: A contradiction from premises that include the negation of the problem to be solved. Inference in both Horn clause logic and first-order logic is undecidable , and therefore intractable . However, backward reasoning with Horn clauses, which underpins computation in the logic programming language Prolog , is Turing complete . Moreover, its efficiency is competitive with computation in other symbolic programming languages. Fuzzy logic assigns

413-557: A four-kilometer radius underneath the MQ-9 Reaper. The Reaper can fly both day and night operations from 12 angles; as reported by Robert Marlin, a technical adviser for the Air Force. The first Gorgon Stare system consisted of two sensor pods, one carrying electro-optical (EO) and infrared cameras (IR), the other digital processors and data-links that enabled quick transmission of actionable intelligence to operations centers and troops in

472-429: A path to a target goal, a process called means-ends analysis . Simple exhaustive searches are rarely sufficient for most real-world problems: the search space (the number of places to search) quickly grows to astronomical numbers . The result is a search that is too slow or never completes. " Heuristics " or "rules of thumb" can help prioritize choices that are more likely to reach a goal. Adversarial search

531-403: A system of tagging and metadata to be fully effective. The Air Force planned to deliver one system in 2011, another in 2012, and a third in 2014, though they would not enter service until accepted by the commander in the theatre of operations. Gorgon Stare was under development for more than two years and is designed to download 65 different images to a variety of military users for analysis; this

590-502: A time, it dragnet tracks every moving person and vehicle and chronographs their movements, allowing forensic investigators to rewind the footage and watch the activities of anyone they select within the footage. ARGUS is only one form of Wide Area Persistent Surveillance. Other WAPS systems are already being used for domestic law enforcement across the USA including Persistent Surveillance, Vigilant Stare as well as Pixia's Hiper Stare. While

649-721: A tool that can be used for reasoning (using the Bayesian inference algorithm), learning (using the expectation–maximization algorithm ), planning (using decision networks ) and perception (using dynamic Bayesian networks ). Probabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering, prediction, smoothing, and finding explanations for streams of data, thus helping perception systems analyze processes that occur over time (e.g., hidden Markov models or Kalman filters ). The simplest AI applications can be divided into two types: classifiers (e.g., "if shiny then diamond"), on one hand, and controllers (e.g., "if diamond then pick up"), on

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708-669: A wide range of techniques, including search and mathematical optimization , formal logic , artificial neural networks , and methods based on statistics , operations research , and economics . AI also draws upon psychology , linguistics , philosophy , neuroscience , and other fields. Artificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956, and the field went through multiple cycles of optimism, followed by periods of disappointment and loss of funding, known as AI winter . Funding and interest vastly increased after 2012 when deep learning outperformed previous AI techniques. This growth accelerated further after 2017 with

767-487: A wide variety of techniques to accomplish the goals above. AI can solve many problems by intelligently searching through many possible solutions. There are two very different kinds of search used in AI: state space search and local search . State space search searches through a tree of possible states to try to find a goal state. For example, planning algorithms search through trees of goals and subgoals, attempting to find

826-1139: Is intelligence exhibited by machines , particularly computer systems . It is a field of research in computer science that develops and studies methods and software that enable machines to perceive their environment and use learning and intelligence to take actions that maximize their chances of achieving defined goals. Such machines may be called AIs. Some high-profile applications of AI include advanced web search engines (e.g., Google Search ); recommendation systems (used by YouTube , Amazon , and Netflix ); interacting via human speech (e.g., Google Assistant , Siri , and Alexa ); autonomous vehicles (e.g., Waymo ); generative and creative tools (e.g., ChatGPT , and AI art ); and superhuman play and analysis in strategy games (e.g., chess and Go ). However, many AI applications are not perceived as AI: "A lot of cutting edge AI has filtered into general applications, often without being called AI because once something becomes useful enough and common enough it's not labeled AI anymore ." The various subfields of AI research are centered around particular goals and

885-641: Is a body of knowledge represented in a form that can be used by a program. An ontology is the set of objects, relations, concepts, and properties used by a particular domain of knowledge. Knowledge bases need to represent things such as objects, properties, categories, and relations between objects; situations, events, states, and time; causes and effects; knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know); default reasoning (things that humans assume are true until they are told differently and will remain true even when other facts are changing); and many other aspects and domains of knowledge. Among

944-521: Is an advanced camera system that uses hundreds of cellphone cameras in a mosaic to video- and auto-track every moving object within a 15 square mile area. ARGUS is a form of wide-area persistent surveillance system that allows for one camera to provide such detailed video that users can collect "pattern-of-life" data and track individual people inside the footage anywhere within the field of regard. It uses air assets (crewed aircraft, drones , blimps , aerostats ) to persistently loiter and record video of

1003-459: Is an input, at least one hidden layer of nodes and an output. Each node applies a function and once the weight crosses its specified threshold, the data is transmitted to the next layer. A network is typically called a deep neural network if it has at least 2 hidden layers. Learning algorithms for neural networks use local search to choose the weights that will get the right output for each input during training. The most common training technique

1062-462: Is an interdisciplinary umbrella that comprises systems that recognize, interpret, process, or simulate human feeling, emotion, and mood . For example, some virtual assistants are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; it makes them appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate human–computer interaction . However, this tends to give naïve users an unrealistic conception of

1121-444: Is an unsolved problem. Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering allow AI programs to answer questions intelligently and make deductions about real-world facts. Formal knowledge representations are used in content-based indexing and retrieval, scene interpretation, clinical decision support, knowledge discovery (mining "interesting" and actionable inferences from large databases ), and other areas. A knowledge base

1180-422: Is anything that perceives and takes actions in the world. A rational agent has goals or preferences and takes actions to make them happen. In automated planning , the agent has a specific goal. In automated decision-making , the agent has preferences—there are some situations it would prefer to be in, and some situations it is trying to avoid. The decision-making agent assigns a number to each situation (called

1239-413: Is classified based on previous experience. There are many kinds of classifiers in use. The decision tree is the simplest and most widely used symbolic machine learning algorithm. K-nearest neighbor algorithm was the most widely used analogical AI until the mid-1990s, and Kernel methods such as the support vector machine (SVM) displaced k-nearest neighbor in the 1990s. The naive Bayes classifier

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1298-524: Is desired. Gorgon Stare was developed and tested on the MQ-9 Reaper at Eglin Air Force Base , Florida with the 53rd Wing . These sensor pods had been in development since 2009 by the Air Force's Big Safari group and Sierra Nevada Corporation . In January 2011, it was announced that the program was not performing to expectations, and included faults such as "a large black triangle moving throughout

1357-413: Is labelled by a solution of the problem and whose leaf nodes are labelled by premises or axioms . In the case of Horn clauses , problem-solving search can be performed by reasoning forwards from the premises or backwards from the problem. In the more general case of the clausal form of first-order logic , resolution is a single, axiom-free rule of inference, in which a problem is solved by proving

1416-400: Is reportedly the "most widely used learner" at Google, due in part to its scalability. Neural networks are also used as classifiers. An artificial neural network is based on a collection of nodes also known as artificial neurons , which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. It is trained to recognise patterns; once trained, it can recognise those patterns in fresh data. There

1475-528: Is responsible for merging the sensors, processors, data-links and air vehicle into one package that distributes information in real-time with minimal latency through the joint force's tactical intelligence network. By early 2015, Increment 2 had replaced all initial versions of the Gorgon Stare in operational service. A similar system was planned to be installed on the Blue Devil blimp , a spy blimp developed for

1534-524: Is the backpropagation algorithm. Neural networks learn to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs and find patterns in data. In theory, a neural network can learn any function. ARGUS-IS The ARGUS-IS , or the Autonomous Real-Time Ground Ubiquitous Surveillance Imaging System , is a Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) project contracted to BAE Systems . ARGUS

1593-404: Is the process of proving a new statement ( conclusion ) from other statements that are given and assumed to be true (the premises ). Proofs can be structured as proof trees , in which nodes are labelled by sentences, and children nodes are connected to parent nodes by inference rules . Given a problem and a set of premises, problem-solving reduces to searching for a proof tree whose root node

1652-440: Is used for game-playing programs, such as chess or Go. It searches through a tree of possible moves and counter-moves, looking for a winning position. Local search uses mathematical optimization to find a solution to a problem. It begins with some form of guess and refines it incrementally. Gradient descent is a type of local search that optimizes a set of numerical parameters by incrementally adjusting them to minimize

1711-455: Is used for reasoning and knowledge representation . Formal logic comes in two main forms: propositional logic (which operates on statements that are true or false and uses logical connectives such as "and", "or", "not" and "implies") and predicate logic (which also operates on objects, predicates and relations and uses quantifiers such as " Every X is a Y " and "There are some X s that are Y s"). Deductive reasoning in logic

1770-436: Is used in AI programs that make decisions that involve other agents. Machine learning is the study of programs that can improve their performance on a given task automatically. It has been a part of AI from the beginning. There are several kinds of machine learning. Unsupervised learning analyzes a stream of data and finds patterns and makes predictions without any other guidance. Supervised learning requires labeling

1829-505: Is what is referred to as "wide-area persistent surveillance." During the Global War on Terror , using unmanned aerial vehicles for persistent surveillance dramatically changed the way the U.S. military pursued fleeting targets. However, their sensors provided very narrow fields of view, referred to by warfighters as looking at the battlefield through a "soda straw," allowing insurgents to disappear from view and not giving information on what

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1888-905: Is when the knowledge gained from one problem is applied to a new problem. Deep learning is a type of machine learning that runs inputs through biologically inspired artificial neural networks for all of these types of learning. Computational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity , by sample complexity (how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization . Natural language processing (NLP) allows programs to read, write and communicate in human languages such as English . Specific problems include speech recognition , speech synthesis , machine translation , information extraction , information retrieval and question answering . Early work, based on Noam Chomsky 's generative grammar and semantic networks , had difficulty with word-sense disambiguation unless restricted to small domains called " micro-worlds " (due to

1947-712: The ARGUS-IS system. Argus is a system of tools also developed by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. On 1 July 2014, Sierra Nevada Corporation revealed that the Gorgon Stare Increment 2 pod had achieved initial operating capability (IOC) earlier in the year. While the Increment 1 system, first fielded in March 2011, could cover an area of 16 km (6.2 sq mi), the incorporation of

2006-755: The US Air Force . However, the Blue Devil was cancelled in 2012. In 2006, a similar wide-area surveillance system, Constant Hawk , was being tested by the US Army . Also, in 2007, the Marine Corps tested an upgrade of the Constant Hawk, called Angel Fire . Both of these sensors were mounted under aircraft in Iraq and Afghanistan Wars. Artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence ( AI ), in its broadest sense,

2065-520: The bar exam , SAT test, GRE test, and many other real-world applications. Machine perception is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, wireless signals, active lidar , sonar, radar, and tactile sensors ) to deduce aspects of the world. Computer vision is the ability to analyze visual input. The field includes speech recognition , image classification , facial recognition , object recognition , object tracking , and robotic perception . Affective computing

2124-416: The transformer architecture , and by the early 2020s hundreds of billions of dollars were being invested in AI (known as the " AI boom "). The widespread use of AI in the 21st century exposed several unintended consequences and harms in the present and raised concerns about its risks and long-term effects in the future, prompting discussions about regulatory policies to ensure the safety and benefits of

2183-436: The " utility ") that measures how much the agent prefers it. For each possible action, it can calculate the " expected utility ": the utility of all possible outcomes of the action, weighted by the probability that the outcome will occur. It can then choose the action with the maximum expected utility. In classical planning , the agent knows exactly what the effect of any action will be. In most real-world problems, however,

2242-458: The ARGUS-IS expands that coverage area to 100 km (39 sq mi). The system has 368 cameras capable of capturing 5 million pixels each to create an image of about 1.8 billion pixels. Video is collected at a variable frame-rate per second, with the resulting data output averaging several gigabytes of video output per minute. Increment 2 provides a four-fold increase in coverage and twice

2301-684: The United States government has not admitted to deploying ARGUS, it has shown video in which ARGUS was used within the United States. A variety of privacy advocacy groups including the ACLU have worked to bring the domestic deployments of ARGUS and other WAPS systems into the public debate. Traffic cameras, which were meant to help enforce traffic laws at intersections, have also sparked some controversy, due to their use by law enforcement agencies for purposes unrelated to traffic violations. These cameras also work as transit choke-points that allow individuals inside

2360-421: The agent can seek information to improve its preferences. Information value theory can be used to weigh the value of exploratory or experimental actions. The space of possible future actions and situations is typically intractably large, so the agents must take actions and evaluate situations while being uncertain of what the outcome will be. A Markov decision process has a transition model that describes

2419-510: The agent may not be certain about the situation they are in (it is "unknown" or "unobservable") and it may not know for certain what will happen after each possible action (it is not "deterministic"). It must choose an action by making a probabilistic guess and then reassess the situation to see if the action worked. In some problems, the agent's preferences may be uncertain, especially if there are other agents or humans involved. These can be learned (e.g., with inverse reinforcement learning ), or

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2478-529: The agent to operate with incomplete or uncertain information. AI researchers have devised a number of tools to solve these problems using methods from probability theory and economics. Precise mathematical tools have been developed that analyze how an agent can make choices and plan, using decision theory , decision analysis , and information value theory . These tools include models such as Markov decision processes , dynamic decision networks , game theory and mechanism design . Bayesian networks are

2537-648: The common sense knowledge problem ). Margaret Masterman believed that it was meaning and not grammar that was the key to understanding languages, and that thesauri and not dictionaries should be the basis of computational language structure. Modern deep learning techniques for NLP include word embedding (representing words, typically as vectors encoding their meaning), transformers (a deep learning architecture using an attention mechanism), and others. In 2019, generative pre-trained transformer (or "GPT") language models began to generate coherent text, and by 2023, these models were able to get human-level scores on

2596-668: The director of the ISR Task Force, reported in a news conference that Gorgon Stare was planned to be deployed in December 2011. From March 2011 to July 2014, the first increment of the system performed 10,000 hours of direct combat support, achieving a 95 percent availability rate. With its initial success, the Air Force began refining the system, since the first version was experimental and deployed quickly to address pressing tactical needs. Phase two (also referred to as Increment 2, or "Inc two") integrated processes of tracking algorithms from

2655-457: The field. The system delivered three "tiers" of surveillance down to small details within the broader field of view, so users receiving images within seconds after collection could identify items of immediate tactical interest, and recorded data would be stored for up to 30 days. Two Reapers could provide continuous surveillance over a large area to track enemy movements and use recorded data to conduct after-action analyses. Lt. Gen. Craig Koziol,

2714-444: The flaws had been fixed since the report detailing the issues had been written, that the system was never designed to offer high-resolution imagery over a wide area, and that in some areas the testing was "not sufficiently constructed to objectively evaluate the capabilities of the system," according to an anonymous source involved with the program. Development costs are in the $ 15 million range. This sensor could photograph an area with

2773-433: The image" due to failure to combine the images taken by the multiple cameras, a faulty coordinate grid for the chipped-out imagery, inferior image quality compared to older systems, a problematic night-vision system, inability to track people on the surface, delays of up to eighteen seconds in sending data to the ground, and an incompatibility with the handheld Rover 5 computers . In response, the Air Force said that several of

2832-530: The imagery resolution thanks to ARGUS technology; ARGUS is essentially 368 five- megapixel smartphone cameras clustered together and peering through four telescopic lenses and is produced by BAE Systems , while the IR arrays are produced by Exelis Inc. and are the largest available, which were separated from the EO sensors and moved to the adjacent pod. Sierra Nevada Corporation remained the overall system integrator, meaning it

2891-440: The intelligence of existing computer agents. Moderate successes related to affective computing include textual sentiment analysis and, more recently, multimodal sentiment analysis , wherein AI classifies the affects displayed by a videotaped subject. A machine with artificial general intelligence should be able to solve a wide variety of problems with breadth and versatility similar to human intelligence . AI research uses

2950-537: The late 1980s and 1990s, methods were developed for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from probability and economics . Many of these algorithms are insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experience a "combinatorial explosion": They become exponentially slower as the problems grow. Even humans rarely use the step-by-step deduction that early AI research could model. They solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgments. Accurate and efficient reasoning

3009-457: The most difficult problems in knowledge representation are the breadth of commonsense knowledge (the set of atomic facts that the average person knows is enormous); and the sub-symbolic form of most commonsense knowledge (much of what people know is not represented as "facts" or "statements" that they could express verbally). There is also the difficulty of knowledge acquisition , the problem of obtaining knowledge for AI applications. An "agent"

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3068-405: The other hand. Classifiers are functions that use pattern matching to determine the closest match. They can be fine-tuned based on chosen examples using supervised learning . Each pattern (also called an " observation ") is labeled with a certain predefined class. All the observations combined with their class labels are known as a data set . When a new observation is received, that observation

3127-411: The probability that a particular action will change the state in a particular way and a reward function that supplies the utility of each state and the cost of each action. A policy associates a decision with each possible state. The policy could be calculated (e.g., by iteration ), be heuristic , or it can be learned. Game theory describes the rational behavior of multiple interacting agents and

3186-538: The system was made available to the PBS Nova program and used in a story on UAVs . The contract was awarded in late 2007 with a budget of US$ 18.5 million and duration of 30 months. The first test flight using a UH-60 Black Hawk was declared a success by BAE in February 2010. In early 2014, the ARGUS-IS achieved initial operating capability (IOC) with the U.S. Air Force as part of Gorgon Stare Increment 2, giving

3245-471: The technology . The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken into subproblems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention and cover the scope of AI research. Early researchers developed algorithms that imitated step-by-step reasoning that humans use when they solve puzzles or make logical deductions . By

3304-451: The training data with the expected answers, and comes in two main varieties: classification (where the program must learn to predict what category the input belongs in) and regression (where the program must deduce a numeric function based on numeric input). In reinforcement learning , the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. The agent learns to choose responses that are classified as "good". Transfer learning

3363-420: The use of particular tools. The traditional goals of AI research include reasoning , knowledge representation , planning , learning , natural language processing , perception, and support for robotics . General intelligence —the ability to complete any task performable by a human on an at least equal level—is among the field's long-term goals. To reach these goals, AI researchers have adapted and integrated

3422-512: The vehicle to be positively identified and license plate data to be collected and time stamped for cross reference with airborne Wide Area Persistent Surveillance Systems used by police. The mission of the Autonomous Real-time Ground Ubiquitous Surveillance - Imaging System (ARGUS-IS) program is to provide users a flexible and responsive capability to find, track and monitor events and activities of interest on

3481-415: Was happening in surrounding areas. In 2009, the U.S. Air Force began development of a wide-area surveillance system to enable the MQ-9 Reaper long-endurance UAV to survey an entire small city from 25,000 ft (7,600 m). Requiring fewer systems to recon a large area frees up more available assets to be able to perform other missions and enables operations to be more limited where a light "footprint"

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