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123-596: At a public meeting in July 1949, the South Australian Council of Social Service formed the Good Neighbour Council to assist newly arrived European migrants. The South Australian Good Neighbour Council coordinated the volunteer networks of ‘good neighbours’ as they spread across suburbs and country towns, linking them with other service organisations and the media. In January 1950 the movement became national, and

246-492: A Commission of Inquiry into goldfields grievances. It also considered a proposal to abolish the licence fee in return for a royalty on the gold and a nominal charge for maintaining the police service. In November, it was resolved by the Legislative Council that the licence fee be reinstated on a sliding scale of 1 pound per month, 2 pounds per three months, 4 pounds for six months, and 8 pounds for 12 months. License evasion

369-516: A belief system based on the Dreaming , or Dreamtime, which refers both to a time when ancestral spirits created land and culture, and to the knowledge and practices that define individual and community responsibilities and identity. The arrival of the first British settlers at what is now Sydney in 1788 introduced Western civilisation to the Australian continent. Although Sydney was initially used by

492-465: A concern for the " battler "—forged against the brutalities of the bush. This image was expressed within the works of its bush poets , the most famous of which are Henry Lawson , widely regarded as Australia's finest short-story writer, and Banjo Paterson , author of classics such as " Clancy of the Overflow " (1889) and " The Man From Snowy River " (1890). In a literary debate about the nature of life in

615-471: A conflict of interest presiding over a case involving the prosecution of Bentley, said to be a friend and indebted business partner. Gregorius, a physically disabled servant who worked for Father Smyth of St Alipius chapel, had been in the past subjected to police brutality and false arrest for licence evasion, even though he was exempt from the requirement. On 15 October, a mass meeting of predominantly Catholic miners took place on Bakery Hill in protest over

738-564: A convict free region and experienced prosperity from the late nineteenth century. Contact between the Indigenous Australians and the new settlers ranged from cordiality to violent conflict, but the diseases brought by Europeans were devastating to Aboriginal populations and culture. According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey , during the colonial period: "Smallpox, measles, influenza and other new diseases swept from one Aboriginal camp to another ... The main conqueror of Aborigines

861-550: A few days behind. On 28 November, the 12th (East Suffolk) Regiment of Foot arrived to reinforce the government camp in Ballarat. As they moved alongside where the Eureka Stockade was about to be erected members of the convoy were attacked by a mob looking to loot the wagons. By the beginning of December, the police contingent at Ballarat had been surpassed by the number of soldiers from the 12th and 40th regiments. The strength of

984-408: A host of American content. The 1956 Melbourne Olympics , the first to be broadcast to the world, announced a confident, prosperous post-war nation, and new cultural icons like Australian country music star Slim Dusty and dadaist Barry Humphries expressed a uniquely Australian identity. Australia's contemporary immigration program has two components: a program for skilled and family migrants and

1107-406: A humanitarian program for refugees and asylum seekers. By 2010, the post-war immigration program had received more than 6.5 million migrants from every continent. The population tripled in the six decades to around 21 million in 2010, including people originating from 200 countries. More than 43 per cent of Australians were either born overseas or have one parent who was born overseas. The population

1230-563: A local variant of football, Australian Rules Football , became treasured cultural traditions. The Commonwealth of Australia was founded in 1901, after a series of referendums conducted in the British colonies of Australasia . The Australian Constitution established a federal democracy and enshrined human rights such as sections 41 (right to vote), 80 (right to trial by jury) and 116 (freedom of religion) as foundational principles of Australian law and included economic rights such as restricting

1353-480: A majority of seats in the Australian House of Representatives selecting a leader who becomes Prime Minister . Australia remains a constitutional monarchy in which the largely ceremonial and procedural duties of the monarch are performed by a Governor General selected by the Australian government. Australia fought at Britain's side from the outset of World War I and World War II and came under attack from

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1476-576: A more appropriate coat of arms, or a motto more in character with themselves. The design of the Digger's flag was along the same lines as the flag flown at Forrest Creek in 1851. It has four quarters that feature a pick, shovel and cradle, symbolising the mining industry; a bundle of sticks tied together, symbolising unity; the scales of justice, symbolising the remedies the miners sought; and a Kangaroo and Emu, symbolising Australia. On 20 August 1853, just as an angry mob of 500–600 miners went to assemble outside

1599-437: A national school of Australian poetry". First published in serial form in 1882, Rolf Boldrewood 's Robbery Under Arms is regarded as the classic bushranging novel for its vivid use of the bush vernacular and realistic detail of situations in the Australian bush. Founded in 1880, The Bulletin did much to create the idea of an Australian national character—one of anti-authoritarianism , egalitarianism , mateship and

1722-484: A number of classic comic poems including The Man from Ironbark and The Geebung Polo Club . CJ Dennis wrote humour in the Australian vernacular – notably in The Songs of a Sentimental Bloke . The Dad and Dave series about a farming family was an enduring hit of the early 20th century. The World War I ANZAC troops were said to often display irreverence in their relations with superior officers and dark humour in

1845-464: A pioneer farming family and became immensely popular. Sydney's grand Capitol Theatre opened in 1928 and after restoration remains one of the nation's finest auditoriums. In 1955, Summer of the Seventeenth Doll by Ray Lawler portrayed resolutely Australian characters and went on to international acclaim. That same year, young Melbourne artist Barry Humphries performed as Edna Everage for

1968-545: A protest flag of the Chartist movement in the nineteenth century". The Ballarat Reform League charter was inspired by the charter ratified at the 1839 Chartist National Convention held in London. The Ballarat charter contains five of the same demands as the London one. The Ballarat league did not adopt the Chartist's sixth demand: secret ballots. The meeting passed a resolution "that it is the inalienable right of every citizen to have

2091-537: A road crew. Catherine Bentley was acquitted. Two days later, the miners Westerby, Fletcher and McIntyre were convicted for burning the Eureka Hotel and were sentenced to jail terms of six, four and three months. The jury recommended the prerogative of mercy be evoked and noted that they held the local authorities in Ballarat responsible for the loss of property. One week later, a reform league delegation, including Humffray, met with Hotham, Stawell and Foster to negotiate

2214-554: A source of much art and literature in Australia. In 1984, a group of Pintupi people who were living a traditional hunter-gatherer desert-dwelling life were tracked down in the Gibson Desert and brought into a settlement. They are believed to have been the last uncontacted tribe . While the British cultural influence remained strong into the 21st century, other influences became increasingly important. Australia's post-war period

2337-594: A statement made on 10 November in the name of the Ballarat Reform League that was signed by John Basson Humffray , Fredrick Vern , Henry Ross and Samuel Irwin of the Geelong Advertiser . The final report agreed with the League's submission, blaming the government camp for the unsatisfactory state of affairs. The recommendation that Magistrate Dewes and Sergeant Major-Milne of the constabulary should be dismissed

2460-463: A strict enforcement system and conduct a weekly cycle of licence hunts, which it was hoped would cause the exodus to the goldfields to be reversed. In August 1854, Hotham and his wife were received in Ballarat during a tour of the Victorian goldfields. In September, Hotham imposed more frequent twice-weekly licence hunts, with more than half of the prospectors on the goldfields remaining non-compliant with

2583-433: A sunburned country". Early Australian children's literature was also embedded in the bush tradition; perennial favourites include Norman Lindsay 's The Magic Pudding (1918), May Gibbs ' Snugglepot and Cuddlepie (1918) and Dorothy Wall 's Blinky Bill (1933). Significant poets of the early 20th century include Kenneth Slessor , Mary Gilmore and Judith Wright . The nationalist Jindyworobak Movement arose in

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2706-466: A voice in making the laws he is called on to obey, that taxation without representation is tyranny". The meeting resolved to secede from the United Kingdom if the situation did not improve. Throughout the following weeks, the league sought to negotiate with Rede and Hotham on the specific matters relating to Bentley and the death of James Scobie, the men being tried for the burning of the Eureka Hotel,

2829-424: Is a mere cloak to cover a democratic revolution", and the day before the battle reported to the chief gold commissioner that the government forces stood ready to "crush them and the democratic agitation at one blow". The James Scobie murder trial ended on 18 November 1854, with the accused, James Bentley, Thomas Farrell and William Hance, being convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to three years of hard labour on

2952-416: Is believed that there were between 200 and 300 Australian Aboriginal languages at the time of first European contact, but only about 70 of these have survived and all but 20 are now endangered. An Indigenous language is the main language for 0.25% of the population. Comedy is an important part of the Australian identity. The "Australian sense of humour" is characterised as dry and sarcastic, exemplified by

3075-452: Is highly urbanised, with more than 75% of Australians living in urban centres, largely along the coast though there has been increased incentive to decentralise the population, concentrating it into developed regional or rural areas. Contemporary Australia is a pluralistic society, rooted in liberal democratic traditions and espousing informality and egalitarianism as key societal values. While strongly influenced by Anglo-Celtic origins,

3198-503: Is known as the first Indigenous Australian author. Oodgeroo Noonuccal was the first Aboriginal Australian to publish a book of verse. A significant contemporary account of the experiences of Indigenous Australia can be found in Sally Morgan 's My Place . Contemporary academics and activists including Marcia Langton and Noel Pearson are prominent essayists and authors on Aboriginal issues. Charles Bean ( The Story of Anzac: From

3321-420: Is largely monolingual with English being the de facto national language . Australian English is a major variety of the language that is immediately distinguishable from British , American , and other national dialects by virtue of its unique accents, pronunciations, idioms and vocabulary, although its spelling more closely reflects British versions rather than American. According to the 2011 census, English

3444-711: Is the Miles Franklin Award , which is "presented each year to a novel which is of the highest literary merit and presents Australian life in any of its phases". Patrick White won the inaugural award for Voss in 1957; he went on to win the 1973 Nobel Prize in Literature . Peter Carey , Thomas Keneally and Richard Flanagan are recipients of the Booker Prize . Other acclaimed Australian authors include Colleen McCullough , Nevil Shute , Tim Winton , Ruth Park and Morris West . Helen Garner 's 1977 novel Monkey Grip

3567-477: Is the home of Opera Australia and the Sydney Theatre Company . The Bell Shakespeare Company was created in 1990. A period of success for Australian musical theatre came in the 1990s with the debut of musical biographies of Australian music singers Peter Allen ( The Boy From Oz in 1998) and Johnny O'Keefe ( Shout! The Legend of The Wild One ). Eureka Stockade The Eureka Rebellion

3690-422: Is the only language spoken in the home for around 80% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home are Mandarin (1.7%), Italian (1.5%), and Arabic (1.4%); almost all migrants speak some English. Australia has multiple sign languages, the most spoken known as Auslan , which in 2004 was the main language of about 6,500 deaf people, and Australian Irish Sign Language with about 100 speakers. It

3813-519: Is today the oldest purpose-built theatre on the mainland. The mid-19th-century gold rushes provided funds for the construction of grand theatres in the Victorian style, such as the Princess Theatre in Melbourne, established in 1854. After Federation in 1901, theatre productions evidenced the new sense of national identity. On Our Selection (1912), based on the stories of Steele Rudd , portrays

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3936-449: Is widely considered one of Australia's first contemporary novels–she has since written both fiction and non-fiction work. Notable expatriate authors include the feminist Germaine Greer and humourist Clive James . Greer's controversial 1970 nonfiction book The Female Eunuch became a global bestseller and is considered a watershed feminist text. Among the best known contemporary poets are Les Murray and Bruce Dawe . David Unaipon

4059-683: The Adelaide Festival Center began in 1970 and South Australia's Sir Robert Helpmann became director of the Adelaide Festival of Arts. The new wave of Australian theatre debuted in the 1970s as “a new and more realistic look into [Australia’s] beginnings as a nation”. It explored the confrontation in social relations, the use of vernacular language and expressions of masculine social habits in contemporary Australia. The Belvoir St Theatre presented works by Nick Enright and David Williamson . The Sydney Opera House , inaugurated in 1973,

4182-518: The Australian gold rush that began in 1851. Following the separation of Victoria from New South Wales on 1 July 1851, gold prospectors were offered 200 guineas for making discoveries within 320 kilometres (200 mi) of Melbourne. In August 1851, the news was received around the world that, on top of several earlier finds, Thomas Hiscock had found still more deposits 3 kilometres (2 mi) west of Buninyong . This led to gold fever taking hold as

4305-708: The Australian gold rushes of the latter half of the 19th century, but following Federation in 1901, the Parliament instigated the White Australia Policy that gave preference to British migrants and ensured that Australia remained a predominantly Anglo-Celtic society until well into the 20th century. The post- World War II immigration program saw the policy relaxed then dismantled by successive governments, permitting large numbers of non-British Europeans, and later Asian and Middle Eastern migrants to arrive. The Menzies Government (1949-1966) and Holt government maintained

4428-565: The Union Jack and jokingly said that "if the flag went, it would be replaced by a diggers' flag". The Bendigo "diggers flag" was unfurled at a rally at View Point, Sandhurst, on 12 August 1853 to hear from delegates who had returned from Melbourne with news of the failure of the Bendigo petition. The miners paraded under the flags of several nations, including the Irish tricolour , the saltire of Scotland,

4551-460: The monarch . At least 14,9% of lands in Australia are referred to as Crown land , considered public land . There are many geographic places that have been named in honour of a reigning monarch, including the states of Queensland and Victoria , named after Queen Victoria , with numerous rivers, streets, squares, parks and buildings carrying the names of past or present members of the royal family. Although Australia has no official language, it

4674-549: The 1850s into the 21st century. During the colonial era, distinctive forms of Australian art , music , language and literature developed through movements like the Heidelberg school of painters and the work of bush balladeers like Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson , whose poetry and prose did much to promote an egalitarian Australian outlook which placed a high value on the concept of " mateship ". Games like cricket and rugby were imported from Britain at this time and with

4797-536: The 1850s resulted in exponential population and economic growth, as well as racial tensions and the introduction of novel political ideas; the growing disparity between the prospectors and the established colonial governments culminated in the Eureka Stockade rebellion and the shifting political climate ushered in significant electoral reform, the labour movement, and women's rights ahead of any such changes in other Western countries. Federation occurred in 1901 as

4920-544: The 1930s and sought to develop a distinctive Australian poetry through the appropriation of Aboriginal languages and ideas. In contrast, the Angry Penguins , centred around Max Harris ' journal of the same name, promoted international modernism . A backlash resulted in the Ern Malley affair of 1943, Australia's most famous literary hoax . The legacy of Miles Franklin , renowned for her 1901 novel My Brilliant Career ,

5043-537: The 1950s, the satirical character creations of Barry Humphries have included housewife "gigastar" Edna Everage and "Australian cultural attaché" Les Patterson , whose interests include boozing, chasing women and flatulence. For his delivery of dadaist and absurdist humour to millions, biographer Anne Pender described Humphries in 2010 as "the most significant comedian to emerge since Charlie Chaplin ". The vaudeville talents of Daryl Somers , Graham Kennedy , Don Lane and Bert Newton earned popular success during

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5166-466: The 1960s, at which point full legal equality was established. A 1967 referendum to include all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in the national electoral roll census was overwhelmingly approved by voters, signal the beginning of action and organisation at a national level in Aboriginal affairs. Since then, conflict and reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians has been

5289-406: The 1970s onwards. According to Paul James , this consciously created interlock of the image of the multinational corporation with aspects of Australia’s national mythology, has itself over the last decade [the 1970s to 1980s] contributed to the maintenance and evolution of those national themes. But paradoxically, during the same period it has reinforced Australia’s international orientation. When

5412-428: The 1970s, satirical talk-show host Norman Gunston (played by Garry McDonald), with his malapropisms , sweep-over hair and poorly shaven face, rose to great popularity by pioneering the satirical "ambush" interview technique and giving unique interpretations of pop songs. Roy and HG provide an affectionate but irreverent parody of Australia's obsession with sport. The unique character and humour of Australian culture

5535-527: The Australian colonies federated on 1 January 1901, an official competition for a design for an Australian flag was held. The design that was adopted contains the Union Jack in the left corner, symbolising Australia's historical links to the United Kingdom , the stars of the Southern Cross on the right half of the flag indicating Australia's geographical location, and the seven-pointed Federation Star in

5658-492: The British as a place of banishment for prisoners, the arrival of the British laid the foundations for Australia's democratic institutions and rule of law, and introduced the long traditions of English literature , Western art and music, and Judeo-Christian ethics and religious outlook which shaped the Australian national culture and identity. The British Empire expanded across the whole continent and established six colonies. The colonies were originally penal colonies, with

5781-545: The Councils amounted to $ 16,000 with a staff of three, expenditure increasing in 1972 to $ 620,000 with a staff of 70. As well as head offices in each capital city, there were ten regional offices and five sub-offices established to bring the services available through the Good Neighbour Councils to areas of high migrant population. These offices were supported in their work by 2,187 branch members and 550 representatives of

5904-477: The Councils. The Council saw itself as distinctively Australian , stubbornly resisting meaningful migrant participation. Migrant groups and academics criticised this narrow assimilationist approach and alleged that the English-speaking staff failed to reach beyond British migrants. As the concept of multiculturalism replaced those of assimilation and integration, ethnic groups sought direct funding and on

6027-448: The Empire of Japan during the latter conflict. These wars profoundly affected Australia's sense of nationhood and a proud military legend developed around the spirit of Australia's ANZAC troops, who came to symbolise the virtues of endurance, courage, ingenuity, good humour, and mateship. The Australian colonies had a period of extensive non-British European and Chinese immigration during

6150-473: The Good Neighbour Council was formally launched at the first Commonwealth Citizenship Convention in January, 1950. From their inauguration, the Councils influenced the Australian community towards a wider acceptance of the immigration programme and enlisted the community's support in the work of the integration of new settlers. There were Good Neighbour Councils in each State and Territory which successfully enlisted

6273-684: The Outbreak of War to the End of the First Phase of the Gallipoli Campaign 4 May 191 5, 1921) Geoffrey Blainey ( The Tyranny of Distance , 1966), Robert Hughes ( The Fatal Shore , 1987), Manning Clark (A History of Australia , 1962–87), and Marcia Langton ( First Australians , 2008) are authors of important Australian histories. European traditions came to Australia with the First Fleet in 1788, with

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6396-693: The Union Jack, revolutionary French and German flags, and the Stars and Stripes. The Geelong Advertiser reported that: Gully after gully hoisted its own flag, around which the various sections rallied, and as they proceeded towards the starting points, formed quite an animated spectacle … But the flag which attracted the greatest attention was the Diggers' Banner, the work of one of the Committee, Mr Dexter, an artist of considerable talent, and certainly no company ever possessed

6519-567: The United States became Australia's foremost military ally after the latter. After the Second World War, 6.5 million people settled in Australia from 200 nations, further enriching Australian culture in the process. Over time, as immigrant populations gradually assimilated into Australian life, their cultural and culinary practices became part of mainstream Australian culture. The oldest surviving cultural traditions of Australia—and some of

6642-726: The White Australia Policy but relaxed it, and then the legal barriers to multiracial immigration were dismantled during the 1970s, with the promotion of multiculturalism by the Whitlam and Fraser governments . From the protest movements from the 1930s, with the gradual lifting of restrictions, Indigenous Australians began to develop a unity sense of Aboriginality , maintained by all Aboriginal artists, musicians, sportsmen and writers. However, some States and Territories of Australia retained discriminatory laws relating to voting rights for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people into

6765-542: The active support and co-operation of some 960 community agencies and thousands of Good Neighbour volunteers to assist in migrant integration. The Council itself became a focal point for the training of volunteers and for information and direct assistance to migrants, holding seminars on the recognition of qualifications and welfare entitlements. The Council held art exhibitions and other events to celebrate ethnic origins and talents and prepared publications for settlers and volunteers. In 1950, Australian Government sponsorship of

6888-473: The beginning of December, there was discontent when it was announced that the licence fee would be raised to 3 pounds a month, a 200 per cent increase, effective 1 January 1852. In Ballarat, some miners became so agitated that they began to gather arms. On 8 December, the rebellion continued to build momentum with an anti-mining tax banner put on public display at Forrest Creek . After remonstrations, particularly in Melbourne and Geelong , on 13 December 1851,

7011-540: The bottom left representing the six states and the territories of Australia . Other official flags include the Australian Aboriginal flag , the Torres Strait Islander flag and the flags of the individual states and territories. The Australian Coat of Arms was granted by King George V in 1912 and consists of a shield containing the badges of the six states, within an ermine border. The crest above

7134-425: The broader issues of the abolition of the licence, suffrage and democratic representation of the goldfields, and the disbanding of the gold commission. Hotham sent a message to England on 16 November which revealed his intention to establish an inquiry into goldfields grievances. Notes to the royal commissioners had already been made on 6 November, where Hotham stated his opposition to an export duty on gold replacing

7257-406: The bush, Lawson said Paterson was a romantic while Paterson attacked Lawson's pessimistic outlook. C. J. Dennis wrote humour in the Australian vernacular, notably in the verse novel The Songs of a Sentimental Bloke (1915), while Dorothy Mackellar wrote the iconic patriotic poem " My Country " (1908) which rejected prevailing fondness for England's "green and shaded lanes" and declared: "I love

7380-550: The chairmanship of Chartist John Humffray. (Several other reform league leaders, including George Black, Henry Holyoake, and Tom Kennedy, are also believed to have been Chartists.) It was reported by the Ballarat Times that at the appointed hour, the "Union Jack and the American ensign were hoisted as signals for the people to assemble". It was at this time the Union Jack became a national flag while being "inscribed with slogans as

7503-545: The colony continued to strain due to the gold rush. On 25 November 1852, a police patrol was attacked by a mob of miners who wrongly believed they were obliged to take out a whole month's subscription for seven days at Oven's goldfield in Bendigo. In 1852, it was decided by the UK government that the Australian colonies should each draft their own constitutions, pending final approval by the Imperial parliament in London. The disquiet on

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7626-468: The colony's population increased from 77,000 in 1851 to 198,496 in 1853. In three years, the total number of people living in and around the Victorian goldfields stood at a 12-month average of 100,351. In 1851, the Australian population was 430,000. In 1871, it was 1.7 million. Among this number was "a heavy sprinkling of ex-convicts, gamblers, thieves, rogues and vagabonds of all kinds". The local authorities soon found themselves with fewer police and lacked

7749-462: The common man than expected. Several reforms sought by the rebels were subsequently implemented, including legislation providing for universal adult male suffrage for Legislative Assembly elections and the removal of property qualifications for Legislative Assembly members. The Eureka Rebellion is controversially identified with the birth of democracy in Australia and interpreted by many as a political revolt. The Eureka Rebellion had its origins in

7872-408: The corrupt practice of police demanding blackmail of 5 pounds from repeat offenders. Miners were arrested for not carrying licences on their person, as they often left them in their tents due to the typically wet and dirty conditions in the mines, then subjected to such indignities as being chained to trees and logs overnight. The impost was most felt by a greater number of miners, who were finding

7995-520: The culture of Australia has also been shaped by multi-ethnic migration which has influenced all aspects of Australian life, including business, the arts, cuisine , sense of humour and sporting tastes. Contemporary Australia is also a culture that is profoundly influenced by global movements of meaning and communication, including advertising culture. In turn, globalising corporations from Holden to Exxon have attempted to associate their brand with Australian cultural identity. This process intensified from

8118-536: The delegation reported on the exchange with La Trobe. The crowd reacted with "loud disapprobation and showers of hisses" when the lieutenant governor was mentioned. Manning Clark speaks of one of the leaders of the "moral force" faction, George Thompson, who returned to Bendigo, where he attended another meeting on 28 July. Formerly, there was talk of "moral suasion" and "the genius of the English people to compose their differences without resort to violence". Thompson pointed to

8241-490: The deputies sent to negotiate with Rede. The meeting resolved to petition Hotham for a retrial of Gregorius and to the reassignment of the assistant commissioner Johnston away from Ballarat. On 27 October, Captain John Wellesley Thomas laid contingency plans for the defence of the government outpost. In the weeks leading up to the battle, men had already been aiming musket balls at the barely fortified barracks during

8364-426: The diggers. There was strong opposition to the strict prohibition of liquor imposed by the government at the goldfields settlements, whereby the sale and consumption of alcohol were restricted to licensed hotels. Despite the high turnover in population on the goldfields, discontent continued to simmer throughout 1852. La Trobe received a petition from the people of Bendigo on 2 September 1862, drawing attention to

8487-592: The early years of Australian television. The variety show Hey Hey It's Saturday screened for three decades. Among the best loved Australian sitcoms was Mother and Son , about a divorcee who had moved back into the suburban home of his mother – but sketch comedy has been the stalwart of Australian television . The Comedy Company , in the 1980s, featured the comic talents of Mary-Anne Fahey , Ian McFadyen , Mark Mitchell , Glenn Robbins , Kym Gyngell and others. Growing out of Melbourne University and The D-Generation came The Late Show (1991–1993), starring

8610-440: The exception of Western Australia and South Australia , which were each established as a "free colony" with no convicts and a vision for a territory with political and religious freedoms, together with opportunities for wealth through business and pastoral investments. However, Western Australia became a penal colony after insufficient numbers of free settlers arrived. Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, grew from its status as

8733-402: The face of battle. Australian comedy has a strong tradition of self-mockery, from the outlandish Barry McKenzie expat-in-Europe ocker comedies of the 1970s, to the quirky outback characters of the "Crocodile" Dundee films of the 1980s, the suburban parody of Working Dog Productions ' 1997 film The Castle and the dysfunctional suburban mother–daughter sitcom Kath & Kim . In

8856-620: The first production being performed in 1789 by convicts. In 1988, the year of Australia's bicentenary , the circumstances of the foundations of Australian theatre were recounted in Timberlake Wertenbaker 's play Our Country's Good . Hobart's Theatre Royal opened in 1837 and is Australia's oldest continuously operating theatre. Inaugurated in 1839, the Melbourne Athenaeum is one of Melbourne's oldest cultural institutions, and Adelaide's Queen's Theatre , established in 1841,

8979-596: The first time at Melbourne University 's Union Theatre. His satirical stage creations, notably Dame Edna and Les Patterson , became Australian cultural icons. Humphries also achieved success in the US with tours on Broadway and has been honored in Australia and Britain. Founded in Sydney 1958, the National Institute of Dramatic Art boasts famous alumni including Cate Blanchett , Mel Gibson and Hugo Weaving . Construction of

9102-402: The goldfields and introduced a mining licence (tax) of 30 shillings per month, effective 1 September. The universal mining tax was based on time stayed rather than what was seen as the more equitable option, an export duty levied only on gold found, meaning it was always designed to make life unprofitable for most prospectors. There were several mass public meetings and miners' delegations in

9225-461: The goldfields continued in 1853, with public meetings held in Castlemaine , Heathcote and Bendigo. On 3 February 1853, a policeman accidentally caused the death of William Guest at Reid's Creek. Assistant Commissioner James Clow had to defuse a difficult situation with a promise to conduct an inquiry into the circumstances. A group of one thousand angry miners overran the government camp and relieved

9348-429: The goldfields were signed and sealed "Walter Joseph Latrobe". Many of the police were former convicts from Tasmania. They would get a fifty per cent commission from all fines imposed on unlicensed miners and grog sellers. Plainclothes officers enforced prohibition, and those involved in the illegal sale of alcohol were initially handed 50-pound fines. Subsequent offences were punishable by months of hard labour. This led to

9471-424: The goldfields, William Wright , advised La Trobe of his support for an export duty on gold found rather than the existing universal tax on all prospectors based on time stayed. On 3 August, the Bendigo petition was placed before La Trobe, who refused to act on a request to suspend the mining tax again and give the miners the right to vote. The next day, there was a meeting held at Protestant Hall in Melbourne where

9594-467: The government camp at Waranga, the authorities used a legal technicality to release some mining tax evaders. A meeting in Beechworth called for reducing the licence fee to ten shillings and voting rights for the mining settlements. A larger rally attended by 20,000 people was held at Hospital Hill in Bendigo on 23 August 1853, which resolved to support a mining tariff fixed at 10 shillings a month. There

9717-462: The government to acquiring property only "on just terms". The Australian Labor Party was established in the 1890s and the Liberal Party of Australia in 1944, both rising to be the dominant political parties and rivals of Australian politics , though various other parties have been and remain influential. Voting is compulsory in Australia and government is essentially formed by a group commanding

9840-582: The guard tent to protect gold reserves amid rumours of a planned robbery. A sitting of the goldfields committee of the Legislative Council in Melbourne on 6 September 1853 heard from goldfields activists Dr William Carr, W Fraser and William Jones. An Act for the Better Management of the Goldfields was passed, which, upon receiving royal assent on 1 December, reduced the licence fee to 40 shillings for every three months. The act featured increasing fines in

9963-539: The head of state. Women's suffrage in Australia was achieved from the 1890s. Women became eligible to vote in South Australia in 1895. This was the first legislation in the world permitting women to stand for political office and, in 1897, Catherine Helen Spence , an Adelaidean, became the first female political candidate. Though constantly evolving, the key foundations for elected parliamentary government have maintained an historical continuity in Australia from

10086-492: The influential talents Santo Cilauro , Tom Gleisner , Jane Kennedy , Tony Martin , Mick Molloy and Rob Sitch (who later formed Working Dog Productions ); and during the 1980s and 1990s Fast Forward ( Steve Vizard , Magda Szubanski , Marg Downey , Michael Veitch , Peter Moon and others) and its successor Full Frontal , which launched the career of Eric Bana and featured Shaun Micallef . The perceptive wit of Clive James and Andrew Denton has been popular in

10209-415: The infrastructure needed to support the expansion of the mining industry. The number of public servants, factory and farm workers leaving for the goldfields to seek their fortune made for chronic labour shortages that needed to be resolved. On 16 August 1851, just days after Hiscock's lucky strike, Lieutenant-Governor Charles La Trobe issued two proclamations that reserved to the crown all land rights to

10332-453: The majority of casualties being rebels. There was a preceding period beginning in 1851 of peaceful demonstrations and civil disobedience on the Victorian goldfields. The miners had various grievances, chiefly the cost of mining permits and the officious way the system was enforced. Tensions began in 1851, with the introduction of a tax on gold mines. Miners began to organize and protest

10455-411: The miners attempted to respond to rising crime levels by forming a "Mutual Protection Association". They pledged to withhold the licence fee, build detention centres, and begin nightly armed patrols, with vigilantes dispensing summary justice to those suspected of criminal activities. That month, Government House received a petition from Lever Flat, Forrest Creek and Mount Alexander about policing levels as

10578-406: The miners take up arms against the lieutenant governor, who was irreverently viewed as a feather-wearing, effeminate fop . This first meeting was followed by ongoing protests across all the colony's mining settlements in the years leading up to the 1854 armed uprising at Ballarat. In mid-September 1851, D. C. Doveton, the first local gold commissioner appointed by La Trobe, arrived in Ballarat. At

10701-539: The mining settlement at McIvor. There was an incident on 2 July 1853 in which police were assaulted in the vicinity of an anti-licence meeting at the Sandhurst goldfield in Bendigo, with rocks being thrown as they escorted an intoxicated miner to the holding cells. On 16 July 1853, an anti-licence demonstration in Sandhurst attracted 6,000 people, who also raised the issue of lack of electoral rights. The high commissioner of

10824-579: The mining tax untenable without any more significant gold discoveries. In March 1854, La Trobe sent a reform package to the Legislative Council, which was adopted and sent to London for the approval of the Imperial parliament. The voting franchise would be extended to all miners upon purchasing a 12-month permit. La Trobe's successor as lieutenant-governor, Sir Charles Hotham , who took up his commission in Victoria on 22 June 1854. He instructed Rede to introduce

10947-480: The need for improvements in the road from Melbourne. The lack of police protection was also a major issue for the protesting miners. On 14 August 1852, a fight broke out among 150 men over land rights in Bendigo. An inquiry recommended increasing police numbers in the colony's mining settlements. Around this time, the first gold deposits at the Eureka lead in Ballarat were found. In October 1852, at Lever Flat near Bendigo,

11070-413: The night. On 30 October, Hotham appointed a board of enquiry into the murder of James Scobie to sit in Ballarat on 2 and 10 November. The panel included Melbourne magistrate Evelyn Sturt , assisted by his local magistrate Charles Hackett and William McCrea. After receiving representations from the US consul, Hotham released James Tarleton from custody. The inquiry into the Ballarat rioting concluded with

11193-475: The office of the Prime Minister's political advisory (spin) department, and The Chaser's War on Everything , which cynically examines domestic and international politics. Actor/writer Chris Lilley has produced a series of award-winning "mockumentary" style television series about Australian characters since 2005. The annual Melbourne International Comedy Festival is one of the largest comedy festivals in

11316-491: The oldest surviving cultural traditions on earth—are those of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, collectively referred to as Indigenous Australians . Their ancestors have inhabited Australia for between 40,000 and 60,000 years, living a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. In 2006, the Indigenous population was estimated at 517,000 people, or 2.5 per cent of the total population. Most Aboriginal Australians have

11439-399: The order of 5, 10 and 15 pounds for repeat offenders, with goldfields residents required to carry their permits, which had to be available for inspection at all times. This temporarily relieved tensions in the colony. In November, the select committee bill proposed a licence fee of 1 pound for one month, 2 pounds for three months, 3 for six months and 5 pounds for 12 months, along with extending

11562-450: The police of their sidearms and weapons, destroying a cache of weapons. George Black assisted Dr John Owens in chairing a public meeting held at Ovens field on 11 February 1853 that called for the death of Guest to be fully investigated. The Anti-Gold Licence Association was formed in June at a meeting in Bendigo, where 23,000 signatures were collected for a mass petition, including 8,000 from

11685-472: The previous increase was rescinded. The Forest Creek Monster Meeting took place at Mount Alexander on 15 December 1851. This was the first truly mass demonstration of the Eureka Rebellion. According to high-end estimates, up to 20,000 miners turned out in a massive display of support for repealing the mining tax. The only pictorial evidence concerning the flag on display at the meeting is an engraving of

11808-534: The primacy of the English language and Western Christianity , the institution of constitutional monarchy , a Westminster -style system of democratic parliamentary government, and Australia's inclusion within the Commonwealth of Nations . The American political ideals of constitutionalism and federalism have also played a role in shaping Australia's distinctive political identity. The Australian gold rushes from

11931-1056: The recommendations of the Galbally report the Councils were abolished in 1978, though branches still continue in some states such as the Good Neighbour Council Launceston Inc. Australian culture Australian culture is of primarily Western origins, and is derived from its British , Indigenous and migrant components. Indigenous peoples arrived as early as 60,000 years ago, and evidence of Aboriginal art in Australia dates back at least 30,000 years. The British colonisation of Australia began in 1788 and waves of multi-ethnic (primarily Anglo-Celtic ) migration followed shortly thereafter. Several states and territories had their origins as penal colonies , with this convict heritage having an enduring effect on Australian music , cinema and literature . Manifestations of British colonial heritage in Australia include

12054-459: The regulations. The miners in Bendigo responded to the increase in the frequency of licence hunts with threats of armed rebellion. In October 1854 James Scobie was murdered outside the Eureka Hotel. Johannes Gregorius was prosecuted for the murder. A colonial inquest found no evidence of culpability by the Bentley Hotel owners for the fatal injuries amid allegations that Magistrate D'Ewes had

12177-428: The release of the three Eureka Hotel rioters. Hotham declared that he would take a stand on the word "demand", satisfied that due process had been observed. Father Smyth informed Rede in confidence that he believed the miners might be about to march on the government outpost. Foot police reinforcements arrived in Ballarat on 19 October 1854. A further detachment of the 40th (2nd Somersetshire) Regiment of Foot arrived

12300-427: The result of a burgeoning sense of national unity and identity that had developed over the latter half of the 19th century, hitherto demonstrated in the works of Heidelberg School artists and authors like Banjo Paterson , Henry Lawson , and Dorothea Mackellar . World War I and World War II profoundly impacted Australia, ushering in the heroic ANZAC legend of the former and the geopolitical reorientation in which

12423-471: The reward for more information about the Bank of Victoria heist in Ballarat that was carried out by robbers wearing black crepe-paper masks, and which was increased from 500 to 1,600 pounds. Rede received a miner's delegation on 23 October which had heard that the police officers involved in the arrest of Gregorius would be dismissed. Two days later, a meeting led by Timothy Hayes and John Manning heard reports from

12546-476: The scene by Thomas Ham and David Tulloch that features only part of the design. Based on the research of Doug Ralph, Marjorie Theobald and others have questioned whether there was an iconic Digger's flag displayed at Forest Creek that spread to other mining settlements. Two days later, it was announced that La Trobe had reversed the planned increase in the mining tax. The oppressive licence hunts continued and increased in frequency, causing general dissent among

12669-456: The shield and helmet is a seven-pointed gold star on a blue and gold wreath, representing the 6 states and the territories. The shield is supported by a red kangaroo and an emu , which were chosen to symbolise a nation moving forward. Green and gold were confirmed as Australia's national colours in 1984, though the colours had been adopted on the uniforms of Australia’s sporting teams long before this. The Golden Wattle ( Acacia pycnantha )

12792-624: The styles inherited by Australia's various migrant communities. As the convict era passed—captured most famously in Marcus Clarke 's For the Term of His Natural Life (1874), a seminal work of Tasmanian Gothic —the bush and Australian daily life assumed primacy as subjects. Charles Harpur , Henry Kendall and Adam Lindsay Gordon won fame in the mid-19th century for their lyric nature poems and patriotic verse. Gordon drew on Australian colloquy and idiom; Clarke assessed his work as "the beginnings of

12915-475: The swearing of allegiance. The Battle of Eureka Stockade ended the short-lived rebellion on 3 December. A group of 13 captured rebels (not including Lalor, who was in hiding) was put on trial for high treason in Melbourne, but mass public support led to their acquittal. The legacy of the Rebellion is contested. Rebel leader Peter Lalor was elected to the parliament in 1856, though he proved to be less of an ally to

13038-418: The talk-show interview style. Representatives of the "bawdy" strain of Australian comedy include Rodney Rude , Austen Tayshus and Chad Morgan . Rolf Harris helped defined a comic tradition in Australian music . Cynical satire has had enduring popularity, with television series such as Frontline , targeting the inner workings of "news and current affairs" TV journalism, The Hollowmen (2008), set in

13161-476: The taxes; miners stopped paying the taxes en masse. The October 1854 murder of a gold miner, and the burning of a local hotel (which miners blamed on the government), ended the previously peaceful nature of the miner's dispute. Open rebellion broke out on 29 November 1854, as a crowd of some 10,000 swore allegiance to the Eureka Flag . Gold miner Peter Lalor became the rebellions de facto leader, as he had initiated

13284-408: The treatment of Gregorius. Two days later, responding to the acquittal, a meeting of approximately 10,000 men occurred near the Eureka Hotel in protest. The hotel was set alight as Rede was pelted with eggs. The available security forces were unable to restore order. On 21 October, Andrew McIntyre and Thomas Fletcher were arrested for the arson attack on the Eureka Hotel. A third man, John Westerby,

13407-560: The universal mining tax. W. C. Haines MLC was to be the chairman, serving alongside lawmakers John Fawkner , John O'Shanassy , William Westgarth , as well as chief gold commissioner William Wright. These men were likely to be sympathetic to the diggers. Rather than hear the Ballarat Reform League's grievances, Rede increased the police presence on the Ballarat goldfields and summoned reinforcements from Melbourne. Rede told one deputation that their campaign against "The licence

13530-463: The various units in the government camp was: 40th regiment (infantry): 87 men; 40th regiment (mounted): 30 men; 12th regiment (infantry): 65 men; mounted police: 70 men; and the foot police: 24 men. On 29 November, a meeting involving a crowd of around 10,000 was held at Bakery Hill. The miners heard from their deputies news of the unsuccessful outcome of their meeting with Hotham demanding the release of Westerby, Fletcher and McIntyre. The Eureka Flag

13653-517: The voting franchise and land rights to the miners. La Trobe amended the scheme by increasing the six-month licence to 4 pounds, with a fee of 8 pounds for 12 months. On 3 December 1853, a crowd of 2,000–3,000 attended an anti-licence rally at View Point. Then, on 31 December 1854, about 500 people gathered there to elect a so-called "Diggers Congress". La Trobe decided to cancel the September 1853 mining tax collections. The Legislative Council supported

13776-435: The works of performing artists like Barry Humphries and Paul Hogan . The convicts of the early colonial period helped establish anti-authoritarianism as a hallmark of Australian comedy. Influential in the establishment of stoic, dry wit as a characteristic of Australian humour were the bush balladeers of the 19th century, including Henry Lawson , author of " The Loaded Dog ". His contemporary, Banjo Paterson , contributed

13899-548: The world, and a popular fixture on the city's cultural calendar. The arts in Australia — film , music , painting , theatre , dance and crafts—have achieved international recognition. While much of Australia's cultural output has traditionally tended to fit with general trends and styles in Western arts, the arts as practised by Indigenous Australians represent a unique Australian cultural tradition, and Australia's landscape and history have contributed to some unique variations in

14022-491: The years leading up to the armed revolt. The earliest rally was held on 26 August 1851 at Hiscock's Gully in Buninyong and attracted 40–50 miners protesting the new mining regulations, and four resolutions to this end were passed. From the outset, there was a division between the "moral force" activists who favoured lawful, peaceful and democratic means and those who advocated "physical force", with some in attendance suggesting that

14145-440: Was a second multinational-style assembly at View Point on 27 August 1853. The next day a procession of miners passed by the government camp with the sounds of bands and shouting and fifty pistol rounds as an assembly of about 2,000 miners took place. On 29 August 1853, assistant commissioner Robert William Rede at Jones Creek counselled that a peaceful, political solution could still be found. In Ballarat, miners offered to surround

14268-503: Was a series of events involving gold miners who revolted against the British administration of the colony of Victoria , Australia during the Victorian gold rush . It culminated in the Battle of the Eureka Stockade , which took place on 3 December 1854 at Ballarat between the rebels and the colonial forces of Australia . The fighting resulted in an official total of 27 deaths and many injuries,

14391-420: Was acted upon. On 1 November, around 5,000 miners gathered in Bendigo, as a plan was drawn up to organise the diggers at all the mining settlements, with speakers openly advocating physical force addressing the crowd. On 11 November 1854, a crowd of more than 10,000 gathered at Bakery Hill , directly opposite the government encampment. At this meeting, the Ballarat Reform League was formally established under

14514-478: Was also indicted. A committee meeting of miners on Bakery Hill agreed to indemnify the bail sureties for McIntyre and Fletcher. As a large mob approached the government camp, the two men were hurriedly released under their own recognisance. Around this time two reward notices were distributed around Ballarat. One offered a 500-pound reward for information leading to an arrest in the Scobie murder case. The other announced

14637-416: Was defined in cartoons by immigrants, Emile Mercier and George Molnar , and in the novel They're a Weird Mob (1957) by John O'Grady , which looks at Sydney through the eyes of an Italian immigrant. Post-war immigration has seen migrant humour flourish through the works of Vietnamese refugee Anh Do , Egyptian-Australian stand-up comic Akmal Saleh and Greek-Australian actor Nick Giannopoulos . Since

14760-428: Was marked by an influx of Europeans who broadened the nation's vision. The Hawaiian sport of surfing was adopted in Australia where a beach culture and the locally developed surf lifesaving movement was already burgeoning in the early 20th century. American pop culture and cinema were embraced in the 20th century, with country music and later rock and roll sweeping Australia, aided by the new technology of television and

14883-553: Was officially proclaimed as the national floral emblem in 1988. Reflecting the country's status as a constitutional monarchy , the Crown remains part of Australian public life, maintaining a visual presence through federal and state coats of arms, charitable and cultural patronage , the names and symbols of public institutions and the governor-general and state governors, who are the monarch's representatives on Australian soil. Some Australian banknotes and all coins bear an image of

15006-453: Was punishable by increasing fines of 5, 15 and 30 pounds, with serial offenders liable to be sentenced to imprisonment. Licence inspections, treated as a great sport and "carried out in the style of an English fox-hunt" by mounted officials, known to the miners by the warning call "Traps" or "Joes", were henceforth able to take place at any time without notice. The latter sobriquet was a reference to La Trobe, whose proclamations posted around

15129-478: Was to be disease and its ally, demoralization." Calls for responsible government began to develop; William Wentworth established Australia's first political party in 1835 to demand democratic government for New South Wales and later was central in the establishment of Australia's first parliament . From the 1850s, the colonies set about writing constitutions which produced democratically advanced parliaments as constitutional monarchies with Queen Victoria as

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