Aerospace engineering is the primary field of engineering concerned with the development of aircraft and spacecraft . It has two major and overlapping branches: aeronautical engineering and astronautical engineering. Avionics engineering is similar, but deals with the electronics side of aerospace engineering.
123-576: Leroy Gordon Cooper Jr. (March 6, 1927 – October 4, 2004) was an American aerospace engineer , test pilot , United States Air Force pilot , and the youngest of the seven original astronauts in Project Mercury , the first human space program of the United States. Cooper learned to fly as a child, and after service in the United States Marine Corps during World War II , he
246-595: A 22-orbit mission as MA-9 . Project Mercury still remained years behind the Soviet Union's space program, which had already flown a 64-orbit mission in Vostok ;3 . When Atlas 130-D , the booster designated for MA-9 , first emerged from the factory in San Diego on January 30, 1963, it failed to pass inspection and was returned to the factory. For Schirra's MA-8 mission, 20 modifications had been made to
369-589: A Piper J-3 Cub when he was 16. His family moved to Murray, Kentucky , when his father was called back into service, and he graduated from Murray High School in June ;1945. After Cooper learned that the United States Army and Navy flying schools were not taking any more candidates, he enlisted in the United States Marine Corps . He left for Parris Island as soon as he graduated from high school, but World War II ended before he saw overseas service. He
492-401: A knowledge test (a computerized multiple-choice test, typically called the "written test"), an oral test, and a practical test carried out by either an FAA inspector or a Designated Pilot Examiner . Another form of authorization is a logbook endorsement from a flight instructor that establishes that the certificate holder has received training in specific skill areas that do not warrant
615-609: A state district judge . He was called to active duty during World War II , and served in the Pacific theater in the Judge Advocate General's Corps . He transferred to United States Air Force (USAF) after it was formed in 1947, and was stationed at Hickam Air Force Base , Hawaii Territory . Cooper Sr. retired from the USAF with the rank of colonel in 1957. Cooper attended Jefferson Elementary School and Shawnee High School, where he
738-630: A "hot plane", but could still take off from and land at short civilian airfields; however, this debacle did not make Cooper popular with senior NASA management. After General Motors executive Ed Cole presented Shepard with a brand-new Chevrolet Corvette , Jim Rathmann , a racing car driver who won the Indianapolis 500 in 1960, and was a Chevrolet dealer in Melbourne, Florida , convinced Cole to turn this into an ongoing marketing campaign. Henceforth, astronauts would be able to lease brand-new Corvettes for
861-414: A "strange-looking, saucer-like" aircraft that did not make a sound either on landing or take-off. Cooper recalled that these men, who saw experimental aircraft on a regular basis as part of their job, were clearly unnerved. They explained how the saucer hovered over them, landed 50 yards (46 m) away using three extended landing gears, and then took off as they approached for a closer look. He called
984-538: A CFI can endorse the student's logbook to authorize limited solo flight in a specific type (make and model) of aircraft. Additional endorsements must be logged for specific airports where a student operates solo. There is no minimum aeronautical knowledge or experience requirement for the issuance of a student pilot certificate. There are, however, minimum aeronautical knowledge and experience requirements for student pilots to solo, including: Solo requirements: Limitations while flying solo: The sport pilot certificate
1107-456: A Commercial Pilot holder with a glider rating may have only Private Pilot privileges for single-engine land airplanes. The FAA may impose limitations on a pilot certificate if, during training or the practical test, the pilot does not demonstrate all skills necessary to exercise all privileges of a privilege level, category, class or type rating. For example, a holder of a DC-3 type rating who does not demonstrate instrument flying skills during
1230-431: A Pilot exercising the privileges of a Sport pilot certificate are: The Sport pilot certificate is also ineligible for additional ratings (such as an Instrument rating ), although time in light-sport aircraft can be used towards the experience requirement of other ratings on higher certificate types. The recreational pilot certificate requires less training and offers fewer privileges than the private pilot certificate. It
1353-426: A business is permitted; however, a private pilot may not be compensated in any way for services as a pilot, although passengers can pay a pro rata share of flight expenses, such as fuel or rental costs. A Private Pilot may be reimbursed for the aircraft operating expenses that are directly related to search and location operations, provided the expenses involve only fuel, oil, airport expenditures, or rental fees, and
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#17330851405901476-426: A can". "This flight would put an end to all that nonsense," Cooper later wrote. "My electronics were shot and a pilot had the stick." Turning to his understanding of star patterns, Cooper took manual control of the tiny capsule and successfully estimated the correct pitch for re-entry into the atmosphere. Precision was needed in the calculation; small errors in timing or orientation could produce large errors in
1599-428: A category is so divided, a pilot must hold a class rating to operate an aircraft in that class: A student pilot certificate does not list category or class ratings but is instead endorsed by a flight instructor to confer privileges in specific makes and models of aircraft. A type rating is required in a specific make and model of aircraft if the aircraft weighs more than 12,500 lb (5,700 kg) at takeoff,
1722-547: A commercial airplane pilot must log 10 hours of training in either a technically advanced airplane, a complex airplane , or a turbine-powered airplane. The requirements are: By itself, this certificate does not permit the pilot to set up an operation that carries members of the public for hire; such operations are governed by other regulations. Otherwise, a commercial pilot can be paid for certain types of operation, such as banner towing, agricultural applications, and photography, and can be paid for instructing if she or he holds
1845-542: A congratulatory luncheon at the Waldorf-Astoria attended by 1,900 people, where dignitaries such as Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson and former president Herbert Hoover made speeches honoring Cooper. MA-9 was the last of the Project Mercury flights. Walt Williams and others wanted to follow up with a three-day Mercury-Atlas 10 (MA-10) mission, but NASA HQ had already announced that there would be no MA-10 if MA-9
1968-516: A dollar a year. All of the Mercury Seven but Glenn soon took up the offer. Cooper, Grissom and Shepard were soon racing their Corvettes around Cape Canaveral, with the police ignoring their exploits. From a marketing perspective, it was very successful, and helped the highly priced Corvette become established as a desirable brand. Cooper held licenses with the Sports Car Club of America (SCCA) and
2091-493: A fellow USAF officer, and the two became good friends. They were involved in an accident on takeoff from Lowry Field on June 23, 1956, when the Lockheed T-33 Cooper was piloting suddenly lost power. He aborted the takeoff, but the landing gear collapsed and the aircraft skidded erratically for 2,000 feet (610 m), and crashed at the end of the runway, bursting into flames. Cooper and Grissom escaped unscathed, although
2214-421: A flight instructor certificate (In the case of lighter-than-air, only a commercial pilot certificate is required to teach for that category). To fly for hire, the pilot must hold a second class medical certificate, which is valid for 12 calendar months if the pilot is 40 years or older; if the pilot is less than 40 years old the certificate is valid for 24 calendar months. Often, the commercial certificate reduces
2337-463: A follow-up investigation, since an aircraft of unknown origin had landed at a classified military installation, but never heard about the incident again. He was never able to track down what happened to those photos, and assumed they ended up going to the Air Force's official UFO investigation, Project Blue Book , which was based at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base . Cooper claimed until his death that
2460-492: A friend let him fly higher-performance F-104B jets. This came up when Cooper had lunch with William Hines , a reporter for The Washington Star , and was duly reported in the paper. Cooper then discussed the issue with Congressman James G. Fulton . The matter was taken up by the House Committee on Science and Astronautics . Within weeks the astronauts had priority access to USAF F-102s , something which Cooper considered
2583-505: A full test, such as the ability to fly a tailwheel-equipped, high-performance, complex, or pressurized airplane. Pilot certificates do not expire, although they may be suspended or revoked by the FAA. However, a pilot must maintain currency — recent flight experience that is relevant to the flight being undertaken. To remain current, every pilot has to undergo a flight review with an instructor every 24 calendar months unless she or he gains
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#17330851405902706-402: A good, stable marriage. In fact, they had separated four months before, and she was living with their daughters in San Diego while he occupied a bachelor's quarters at Edwards. Aware that NASA wanted to project an image of its astronauts as loving family men, and that his story would not stand up to scrutiny, he drove down to San Diego to see Trudy at the first opportunity. Lured by the prospect of
2829-510: A great adventure for herself and her daughters, she agreed to go along with the charade and pretend that they were a happily married couple. The identities of the Mercury Seven were announced at a press conference at Dolley Madison House in Washington, D.C., on April 9, 1959: Scott Carpenter , Gordon Cooper, John Glenn , Gus Grissom, Wally Schirra , Alan Shepard , and Deke Slayton . Each
2952-457: A knowledge exam is not required for a practical test are for some add-on ratings after the initial license, such as a powered aircraft pilot adding another category rating at the same license level. To take knowledge tests for all pilot certificates and ratings, the applicant must have a sign-off from a ground or flight instructor. These are usually given by an instructor who has taught a ground school course, provided ground instruction or reviewed
3075-574: A low pressure, but when it started to dip too low the Flight Controllers advised him to switch on the oxygen heater. It eventually stabilized at 49 newtons per square centimetre (71 psi)—lower than it had ever been operated at before. While MA-9 had become uncomfortably warm, Gemini 5 became cold. There were also problems with the Orbit Attitude and Maneuvering System thrusters, which became erratic, and two of them failed completely. Gemini 5
3198-544: A maximum of 853. Though development of this aircraft began in 1988 as a competitor to the 747, the A380 made its first test flight in April 2005. Some of the elements of aerospace engineering are: The basis of most of these elements lies in theoretical physics , such as fluid dynamics for aerodynamics or the equations of motion for flight dynamics . There is also a large empirical component. Historically, this empirical component
3321-542: A medical certificate; a valid vehicle driver's license can be used as proof of medical competence provided the prospective pilot was not rejected for their last Airman Medical Certificate. Before a trainee can start the solo phase of flight training, a Student Sport Pilot Certificate must be issued by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). These may be obtained from an FAA Flight Standards District Office or FAA Designated Pilot Examiner. To qualify for
3444-531: A new medical probe, Cooper was nearly replaced by Shepard. This was followed by Cooper buzzing Hangar S at Cape Canaveral in an F-102 and lighting the afterburner . Williams told Slayton he was prepared to replace Cooper with Shepard. They decided not to, but not to let Cooper know immediately. Instead, Slayton told Cooper that Williams was looking to ground whomever buzzed Hangar S. According to Cooper, Slayton later told him that President John F. Kennedy had intervened to prevent his removal. Cooper
3567-459: A new pilot certificate or rating in that time or satisfies the flight review requirement using an alternate approved means. For most types of certificate, she or he must also undergo a medical examination at intervals ranging from six months to five years, depending on the pilot's age and desired flight privileges. Other currency requirements apply to the carriage of passengers or to flight under instrument flight rules (IFR). A medical certificate
3690-498: A new space endurance record by traveling a distance of 3,312,993 miles (5,331,745 km) in 190 hours and 56 minutes—just short of eight days—showing that astronauts could survive in space for the length of time necessary to go from the Earth to the Moon and back. Cooper became the first astronaut to make a second orbital flight. Cooper served as backup Command Pilot for Gemini 12 , the last of
3813-494: A pilot to act as a first officer in a two-pilot crew if they do not meet certain requirements. For example, the total flight time requirement is reduced to as little as 750 hours and the age requirement is reduced to 21. see 14CFR61.160 . Experience is often gained using these methods: The FAA offers a progression of pilot certificates or licenses. Each license has varying experience and knowledge requirements and has varying privileges and limitations. A student pilot certificate
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3936-451: A pilot to fly in instrument meteorological conditions . For aircraft categories where an instrument rating is available, commercial pilots without an instrument rating are restricted to daytime flight within 50 nautical miles (93 km) when carrying passengers for hire. In 2018, the FAA updated the training requirements to no longer require 10 hours of training in a complex airplane . Now,
4059-448: A private pilot in about three months and a commercial pilot in as quick as seven months. Most pilot certificates and ratings require the applicant to pass a knowledge test, also called the written test. The knowledge test results are valid for a period of 2 years, and are usually a prerequisite for practical tests. Resources available to prepare for the knowledge test may be obtained from pilot supply stores or vendors. The exceptions where
4182-565: A scheduled air carrier. Air carriers generally require that the pilots they hire have hours of experience far in excess of the legal minimum. Effective August 1, 2013, all airline pilots must have an Airline Transport Pilot Certificate (ATP) or an Airline Transport Pilot Certificate with restricted Privileges (ATP-r). An ATP allows a pilot to act as the captain or first officer of an airline flight and requires 1,500 hours of total flight time as well as other requirements (i.e. 25 hours of night, 23 years old), see 14CFR61.159 . An ATP-r certificate allows
4305-406: A schoolteacher, in 1972. They had two daughters: Colleen Taylor, born in 1979; and Elizabeth Jo, born in 1980. They remained married until his death in 2004. After leaving NASA, Cooper served on several corporate boards and as technical consultant for more than a dozen companies in fields ranging from high performance boat design to energy, construction, and aircraft design. Between 1962 and 1967, he
4428-563: A series of severe equipment failures, he successfully completed the mission under manual control, guiding his spacecraft, which he named Faith 7 , to a splashdown just 4 miles (6.4 km) ahead of the recovery ship. Cooper became the first astronaut to make a second orbital flight when he flew as command pilot of Gemini 5 in 1965. Along with pilot Pete Conrad , he set a new space endurance record by traveling 3,312,993 miles (5,331,745 km) in 190 hours and 56 minutes—just short of eight days—showing that astronauts could survive in space for
4551-493: A space capsule, and advised Cooper not to volunteer for astronaut training. On February 2, 1959, Cooper attended a NASA briefing on Project Mercury and the part astronauts would play in it. Cooper went through the selection process with another 109 pilots, and was not surprised when he was accepted as the youngest of the first seven American astronauts. During the selection interviews, Cooper had been asked about his domestic relationship, and had lied, saying that he and Trudy had
4674-521: A special Pentagon number to report such incidents, and was instructed to have their film developed, but to make no prints of it, and send it in to the Pentagon right away in a locked courier pouch. As Cooper had not been instructed to not look at the negatives before sending them, he did. Cooper claimed that the quality of the photography was excellent, and what he saw was exactly what Bittick and Gettys had described to him. He expected that there would be
4797-499: A sub-orbital memorial flight by a privately owned UP Aerospace SpaceLoft XL sounding rocket . The capsule carrying the ashes fell back toward Earth as planned; it was lost in mountainous landscape. The search was obstructed by bad weather, but after a few weeks the capsule was found, and the ashes it carried were returned to the families. The ashes were then launched on the Explorers orbital mission on August 3, 2008, but were lost when
4920-743: Is evidence that an individual is duly authorized to exercise piloting privileges. The pilot certificate is one of several kinds of airman certificates issued by the FAA for flight engineers , flight instructors , ground instructors , aircraft dispatchers , mechanics/repairmen , parachute riggers , control tower operators , flight navigators , and flight attendants . A pilot is certificated to fly aircraft at one or more named privilege levels and, at each privilege level, rated to fly aircraft of specific categories . Privilege levels of pilot certificates are, in order of increasing privilege: Pilots can be rated in these aircraft categories: Most aircraft categories are further broken down into classes . If
5043-495: Is not necessary to fly a glider, balloon, or light-sport Aircraft. An ultralight aircraft may be piloted without a pilot certificate or a medical certificate. In addition to pilot certificates, the FAA issues separate airman certificates for flight engineers , flight instructors , ground instructors , aircraft dispatchers , mechanics/repairmen , parachute riggers , control tower operators , flight navigators , and flight attendants as of November 2021 . Most pilots in
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5166-425: Is obtained through the FAA's Integrated Airman Certification and Rating Application (IACRA) system. The student pilot certificate is only required when exercising solo flight privileges. Student pilots must also possess a medical certificate when conducting flights requiring medical certification. As of April 1, 2016 student pilot certificates do not expire. Once a student has accrued sufficient training and experience,
5289-500: Is powered by one or more turbojet engines , or is otherwise designated as requiring a type rating. The Boeing 747 , Beechcraft Super King Air 350 , and the Hawker Hunter are examples of aircraft that require type ratings. To legally operate under instrument flight rules (IFR), a pilot can separately add an instrument rating to a private or commercial certificate. An airline transport pilot implicitly holds an instrument rating, so
5412-796: The Air Force Association Trophy, the John J. Montgomery Award , the General Thomas D. White Trophy, the University of Hawaiʻi Regents Medal, the Columbus Medal, and the Silver Antelope Award . He received an honorary D.Sc. from Oklahoma State University in 1967. Aerospace engineer "Aeronautical engineering" was the original term for the field. As flight technology advanced to include vehicles operating in outer space ,
5535-606: The Antonov An-225 Mriya cargo aircraft commenced its first flight. It holds the records for the world's heaviest aircraft, heaviest airlifted cargo, and longest airlifted cargo of any aircraft in operational service. On October 25, 2007, the Airbus A380 made its maiden commercial flight from Singapore to Sydney, Australia. This aircraft was the first passenger plane to surpass the Boeing 747 in terms of passenger capacity, with
5658-550: The Boeing 747 made its first commercial flight from New York to London. This aircraft made history and became known as the "Jumbo Jet" or "Whale" due to its ability to hold up to 480 passengers. Another significant development came in 1976, with the development of the first passenger supersonic aircraft, the Concorde . The development of this aircraft was agreed upon by the French and British on November 29, 1962. On December 21, 1988,
5781-571: The Curtiss JN 4 , Farman F.60 Goliath , and Fokker Trimotor . Notable military airplanes of this period include the Mitsubishi A6M Zero , Supermarine Spitfire and Messerschmitt Bf 109 from Japan, United Kingdom, and Germany respectively. A significant development came with the first operational Jet engine -powered airplane, the Messerschmitt Me 262 which entered service in 1944 towards
5904-633: The Falcon 1 rocket failed two minutes into the flight. On May 22, 2012, another portion of Cooper's ashes was among those of 308 people included on the SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 2 that was bound for the International Space Station . This flight, using the Falcon 9 launch vehicle and the Dragon capsule , was uncrewed. The second stage and the burial canister remained in the initial orbit that
6027-620: The National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR). He also enjoyed racing speedboats. Cooper served as capsule communicator (CAPCOM) for NASA's first sub-orbital spaceflight , by Alan Shepard in Mercury-Redstone 3 , and Scott Carpenter 's orbital flight on Mercury-Atlas 7 , and was backup pilot for Wally Schirra in Mercury-Atlas 8 . Cooper was designated for the next mission, Mercury-Atlas 9 ( MA-9 ). Apart from
6150-563: The United States Navy during World War I , and served on the presidential yacht USS Mayflower . After the war, Cooper Sr. completed his high school education; Hattie Lee was one of his teachers, although she was only two years older than he. He joined the Oklahoma National Guard , flying a Curtiss JN-4 biplane, despite never having formal military pilot training. He graduated from college and law school, and became
6273-486: The University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa , and bought his own J-3 Cub. There he met his first wife, Trudy B. Olson (1927–1994) of Seattle , through the local flying club. She was active in flying, and would later become the only wife of a Mercury astronaut to have a private pilot certification . They were married on August 29, 1947, in Honolulu , when both were 20 years old. They had two daughters. At college, Cooper
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#17330851405906396-627: The first American satellite on January 31, 1958. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration was founded in 1958 after the Sputnik crisis . In 1969, Apollo 11 , the first human space mission to the Moon , took place. It saw three astronauts enter orbit around the Moon, with two, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin , visiting the lunar surface. The third astronaut, Michael Collins , stayed in orbit to rendezvous with Armstrong and Aldrin after their visit. An important innovation came on January 30, 1970, when
6519-412: The gyroscopes failed, but the radio, which was connected directly to the battery, remained working, and allowed Cooper to communicate with the mission controllers. Like all Mercury flights, MA-9 was designed for fully automatic control, a controversial engineering decision which reduced the role of an astronaut to that of a passenger, and prompted Chuck Yeager to describe Mercury astronauts as "Spam in
6642-405: The nine astronauts selected in 1962 was designated as his co-pilot, with Neil Armstrong and Elliot See as their respective backups. On July 22, Cooper and Conrad went through a rehearsal of a double launch of Gemini atop a Titan II booster from Launch Complex 19 and an Atlas-Agena target vehicle from Launch Complex 14. At the end of the successful test, the erector could not be raised, and
6765-556: The Apollo 10 backup crew simply because of a lack of qualified astronauts with command experience at the time. Slayton noted that Cooper had a slim chance of receiving the Apollo 13 command if he did an outstanding job as backup commander of Apollo 10, but Slayton felt that Cooper did not. Dismayed by his stalled astronaut career, Cooper retired from NASA and the USAF on July 31, 1970, with the rank of colonel , having flown 222 hours in space. Soon after he divorced Trudy, he married Suzan Taylor,
6888-950: The Dragon C2+ was inserted into, and burned up in the Earth's atmosphere a month later. Cooper received many awards, including the Legion of Merit , the Distinguished Flying Cross with oak leaf cluster , the NASA Exceptional Service Medal , the NASA Distinguished Service Medal , the Collier Trophy , the Harmon Trophy , the DeMolay Legion of Honor, the John F. Kennedy Trophy, the Iven C. Kincheloe Award ,
7011-639: The English language, a rigorous written examination, and being of good moral character. An Airline Transport Pilot – restricted (ATP-r) is also available for pilots that do not meet the more rigorous requirements of an ATP. The only hour requirement for the ATP-r is 1,500 total and 200 cross-country. The "total time" requirement is reduced to 750 hours for former military pilots, 1,000 hours for graduates of university bachelor's degree programs, or 1,250 for graduates of university associate degree programs. The holder of an ATP-r
7134-519: The FARs. Part 141 requires that a certificated flight school provide an approved, structured course of training, which includes a specified number of hours of ground training (for example, 35 hours for Private Pilot in an airplane). Part 61 sets out a list of knowledge and experience requirements, and is more suitable for students who cannot commit to a structured plan, or for training from freelance instructors. Under Part 61 pilot training, individuals can become
7257-483: The Gemini missions, with Gene Cernan as his pilot. In November 1964, Cooper entered the $ 28,000 Salton City 500 miles (800 km) boat race with racehorse owner Ogden Phipps and racing car driver Chuck Daigh . They were in fourth place when a cracked motor forced them to withdraw. The next year Cooper and Grissom had an entry in the race, but were disqualified after failing to make a mandatory meeting. Cooper competed in
7380-455: The Mercury spacecraft; for Cooper's MA-9 , 183 changes were made. Cooper decided to name his spacecraft, Mercury Spacecraft No. 20, Faith 7 . NASA public affairs officers could see the newspaper headlines if the spacecraft were lost at sea: "NASA loses Faith". After an argument with NASA Deputy Administrator Walter C. Williams over last-minute changes to his pressure suit to insert
7503-601: The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, or NACA. It was the first government-sponsored organization to support aviation research. Though intended as an advisory board upon inception, the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory became its first sponsored research and testing facility in 1920. Between World Wars I and II, great leaps were made in the field, accelerated by the advent of mainstream civil aviation. Notable airplanes of this era include
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#17330851405907626-560: The Profile Race Team from 1968 to 1970, Cooper designed and raced high performance boats. Between 1968 and 1974 he served as a technical consultant at Republic Corp., and General Motors, Ford and Chrysler Motor Companies, where he was a consultant on design and construction of various automotive components. He was also a technical consultant for Canaveral International, Inc., for which he developed technical products and served in public relations on its land development projects, and served on
7749-596: The Southwest Championship Drag Boat races at La Porte, Texas , later in 1965, and in the 1967 Orange Bowl Regatta with fire fighter Red Adair . In 1968, he entered the 24 Hours of Daytona with Charles Buckley, the NASA chief of security at the Kennedy Space Center . The night before the race, NASA management ordered him to withdraw due to the dangers involved. Cooper upset NASA management by quipping to
7872-451: The U.S. government was indeed covering up information about UFOs. He pointed out that there were hundreds of reports made by his fellow pilots, many coming from military jet pilots sent to respond to radar or visual sightings. In his memoirs, Cooper wrote he had seen unexplained aircraft several times during his career, and that hundreds of reports had been made. In 1978 he testified before the UN on
7995-449: The U.S. undergo flight training as private individuals with a flight instructor, who may be employed by a flight school. Those who have decided on aviation as a career often begin with an undergraduate aviation-based education. Some pilots are trained in the military and are issued with civilian certificates based on their military record. Others are trained directly by airlines. The pilot may choose to be trained under Part 61 or Part 141 of
8118-684: The United States Pilot certification in the United States is typically required for an individual to act as a pilot -in-command of an aircraft . It is regulated by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), a branch of the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT). A pilot may be certified under 14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 61 or 14 CFR Part 141 (if a student attends an approved part 141 school). Pilots may also be certified under 14 CFR Part 107 for commercial drone operations. An FAA-issued pilot certificate
8241-415: The United States. All the requirements to obtain a private pilot certificate for "airplane, single-engine, land", or ASEL , (which is the most common certificate) are: Holders of a foreign private pilot licence (PPL) may obtain a temporary United States private pilot certificate without any further showing of proficiency, provided they keep the foreign PPL valid. Such a temporary certificate will include
8364-404: The above limitations, except the one-passenger, four-seat and single-engine restrictions, can be relaxed or lifted individually through instructor endorsement. These endorsements are obtained by participating in a prescribed course of ground and/or flight instruction given by an FAA-certificated instructor, including a minimum number of instructor-led flight in a plane or situation normally requiring
8487-407: The aerospace industry. A background in chemistry, physics, computer science and mathematics is important for students pursuing an aerospace engineering degree. The term " rocket scientist " is sometimes used to describe a person of great intelligence since rocket science is seen as a practice requiring great mental ability, especially technically and mathematically. The term is used ironically in
8610-723: The aircraft was a total loss. Cooper and Grissom attended the USAF Experimental Flight Test Pilot School (Class 56D) at Edwards Air Force Base in California in 1956. After graduation Cooper was posted to the Flight Test Engineering Division at Edwards, where he served as a test pilot and project manager testing the F-102A and F-106B . He also flew the T-28 , T-37 , F-86 , F-100 and F-104 . By
8733-412: The applicant to be familiar with, the flight instructor to reference, and the examiner to use to conduct the exam. A practical test is administered by an FAA Inspector or an FAA Designated Pilot Examiner . The check-ride is divided into two parts: the oral exam followed by a flight test in the aircraft. Upon successful completion of the practical test, the examiner issues a temporary airman certificate with
8856-417: The applicant's self-study preparations. Certain circumstances don't require sign-offs for some flight instructor or airline transport pilot knowledge tests. All pilots certificates and ratings, except sUAS, require a practical test, usually called a check ride . For each practical test, the FAA publishes an Airman Certification Standards (ACS) document (formerly Practical Test Standards (PTS)) that they expect
8979-456: The aviation pioneers around the late 19th to early 20th centuries, although the work of Sir George Cayley dates from the last decade of the 18th to the mid-19th century. One of the most important people in the history of aeronautics and a pioneer in aeronautical engineering, Cayley is credited as the first person to separate the forces of lift and drag , which affect any atmospheric flight vehicle. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering
9102-407: The board of directors of APECO, Campcom LowCom, and Crafttech. Cooper was president of his own consulting firm, Gordon Cooper & Associates, Inc., which was involved in technical projects ranging from airline and aerospace fields to land and hotel development. From 1973 to 1975, he worked for The Walt Disney Company as the vice president of research and development for Epcot . In 1989, he became
9225-402: The broader term " aerospace engineering" has come into use. Aerospace engineering, particularly the astronautics branch, is often colloquially referred to as "rocket science". Flight vehicles are subjected to demanding conditions such as those caused by changes in atmospheric pressure and temperature , with structural loads applied upon vehicle components. Consequently, they are usually
9348-430: The case of Cooper's own sightings, I found some difficulty understanding how someone so connected with ground breaking technology and science could easily embrace ideas such as extraterrestrial visits with little more than anecdotal evidence." Cooper claimed to have seen his first UFO while flying over West Germany in 1951, although he denied reports he had seen a UFO during his Mercury flight. On May 3, 1957, when Cooper
9471-431: The chief executive of Galaxy Group, Inc., a company which designed and improved small airplanes. In Cooper's autobiography, Leap of Faith , co-authored with Bruce Henderson , he recounted his experiences with the Air Force and NASA , along with his efforts to expose an alleged UFO conspiracy theory . In his review of the book, space historian Robert Pearlman wrote: "While no one can argue with someone's experiences, in
9594-506: The dangers involved. After serving as backup commander of the Apollo 10 mission, he was superseded by Alan Shepard . He retired from NASA and the Air Force with the rank of colonel in 1970. Leroy Gordon Cooper Jr. was born on March 6, 1927, in Shawnee, Oklahoma , the only child of Leroy Gordon Cooper Sr. and his wife, Hattie Lee née Herd. His mother was a school teacher. His father enlisted in
9717-411: The design of World War I military aircraft. In 1914, Robert Goddard was granted two U.S. patents for rockets using solid fuel, liquid fuel, multiple propellant charges, and multi-stage designs. This would set the stage for future applications in multi-stage propulsion systems for outer space. On March 3, 1915, the U.S. Congress established the first aeronautical research administration, known then as
9840-400: The design, but insisted on the removal of the slogan from the official version of the patch, feeling it placed too much emphasis on the mission length and not the experiments, and fearing the public might see the mission as a failure if it did not last the full duration. The patch was worn on the right breast of the astronauts' uniforms below their nameplates and opposite the NASA emblems worn on
9963-579: The end of the Second World War. The first definition of aerospace engineering appeared in February 1958, considering the Earth's atmosphere and outer space as a single realm, thereby encompassing both aircraft ( aero ) and spacecraft ( space ) under the newly coined term aerospace . In response to the USSR launching the first satellite, Sputnik , into space on October 4, 1957, U.S. aerospace engineers launched
10086-788: The endorsement. Common types of endorsement for recreational pilots can allow: A recreational pilot will typically only get a few of these, to allow operation of an aircraft in a few exceptional situations applicable to their locale (the Class B/C/D endorsement, for instance, is practically required for pilots living in major cities). Pilots requiring a large subset of these endorsements are typically better served by obtaining their private pilot certification. The private pilot certificate allows command of any aircraft (subject to appropriate ratings) for any non-commercial purpose, and gives almost unlimited authority to fly under visual flight rules (VFR). Passengers may be carried and flight in furtherance of
10209-539: The expression "It's not rocket science" to indicate that a task is simple. Strictly speaking, the use of "science" in "rocket science" is a misnomer since science is about understanding the origins, nature, and behavior of the universe; engineering is about using scientific and engineering principles to solve problems and develop new technology. The more etymologically correct version of this phrase would be "rocket engineer". However, "science" and "engineering" are often misused as synonyms. Pilot certification in
10332-519: The flight rotation, meaning he would not fly until one of the later flights, if ever. Slayton alleged that Cooper had developed a lax attitude towards training during the Gemini program; for the Gemini 5 mission, other astronauts had to coax him into the simulator. However, according to Walter Cunningham , Cooper and Scott Carpenter were the only Mercury astronauts who consistently attended geology classes. Slayton later asserted that he never intended to rotate Cooper to another mission, and assigned him to
10455-480: The grounded Slayton, he was the only one of the Mercury Seven who had not yet flown in space. Cooper's selection was publicly announced on November 14, 1962, with Shepard designated as his backup. Project Mercury had begun with a goal of ultimately flying an 18-orbit, 27-hour mission, known as the manned one-day mission. On November 9, senior staff at the Manned Spacecraft Center decided to fly
10578-474: The holder's foreign ratings, including an instrument rating if the holder passes the written US instrument rating knowledge test. A certificated commercial pilot may act as pilot-in-command of an aircraft for compensation or hire, as well as carry persons or property for compensation or hire. Training for the certificate focuses on a better understanding of aircraft systems and a higher standard of airmanship . The commercial certificate itself does not allow
10701-423: The idea of a mission patch , similar to the organizational emblems worn by military units. The patch was intended to commemorate all the hundreds of people directly involved, not just the astronauts. Cooper and Conrad chose an embroidered cloth patch sporting the names of the two crew members, a Conestoga wagon , and the slogan "8 Days or Bust" which referred to the expected mission duration. Webb ultimately approved
10824-714: The instrument rating does not appear on an ATP certificate. The FAA issues instrument ratings separately for airplane and powered lift categories and the helicopter class (INSTA and INSTH). Glider and airship pilots may also operate under Instrument Flight Rules under certain circumstances. An individual may hold only one pilot certificate at one time; that certificate may authorize multiple privilege levels distinguished by aircraft category, class or type. For example, an Airline Transport Pilot certificate holder may be permitted to exercise ATP privileges when flying multi-engine land airplanes, but only Commercial Pilot privileges when flying single-engine land airplanes and gliders. Similarly
10947-725: The integration of all components that constitute an aerospace vehicle (subsystems including power, aerospace bearings , communications, thermal control , life support system , etc.) and its life cycle (design, temperature, pressure, radiation , velocity , lifetime ). Aerospace engineering may be studied at the advanced diploma , bachelor's , master's , and Ph.D. levels in aerospace engineering departments at many universities, and in mechanical engineering departments at others. A few departments offer degrees in space-focused astronautical engineering. Some institutions differentiate between aeronautical and astronautical engineering. Graduate degrees are offered in advanced or specialty areas for
11070-449: The landing point. Cooper drew lines on the capsule window to help him check his orientation before firing the re-entry rockets. "So I used my wrist watch for time," he later recalled, "my eyeballs out the window for attitude . Then I fired my retrorockets at the right time and landed right by the carrier." Faith 7 splashed down four miles (6.4 km) ahead of the recovery ship, the aircraft carrier USS Kearsarge . Faith 7
11193-399: The left. The mission was postponed from August 9 to 19 to give Cooper and Conrad more time to train, and was then delayed for two days due to a storm. Gemini 5 was launched at 09:00 on August 21, 1965. The Titan II booster placed them in a 163 by 349 kilometers (101 by 217 mi) orbit. Cooper's biggest concern was the fuel cell . To make it last eight days, Cooper intended to operate it at
11316-399: The length of time necessary to go from the Earth to the Moon and back. Cooper liked to race cars and boats, and entered the $ 28,000 Salton City 500 miles (800 km) boat race, and the Southwest Championship Drag Boat races in 1965, and the 1967 Orange Bowl Regatta with fire fighter Red Adair . In 1968, he entered the 24 Hours of Daytona , but NASA management ordered him to withdraw due to
11439-424: The new license or rating. To take practical tests for all pilot certificates and ratings (except airline transport pilot), the applicant must have proper logbook endorsements from their flight instructor, and meet basic eligibility requirements required for the ratings desired. In aviation, a pilot's level of income and experience are closely related. There are multiple ways to gain the experience required for hire by
11562-443: The operation is sanctioned and under the direction and control of a public or private agency that conducts search and location operations. Private pilots may also operate charity flights, subject to certain restrictions, and may participate in similar activities, such as Angel Flight , Civil Air Patrol and many others. Besides the student pilot certificate, the private pilot certificate is the most commonly issued pilot certificate in
11685-644: The pilot's insurance premiums, as it is evidence of training to a higher safety standard. An airline transport pilot (commonly called an " ATP ") is tested to the highest level of piloting ability. The certificate is a prerequisite for acting as a flight crew-member in scheduled airline operations. The minimum pilot experience is 1,500 hours of flight time (1200 for Helicopters), 500 hours of cross-country flight time, 100 hours of night flight time, and 75 hours instrument operations time (simulated or actual). Other requirements include being 23 years of age, an instrument rating, being able to read, write, speak, and understand
11808-407: The practical test would be assigned a limitation reading, "DC-3 (VFR Only)". To obtain a certificate or add a rating, a pilot usually has to undergo a course of training with a Certificated Flight Instructor (CFI) under 14CFR61 or enroll at an approved course at a 14CFR141 approved flight school. The applicant must accumulate and log specific aeronautical experience, and pass a three-part examination:
11931-768: The press that "NASA wants astronauts to be tiddlywinks players." Cooper was selected as backup commander for the May 1969 Apollo 10 mission. This placed him in line for the position of commander of Apollo 13 , according to the usual crew rotation procedure established by Slayton as Director of Flight Crew Operations. However, when Shepard, the Chief of the Astronaut Office , returned to flight status in May 1969, Slayton replaced Cooper with Shepard as commander of this crew. This mission subsequently became Apollo 14 to give Shepard more time to train. Loss of this command placed Cooper further down
12054-499: The products of various technological and engineering disciplines including aerodynamics , air propulsion , avionics , materials science , structural analysis and manufacturing . The interaction between these technologies is known as aerospace engineering. Because of the complexity and number of disciplines involved, aerospace engineering is carried out by teams of engineers, each having their own specialized area of expertise. The origin of aerospace engineering can be traced back to
12177-403: The scheduled experiments, most of which were related to orbital photography. The mission was cut short by the appearance of Hurricane Betsy in the planned recovery area. Cooper fired the retrorockets on the 120th orbit. Splashdown was 130 kilometers (81 mi) short of the target. A computer error had set the Earth's rotation at 360 degrees per day whereas it is actually 360.98. The difference
12300-545: The sport pilot certificate, an applicant must: The above requirements are for heavier-than-air powered aircraft (airplanes). The requirements for gliders, balloons, gyroplanes, and dirigibles vary slightly. Sport pilots are only eligible to fly aircraft that are either certificated specifically as light-sport aircraft (LSA) or were certificated prior to the LSA regulations and are within the maximum weight and performance limitations of light-sport aircraft . The restrictions placed on
12423-508: The time he left Edwards, he had logged more than 2,000 hours of flight time, of which 1,600 hours were in jet aircraft . In January 1959, Cooper received unexpected orders to report to Washington, D.C. There was no indication what it was about, but his commanding officer, Major General Marcus F. Cooper (no relation) recalled an announcement in the newspaper saying that a contract had been awarded to McDonnell Aircraft in St. Louis, Missouri , to build
12546-533: The topic. Throughout his later life Cooper repeatedly expressed in interviews that he had seen UFOs, and described his recollections for the 2003 documentary Out of the Blue . Cooper died at age 77 from heart failure at his home in Ventura, California , on October 4, 2004. A portion of Cooper's ashes (along with those of Star Trek actor James Doohan and 206 others) was launched from New Mexico on April 29, 2007, on
12669-462: The two astronauts had to be retrieved with a cherry picker , an escape device that Cooper had devised for Project Mercury and insisted be retained for Gemini. Cooper and Conrad wanted to name their spacecraft Lady Bird after Lady Bird Johnson , the First Lady of the United States , but Webb turned down their request; he wanted to "depersonalize" the space program. Cooper and Conrad then came up with
12792-754: Was active in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC), which led to his being commissioned as a second lieutenant in the U.S. Army in June 1949. He was able to transfer his commission to the United States Air Force in September 1949. He received flight training at Perrin Air Force Base , Texas and Williams Air Force Base , Arizona , in the T-6 Texan . On completion of his flight training in 1950, Cooper
12915-615: Was assigned a different portion of the project along with other special assignments. Cooper specialized in the Redstone rocket , which would be used for the first, sub-orbital spaceflights . He also chaired the Emergency Egress Committee, responsible for working out emergency launch pad escape procedures , and engaged Bo Randall to develop a personal survival knife for astronauts to carry. The astronauts drew their salaries as military officers, and an important component of that
13038-746: Was assigned to the Naval Academy Preparatory School as an alternate for an appointment to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland , but the primary appointee was accepted, and Cooper was assigned to guard duty in Washington, D.C. He was serving with the Presidential Honor Guard when he was discharged from the Marine Corps in 1946. Cooper went to Hawaii to live with his parents. He started attending
13161-456: Was at Edwards, he had a crew set up an Askania Cinetheodolite precision landing system on a dry lake bed. This cinetheodolite system could take pictures at thirty frames per second as an aircraft landed. The crew consisted of James Bittick and Jack Gettys, who began work at the site just before 08:00, with both still and motion picture cameras. According to Cooper's accounts, when they returned later that morning they reported that they had seen
13284-457: Was commissioned into the United States Air Force in 1949. After service as a fighter pilot, he qualified as a test pilot in 1956, and was selected as an astronaut in 1959. In 1963 Cooper piloted the longest and last Mercury spaceflight, Mercury-Atlas 9 . During that 34-hour mission he became the first American to spend an entire day in space, the first to sleep in space, and the last American launched on an entirely solo orbital mission. Despite
13407-491: Was created in September 2004. The intent of the new rule was to lower the barriers of entry into aviation and make flying more affordable and accessible. The new rule also created the Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) category of aircraft, which are smaller, lower-powered aircraft. The sport pilot certificate offers limited privileges mainly for recreational use. It is the only powered aircraft certificate that does not require
13530-441: Was derived from testing of scale models and prototypes, either in wind tunnels or in the free atmosphere. More recently, advances in computing have enabled the use of computational fluid dynamics to simulate the behavior of the fluid, reducing time and expense spent on wind-tunnel testing. Those studying hydrodynamics or hydroacoustics often obtain degrees in aerospace engineering. Additionally, aerospace engineering addresses
13653-607: Was flight pay. In Cooper's case, it amounted to $ 145 a month (equivalent to $ 1,516 in 2023). NASA saw no reason to provide the astronauts with aircraft, so they had to fly to meetings around the country on commercial airlines. To continue earning their flight pay, Grissom and Slayton would go out on the weekend to Langley Air Force Base , and attempt to put in the required four hours a month, competing for T-33 aircraft with senior deskbound colonels and generals. Cooper traveled to McGhee Tyson Air National Guard Base in Tennessee , where
13776-574: Was his backup. In January 1964 the press reported that the Democratic Party of Oklahoma discussed running Cooper for the United States Senate . Project Mercury was followed by Project Gemini , which took its name from the fact that it carried two men instead of just one. Slayton designated Cooper as commander of Gemini 5 , an eight-day, 120-orbit mission. Cooper's assignment was officially announced on February 8, 1965. Pete Conrad , one of
13899-462: Was hoisted on board by a helicopter with Cooper still inside. Once on deck he used the explosive bolts to blow open the hatch. Postflight inspections and analyses studied the causes and nature of the electrical problems that had plagued the final hours of the flight, but no fault was found with the performance of the pilot. On May 22, New York City gave Cooper a ticker-tape parade witnessed by more than four million spectators. The parade concluded with
14022-460: Was largely empirical, with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering. Some key elements, like fluid dynamics , were understood by 18th-century scientists. In December 1903, the Wright Brothers performed the first sustained, controlled flight of a powered, heavier-than-air aircraft, lasting 12 seconds. The 1910s saw the development of aeronautical engineering through
14145-663: Was launched into space on May 15, 1963, aboard the Faith ;7 spacecraft, for what turned out to be the last of the Project Mercury missions. Because MA-9 would orbit over nearly every part of Earth from 33 degrees north to 33 degrees south, a total of 28 ships, 171 aircraft, and 18,000 servicemen were assigned to support the mission. He orbited the Earth 22 times and logged more time in space than all five previous Mercury astronauts combined: 34 hours, 19 minutes, and 49 seconds. Cooper achieved an altitude of 165.9 miles (267 km) at apogee . He
14268-470: Was on the football and track teams. During his senior high school year, he played halfback in the state football championship. He was active in the Boy Scouts of America , where he achieved its second highest rank, Life Scout . His parents owned a Command-Aire 3C3 biplane , and he learned to fly at a young age. He unofficially soloed when he was 12 years old, and earned his pilot certification in
14391-493: Was originally created for flying small single-engine planes for personal enjoyment; the newer Sport Pilot certificate overlaps this need and is easier to get, but the recreational certificate allows access to larger single-engine aircraft, and instructor endorsements are available to recreational pilots that are not applicable to sport pilots, such as flying at night or cross-country . Eligibility requirements: Limitations and restrictions (without additional endorsement): Most of
14514-493: Was originally intended to practice orbital rendezvous with an Agena target vehicle , but this had been deferred to a later mission owing to problems with the Agena. Nonetheless, Cooper practiced bringing his spacecraft to a predetermined location in space. This raised confidence for achieving rendezvous with an actual spacecraft on subsequent missions, and ultimately in lunar orbit. Cooper and Conrad were able to carry out all but one of
14637-791: Was posted to Landstuhl Air Base , West Germany , where he flew F-84 Thunderjets and F-86 Sabres for four years. He became a flight commander of the 525th Fighter Bomber Squadron . While in Germany, he attended the European Extension of the University of Maryland . He returned to the United States in 1954, and studied for two years at the U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) in Ohio of Air University . He completed his Bachelor of Science degree in Aerospace Engineering there on August 28, 1956. While at AFIT, Cooper met Gus Grissom ,
14760-560: Was president of Performance Unlimited, Inc., a manufacturer and distributor of racing and marine engines, and fiberglass boats. He was president of GCR, which designed, tested and raced championship cars, conducted tire tests for race cars, and worked on installation of turbine engines on cars. He served on the board of Teletest, which designed and installed advanced telemetry systems; Doubloon, which designed and built treasure hunting equipment; and Cosmos, which conducted archeological exploration projects. As part owner and race project manager of
14883-431: Was significant in a spacecraft. The error would have been larger had Cooper not recognized the problem when the reentry gauge indicated that they were too high, and attempted to compensate by increasing the bank angle from 53 to 90 degrees to the left to increase the drag. Helicopters plucked them from the sea and took them to the recovery ship, the aircraft carrier USS Lake Champlain . The two astronauts established
15006-480: Was successful. Shepard in particular was eager to fly the mission, for which he had been designated. He even attempted to enlist the support of President Kennedy. An official decision that there would be no MA-10 was made by NASA Administrator James E. Webb on June 22, 1963. Had the mission been approved, Shepard might not have flown it, as he was grounded in October 1963, and MA-10 might well have been flown by Cooper, who
15129-486: Was the first American astronaut to sleep, not only in orbit, but on the launch pad during a countdown. There were several mission-threatening technical problems toward the end of Faith 7 ' s flight. During the 19th orbit, the capsule had a power failure. Carbon dioxide levels began rising, both in Cooper's suit and in the cabin, and the cabin temperature climbed to over 130 °F (54 °C ). The clock and then
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