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106-466: The toponym Gallapi is connected to the ancient Dardanian tribe Galabri . The Gollak region consists mainly of forests and pastures, and the altitudes vary between 800m-1260m above sea level. The climate of the region is influenced by continental air masses, and so Gollak has cold winters and hot summers. The temperature averages at 12.6 degrees Celsius, and the average sub-zero temperature stands at -5.8 degrees Celsius. Gollak's total annual precipitation

212-716: A Daunian tribe, Derdensis a region and Δαρδανον , a Daunian settlement. The suffix -ano in Dard- was common to many Indo-European languages. The names of the two main Dardanian tribes – Galabri/Galabrioi and Thunatae/Thunatai – have been respectively connected to the Messapic Kalabroi/Calabri and Daunioi/Daunii in Apulia (south-eastern Italy ), of Palaeo-Balkan provenance. The name Dardan- (ethnonym: Δάρδανοι / Dardani ; toponym: Δαρδανική / Dardania )

318-537: A pitch accent . In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ ( iotacism ). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives , and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent . Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in

424-518: A characteristic Albanian phonetic change in which the voiced palatal velar *ĝ(h)- turned into the interdental dh or the dental d , passing through intermediate stages represented by the palato-alveolar affricate voiced ȷ́ [dʑ], dental affricate dz and further through a final stage dð (i.e. *ĝ(h)- > ȷ́ [dʑ] > dz > dð > dh/d : Alb. dielli < PAlb. *dðiella < *dziella- < EPAlb. *ȷ́élu̯a- < PIE *ǵʰélh₃u̯o- "yellow, golden, bright/shiny"). This phenomenon reflects

530-406: A common Indo-European root has been tentatively reconstructed by scholars: * ĝʰor-d- "thorn bush"; * (n)ĝʰ∂rdis ; * ĝʰerzd⁽ʰ⁾- "thorny, grain, barley". However it has been suggested that this connection is only conceivable assuming an ancient common Balkano-Aegean substrate word for Albanian and Greek. A proposed Indo-European root * dʰeregh- "a thorny plant", with

636-782: A great victory over the Macedonian army the Dardani invaded Macedon proper. The Dardanian expansion in Macedon, similar to the Ardiaean expansion in Epirus around the same years, may have been part of a general movement among the Illyrian peoples. In this period Dardanian influence on the region grew and some other Illyrian tribes deserted Teuta , joining the Dardani under Longarus and forcing Teuta to call off her expedition forces in Epirus. When Philip V rose to

742-472: A lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek , but its relationship to the historical dialects and

848-419: A lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek , spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in

954-657: A mythological tradition reported by Appian (2nd century AD), Dardanos (Δάρδανος), one of the sons of Illyrius (Ἰλλυριός), was the eponymous ancestor of the Dardanoi (Δάρδανοι). In ancient sources the Dardani are mentioned as one of the Illyrian people and/or as a distinct grouping in the region of Dardania. As such, the Dardani were Illyrians from an ethno-linguistic perspective, but they had followed their own peculiar geographical, social and political development in Dardania . In

1060-543: A prefix /e-/, called the augment . This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment

1166-671: A separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek , and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek , and Koine may be classified as Ancient Greek in a wider sense. There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language , divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic , Aeolic , Arcadocypriot , and Doric , many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature , while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek

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1272-694: A similar letter, instead of /d/, is refutable by the attestation of the Proto-Albanoid term diellina " henbane ". This term was mentioned as a "Thracian-Dacian" phytonym by the Ancient Greek pharmacologist Pedanius Dioscorides (1st century AD), and it has a clear etymological connection with the Albanian word diell "sun" ( diellina " henbane " belongs to the genus called solanum with the Latin root sol "sun", being so named because of its yellow leaves), displaying

1378-609: A standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance . This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period ( c.  300 BC ), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek , which is regarded as

1484-510: A vowel or /n s r/ ; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek . Ancient Greek had long and short vowels ; many diphthongs ; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops ; and

1590-463: A war which proved catastrophic, with a few years later, in 170 BC, the Macedonians defeating the Dardani. Macedonia and Illyria became Roman protectorates in 168 BC. The Scordisci , a tribe of Celtic origin, most likely subdued the Dardani in the mid-2nd century BC, after which there was no mention of the Dardani for a long time. Illyria and Macedonia became Roman protectorates in 168 BC. In 97 BC,

1696-432: Is 667mm/year. There is a diverse range of flora and vegetation due to the diversity present within the climate, the mountainous environment and the compositions of both soil and geology in the region - the variance between altitudes and the variation of other ecological factors have culminated in different vegetation zones upon Gollak's vertical profile, which is characterised by forest and herbaceous plant communities. There

1802-556: Is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey , and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of

1908-418: Is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r , however, add er ). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei . The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w , which affected

2014-644: Is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian Greek had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, as exemplified in the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar who wrote in Doric with a small Aeolic admixture. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to

2120-660: Is close to onomatopoeic Lithuanian dardĕti "to rattle" Latvian dàrdêt "to creak", Welsh go-dyrddu "to mumble, to gumble" (the semantic development of "pear" that occurs in Albanian can also be seen in the Slavic parallel gruša , kruša "pear, pear tree" < * grušiti , * krušiti "to crumble, to break", and also in the Indo-European parallel * peisom "pear" < * peis- ). Slavic toponyms with "Kruševo" (from Proto-Slavic kruša, "pear") and other related toponyms particularly found in

2226-448: Is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek . Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian ) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ). Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics , ancient Greek words could end only in

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2332-524: Is far from certain there seems little doubt that most of the Dardanians were excluded from Illyricum and were to become a part of the province of Moesia) The assumption that the Dardanian kingdom was composed of a considerable number of tribes and tribal groups, finds confirmation in Strabo's statement about Whether the Dardanians were an Illyrian or a Thracian people has been much debated and one view suggests that

2438-459: Is mentioned in ancient sources describing the events of the region of the early 3rd century BC. He offered the Macedonian king Ptolemy Ceraunos 20,000 soldiers to counteract the invading Celts , but Ceraunos declined the offer. Tribal chiefs Longarus and his son Bato took part in the wars against Romans and Macedonians . Etuta (Etleva) was the daughter of Monunius II of Dardania and

2544-546: Is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek ( c.  1400–1200 BC ), Dark Ages ( c.  1200–800 BC ), the Archaic or Epic period ( c.  800–500 BC ), and the Classical period ( c.  500–300 BC ). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers . It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been

2650-578: Is recorded as Darda in a 1671 ecclesiastical report and on a 1688 map by a Venetian cartographer. Dardha is also the name of an Albanian tribe in the northern part of the District of Dibra . Opinions differ on the etymon of the root in Proto-Albanian , and eventually in Proto-Indo-European . On the basis of an alleged connection between Albanian dardhë and Greek ἄχερδος, ἀχράς "wild pear",

2756-595: Is traditionally connected to the same root as dardhë , the Albanian word for 'pear', as well as Alb. dardhán , dardán , 'farmer'. The ethnonym Pirustae , which is attested since Roman times for a tribe close to the Dardani or living in Dardania, is considered to be the Latin translation of Dardani (cf. Latin pirus "pear"), which would confirm the link with the Albanian dardhë . In 1854, Johann Georg von Hahn

2862-524: The Battle of Slivova occurred at the time. It was one of the regions that had a strong role in the theme of Albanian independence and was a vital part of its foundation. Gollak and Llap rebelled against the Ottomans in the Albanian revolt of 1910 with 10,000 men. In the Albanian revolt of 1912 , 12,000 Albanian rebels gathered outside of Pristina in order to occupy the town. Within this group were Albanians from

2968-734: The Dardani has been attested in ancient Greek literature as Dardaneis , Dardanioi and Dardanoi , and in Latin as Dardani . The term used for their territory was Dardanike ( Δαρδανική ). The root Dard- is attested outside the Dardanian region and the Trojan-Dardanian area in several other ancient ethnonyms, personal names, and toponyms: Dardas , an opraetor epiratrum ; Δερδιενις , name of Macedonian-Elimiot princes; Δερδια in Thessaly ; Δερδενις in Lesbos ; in ancient Apulia Dardi ,

3074-693: The Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian , such as the Pella curse tablet , as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet , Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect , which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly . Some have also suggested an Aeolic Greek classification. The Lesbian dialect

3180-559: The illyrian queen of Ardiaei . Some scholars believe that Illyrian rulers Bardylis , Audata , Cleitus (son of Bardylis), Bardylis II , Bircenna (daughter of Bardylis II), and Monunios were Dardanian, however this is considered an old fallacy because it is unsupported by any ancient source, while some facts and ancient geographical locations go squarely against it. Nevertheless, Bardylis , if not Dardanian, probably had some kind of hegemony on Dardanians during his reign. Unlike their Thracian neighbors, in pre-Roman times

3286-501: The present , future , and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist , present perfect , pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)

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3392-586: The wind and string type. the Dardanians ... living in the frontiers of the Illyrian and the Thracian worlds retained their individuality and, alone among the peoples of that region, succeeded in maintaining themselves as an ethnic unity even when they were militarily and politically subjected by the Roman arms [...] and when, towards the end of the ancient world, the Balkans were involved in far-reaching ethnic perturbations,

3498-428: The "land of Autariatae ." The term was used to describe the Dardanian political status as a semi-independent country in the later Roman Republic . Little data exists about the territory of the Dardani prior to Roman conquest, especially on its southern extent which has been contested with Macedon, so scholars use information provided in Roman times to define the bounds of Dardanian territory. An unnamed Dardanian king

3604-608: The 15th century the Albanian toponym Guribard was recorded in the region, which indicates an Albanian presence. Gollak at the time was located in the Sanjak of Viçitrina . In the may of 1834 there was an Albanian revolt in Gollak. In the 1877-1878 expulsion of the Albanians from the Sanjak of Niš , many muhaxhirs settled in Gollak. During the League of Prizren there were revolts in Gollak, notably

3710-478: The 2010s, also taking into consideration current Balkan historical linguistics. Dana concludes that the Illyrian character of Dardanian onomastics is unquestionable and that it is appropriate to definitively rule out the idea of a Thracian origin or participation (at least appreciable) in the ethnogenesis of the Dardani. Since the Dardani were neighbored to the east by the Thracians, the eastern parts of Dardania were at

3816-1031: The 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. /oː/ raised to [uː] , probably by the 4th century BC. Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages , is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and vocative ), three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter ), and three numbers (singular, dual , and plural ). Verbs have four moods ( indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and optative ) and three voices (active, middle, and passive ), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):

3922-426: The 6th century), there was a Byzantine province of Dardania that included cities of Ulpiana , Scupi , Justiniana Prima , and others. A Dardanian polity began to develop from the 4th century BC. The Kingdom of Dardania was attested since the 4th century BC in ancient sources reporting the wars the Dardanians waged against their south-eastern neighbor – Macedon – until the 2nd century BC. The Dardanian kingdom

4028-490: The Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from

4134-648: The Balkan-Danubian complex. It dates between the 14th and 10th centuries BCE, and appears in Kosovo, Morava valley, Sandzak, Macedonia and South-East Serbia. In Yugoslavian historiography, starting from Milutin Garašanin in the 1970s and 1980s, the Brnjica culture came to be interpreted as the " Daco-Moesian " and non-" Illyrian " linguistic component of the later Dardani. Before that change, Yugoslavian scholars had regarded

4240-456: The Balkans and Anatolia, respectively include: Eneti and Enetoi , Bryges and Phryges . These parallels indicate closer links than simply a correlation of names. According to a current explanation, the connection is likely related to the large-scale movement of peoples that occurred at the end of the Bronze Age (around 1200 BC), when the attacks of the ' Sea Peoples ' afflicted some of

4346-412: The Dardani actually lost independence in 28 BC thus, the final occupation of Dardania by Rome has been connected with the beginnings of Augustus ' rule in 6 AD, when they were finally conquered by Rome. Dardania was conquered by Gaius Scribonius Curio and the Latin language was soon adopted as the main language of the tribe as many other conquered and Romanized. After the Roman emperor Domitian divided

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4452-697: The Dardani are mentioned again, defeated by the Macedonian Roman army. In 88 BC, the Dardani invaded the Roman province of Macedonia together with the Scordisci and the Maedi . The Romans found an ancient formed economy in Dardania, based on agriculture and animal husbandry, mining and metallurgy, in different handicrafts and in trade. The Romans focused especially in exploitation of mines, same as in other provinces, and in road construction. It seems quite probable that

4558-481: The Dardani as of Illyrian origin. The narrative of a distinct "Daco-Moesian" concept developed as a response to Albanian and Bulgarian researchers, and especially to changes inside Yugoslavia due to increasing local nationalisms. In Dardania tribal aristocracy and pre-urban development emerged from the 6th–5th centuries BC. The contacts of the Dardanians with the Mediterranean world began early and intensified during

4664-503: The Dardani were located in southern Moesia Superior. A Roman colony was established at Scupi in Dardanian territory under the Flavian dynasty . In the 2nd century AD Dardanians were still notorious as brigands ( latrones dardaniae) . During the late Imperial period their territory was the homeland of many Roman emperors , notably Constantine the Great and Justinian I . The ethnonym of

4770-567: The Dardani were not Hellenized. From the Greek point of view, they were barbarians. Because of this prejudice they received some bad press in the Ancient Greek and Roman historiography. The tribe was viewed of as "extremely barbaric". Claudius Aelianus and other writers wrote that they bathed only three times in their lives. At birth, when they were wed and after they died. Strabo refers to them as wild and dwelling in dirty caves under dung-hills. This however may have had to do not with cleanliness, as bathing had to do with monetary status from

4876-514: The Dardanian language area in the Central Illyrian area ( "Central Illyrian" consisting of most of former Yugoslavia, north of southern Montenegro to the west of Morava, excepting ancient Liburnia in the northwest, but perhaps extending into Pannonia in the north). Another extensive study based on onomastics in Thrace, eastern Macedonia, Moesia, Dacia and Bithynia has been carried out by Dan Dana in

4982-538: The Dardanian perception of the cosmic order and the interconnection between the material world and the higher realm. Dardanian funerary stelae portray representations of their mourning practice, which accurately mirrors the Albanian traditional lamentation of the dead – gjâma . The lamentation of the dead is represented on the stelae through the depiction of the mourners with raised hands, grabbing their heads and beating their chests. Strabo writes that Dardanians cared about music, always using musical instruments, both of

5088-625: The Dardanians, of all the Central Balkan tribes, played the greatest part in the genesis of the new peoples who took the place of the old ... Autariatae at the expense of the Triballi until, as Strabo remarks, they in their turn were overcome by the Celtic Scordisci in the early third century Here the old name of Dardania appears as a new province formed out of Moesia, along with Moesia Prima, Dacia (not Trajan's old province but a... Though its line

5194-429: The Gollak region. Dardani The Dardani ( / ˈ d ɑːr d ə n aɪ / ; Ancient Greek : Δαρδάνιοι, Δάρδανοι ; Latin : Dardani ) or Dardanians were a Paleo-Balkan people, who lived in a region that was named Dardania after their settlement there. They were among the oldest Balkan peoples, and their society was very complex. The Dardani were the most stable and conservative ethnic element among

5300-556: The Illyrian and Amynander king of Athamania, cooperated with Roman consul Sulpicius in his expedition against Philip V. Being always under the menace of Dardanian attacks on Macedonia, around 183 BC Philip V made an alliance with the Bastarnae and invited them to settle in Polog, the region of Dardania closest to Macedonia. A joint campaign of the Bastarnae and Macedonians against the Dardanians

5406-585: The Iron Age habitation further developed with the emergence of the Glasinac-Mat culture , an Illyrian material culture which developed in the Iron Age western Balkans. The Dardani - as they became known in classical antiquity - were one of the particular groups of the Glasinac-Mat culture. The Brnjica cultural group was a Late Bronze Age cultural manifestation in what was to become Dardania, closely connected to

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5512-508: The Iron Age. Trade connections with the Ancient Greek world were created from the 7th century BC onwards. The proto-urban development was followed by the creation of urban centers and the emergence of craftsmanship, and a Dardanian polity began to develop from the 4th century BC. Material culture and accounts in classical sources suggest that Dardanian society reached an advanced phase of development. The Dardani are referred to as one of

5618-494: The Linguistic Society of America . 9 (1). Linguistic Society of America : 5681. doi : 10.3765/plsa.v9i1.5681 . [REDACTED] Media related to Dardani (Balkans) at Wikimedia Commons Ancient Greek language Ancient Greek ( Ἑλληνῐκή , Hellēnikḗ ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː] ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It

5724-500: The Macedonian kings, refers to an 'lllyrian war' between 346 and the end of 343 BC, fought by 'Dardani and other neighbouring peoples' against Philip II of Macedon , who won the conflict. After the Celtic invasion of the Balkans weakened the state of the Macedonians and Paeonians , the political and military role of the Dardanians began to grow in the region. They expanded their state to

5830-418: The Macedonian throne, skirmishing with Dardani began in 220-219 BC and he managed to capture Bylazora from them in 217 BC. Skirmishes continued in 211 and in 209 when a force of Dardani under Aeropus, probably a pretender to the Macedonian throne, captured Lychnidus and looted Macedonia taking 20.000 prisoners and retreating before Philip's forces could reach them. In 201 Bato of Dardania along with Pleuratus

5936-497: The Macedonian throne. Indeed, the Dardani have not been mentioned in the ancient accounts concerning the events of Alexander's Balkan campaign . It appears that the Dardani evaded the Macedonian rule during the Wars of the Diadochi between 284 BC and 281 BC, at the time of Lysimachus 'empire. Thereafter the Dardani became a constant threat to Macedon on its northern borders. In 279 BC, at

6042-523: The Neolithic population and the PIE-speakers gave rise to the material culture which developed in the Bronze Age (2100-1100 BCE) in settlements including Vlashnjë, Korishë, Pogragjë, Bardhi i Madh and Topanicë. Archaeological research in the territory of Dardania greatly expanded since 2000. In contemporary research, a periodization of four phases of development of pre-Roman Dardania is being utilized: In

6148-517: The PIE root *dhereĝh- "to hold", "strong", which would have evolved to dard- in consistency with the phonetic change of voiced palatal velars that are a characteristic trait of Albanian. The opinion criticising the etymologies based on roots that originally included *g̑h because in the earliest form of Albanian PIE *g̑h turned into *dʑ and correspondingly later into *dz , which should have been spelled in Greek/Latin documents with /z/, /s/, or

6254-480: The Proto-Albanian form reconstructed as * dʰorĝʰ-eh₂- , is not clear. More recently for the Albanian dardhë the Proto-Albanian * dardā has been reconstructed, itself a derivative of derdh "to tip out, pour, spill, secrete, cast (metals)" < PAlb * derda . In Old Albanian texts the root is recorded not umlautized : dardh . It continues Proto-Albanian * darda , which

6360-463: The Roman period in Dardania. A monument representing a round labyrinth that was dedicated to the "Dardanian Goddess" was found in Smira. This monument provides evidence for cosmogonic and cosmologic knowledges among the Dardani. The labyrinth was realized based on the concept of the trinity . There is used a numerological and geometric approach through a multidimensional holographic field, which illustrates

6466-496: The Thraco-Illyrian contact zone. As shown by archaeological research Illyrian names are predominant in western Dardania (present-day Kosovo), and occasionally appear in eastern Dardania (present-day south-eastern Serbia), while Thracian names are found in the eastern parts, but are absent from the western parts. The correspondence of Illyrian onomastics in Dardania – including those of the Dardanian ruling dynasty – with those of

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6572-550: The aorist. Following Homer 's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry , especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (A few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has

6678-445: The area of Paeonia which definitively disappeared from history, and to some territories of the southern Illyrians. The Dardanians strongly pressured the Macedonians, using every opportunity to attack them. However the Macedonians quickly recovered and consolidated their state, and the Dardanians lost their important political role. The strengthening of the Illyrian ( Ardiaean – Labeatan ) state on their western borders also contributed to

6784-736: The area of the ancient Dardani have been proposed as South Slavic translations of Darda- toponyms. Other roots have been connected to the name Dardan- by some scholars. It has been proposed a possible link to darda "bee", maybe originally with the meaning of "noise", "chatter", compared with Sanskrit dardurá- "frog", "pipe", Lithuanian dardėt́i "to rattle", "chatter" (which however is regarded by Orel as an onomatopoeic form connected to Albanian derdh , hence to dardhë , see above), Gkreek δάρδα · μέλισσα "bee", sometimes interpreted as μόλυσμα "stain", δαρδαίνει · μολύνει "to stain", both late antique attestations from Hesychius (5th century CE) and with aberrant semantics. Another link has been made with

6890-403: The area was originally populated with Thracians who then exposed to direct contact with Illyrians over a long period. [..] The meaning of this state of affairs has been variously interpreted, ranging from notions of Thracianization' (in part) of an existing Illyrian population to the precise opposite. In favour of the latter may be the close correspondence of Illyrian names in Dardania with those of

6996-419: The augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσ έ βαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐ τομόλησα in

7102-438: The center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is: West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West

7208-471: The central and southern coast of the eastern Adriatic Sea and its hinterland, who had constituted their own socio-political formation, referred to as ' Illyrian kingdom ' by ancient authors. The Dardani were also related to their Thracian neighbors. In Roman times, there appear Thracian names in the eastern strip of Dardania, and several Thracian and Dacian placenames also appear there, such as Dardapara and Quemedava , but Illyrian names dominated

7314-512: The central-western Balkans including the historical regions of Dardania, Illyria proper, Paeonia, Upper Moesia, western Dacia and western Thrace. The name of the Dardani is mentioned for the first time in the Iliad in the name of Dardanus who founded Dardanus on the Aegean coast of Anatolia and his people the Dardanoi , from which the toponym Dardanelles is derived. Other parallel ethnic names in

7420-430: The context of a distinct language is considered in recent decades as potentially significant for the history of the Albanian language . Graves from the 6th and 5th centuries BCE in Romajë contain long iron bars which were placed in the tombs are a means of payment to the afterlife. They indicate that the tribe of the Dardani had developed a concept about the afterlife as shown later in other archaeological material like

7526-402: The death of Augustus, their name in connection to the Balkans became a political problem. After the death of Augustus, the new emperor was Tiberius , his stepson and the most senior Roman general in the Balkans. As Tiberius had played a key role in the Roman conquest of the Balkans, as emperor he couldn't be portrayed as the conqueror of Dardanians , whose name had been constructed as the name of

7632-563: The dialect of Sparta ), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian ). All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek , but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of

7738-732: The district of Pristina, led by Isa Boletini , Xhemal bey Pristina and Beqir aga Vushtrria, and they had previously defeated the Ottoman Turks in Llap and Gollak. Idriz Seferi saw much action in the Gollak region. In 1920 and 1921 there were Albanian revolts in the region of Gollak. During the German occupation of Kosovo in World War II, three Albanian villages were burnt down by German forces on 3 May 1941. There are around 70 villages in Gollak. It mainly consists of small rural settlements. Albanians form

7844-539: The dominant ethnic group in the region. Both Upper and Lower Gollak contain the main villages of the Albanian Krasniqi tribe within the vicinity of Pristina , and they form the dominant tribe in the region. As any ethnographic region, Gollak has unique aspects in both culture and language. Certain words - such as Lavesh-i (the extreme ends of the tirq), Mashali-a (an old type of gun) and Toja e opangës (laces made of wool to tie up opinga) - are found only within

7950-460: The established powers around the eastern Mediterranean . In ancient historiography, the Dardani of the Balkans are mentioned as a people in the second century BCE by Polybius who describes their wars against Macedon in the third century BC. Historians of Hellenistic and Roman antiquity who mention the Dardanians are Diodorus Siculus , Marcus Terentius Varro , Strabo , Sallust , Appian , Dionysius of Halicarnassus and others. According to

8056-556: The historical Dorians . The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from

8162-472: The historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions —and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to

8268-573: The late 1st century BCE, in Rome a new ideological discourse was formed. Propagated by poets like Horace and Ovid , it constructed a glorious Trojan past for the Romans, who were claimed to be descendants of Trojan Dardanians. In the years before the Trojan origin story became the official Roman narrative about their origins, the Romans came into conflict in the Balkans with the Dardani. In public discourse this created

8374-409: The mythical progenitors of the Romans. Thus, the decision to create a new name for Dardania and the Dardani was made. Despite this decision and the administrative use of the names Moesia and Moesi for the Dardani and Dardania , the original use of the name persisted by authors like Appian. The name Dardania was not used for several hundred years after this period in an administrative context. It

8480-499: The older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language , which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek . By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek . Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia , which

8586-449: The opponents of Macedon in the 4th century BC, clashing with Philip II who managed to subdue them and their neighbors, probably during the early period of his reign. The Dardani have remained quiet until Philip II's death, after which they were planning defection . However an open war have not been caused by their riots, since Alexander the Great managed to have the full control of the kingdom and its army after succeeding his father to

8692-510: The oracle of Delphi the Celts eventually arrested and were defeated. Afterwards they withdrew in the north passing through Dardania, however they were completely destroyed by the Dardani. Further references to the Dardani are provided in the ancient sources describing Dardanian constant wars against Macedonians from the second half of the 3rd century BC. After the Celtic invasion of the Balkans weakened

8798-626: The peoples of the central Balkans, retaining an enduring presence in the region for several centuries. Ancient tradition considered the Dardani as an Illyrian people . Strabo , in particular – also mentioning Galabri and Thunatae as Dardanian tribes – describes the Dardani as one of the three strongest Illyrian peoples, the other two being the Ardiaei and Autariatae . As Dardanians had followed their own peculiar geographical, social and political development in Dardania , some ancient sources also distinguish them from those Illyrians dwelling in

8904-487: The perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) because it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i . A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs. The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing ( c.  1450 BC ) are in

9010-645: The period after the death of Emperor Augustus in 14 CE. The name itself was taken from the name of the Mysians in Asia Minor. The choice seems to be related to the fact that the Trojan-era Mysians lived close to the Trojan-era Dardanians. As the name of the Dardani in Roman discourse became linked to the ancestors of the Romans, the actual Dardani began to be covered in Roman literature by other names. After

9116-514: The predominant families being rosaceae , asteraceae , lamiaceae and alliaceae . Approximately two thirds of the medicinal species recorded were wild. The majority of the wild plants collected within the Gollak region are used for medicinal purposes, whilst 16% were used for food and some other taxa were gathered to be sold at local markets. The most frequent medical problems targeted by these medicinal plants were respiratory system illnesses, skin inflammations and gastrointestinal troubles. In

9222-473: The problem that the Roman army could be seen as fighting against a people who could be related to the ancestors of the Romans. The image of the historical Dardani in the 1st century BC was that of Illyrian barbarians who raided their Macedonian frontier and had to be dealt with. In this context, the name of a people known as the Moesi appeared in Roman sources. The Moesi are mentioned only in three ancient sources in

9328-459: The province of Moesia into Moesia Superior and Moesia Inferior in 86 AD, the Dardani were located in southern Moesia Superior. At first, Dardania was not a separate Roman province, but became a region in the province of Moesia Superior in 87 AD. Emperor Diocletian later (284) made Dardania into a separate province with its capital at Naissus ( Niš ). During the Byzantine administration (in

9434-413: The rest. Nevertheless, ancient authors have not identified Dardanians with Thracians, and Strabo explicitly makes a clear distinction between them. The Kingdom of Dardania was attested since the 4th century BC in ancient sources reporting the wars the Dardanians waged against their south-eastern neighbor – Macedon – until the 2nd century BC. The historian Justin , a main source about the history of

9540-403: The restriction of Dardanian warlike actions towards their neighbors. Dardanians fought against Roman proconsuls, and were finally defeated probably by Marcus Antonius in 39 BC or by Marcus Licinius Crassus in 29/8 BC. They were included in the Roman province of Moesia . After the Roman emperor Domitian divided the province of Moesia into Moesia Superior and Moesia Inferior in 86 AD,

9646-806: The same root as dardhë have been attested: Dardhan-i (in 1467 CE), Dardhanesh-i (1431), Dardhasi (1431), Dardas (1467), Dardhë-a (1417), Darda , Dardhicë-a (1431). Several modern toponyms are found in various parts of Albania , including Dardha in Berat , Dardha in Korça , Dardha in Librazhd , Dardha in Puka , Dardhas in Pogradec , Dardhaj in Mirdita , and Dardhës in Përmet . Dardha in Puka

9752-435: The southern 'real' lllyrians to their west, including the names of Dardanian rulers, Longarus, Bato, Monunius and Etuta, and those on later epitaphs, Epicadus, Scerviaedus, Tuta, Times and Cinna. ... including the names of Dardanian rulers, Longarus, Bato, Monunius and Etuta, and those on later epitaphs, Epicadus, Scerviaedus, Tuta, Times and Cinna. Other Dardanian names are linked with... There must have been some reason why it

9858-423: The southern Illyrians suggests "thracianization" of parts of Dardania at a later date. The linguistic relationship between ' Illyrian ' and ' Thracian ' is uncertain due to the paucity of the available written material of those languages, consisting only of onomastic and toponymic evidence in the case of Illyrian, and the same for Thracian except for a few short inscriptions of difficult interpretation. Dardanian in

9964-499: The state of the Macedonians and Paeonians , the political and military role of the Dardanians began to grow in the region. They expanded their state to the area of Paeonia which definitively disappeared from history. In 230 the Dardani under Longarus captured Bylazora from the Paeonians. Taking advantage of Macedonian weakness, in 229 the Dardani attacked Macedonia and defeated Demetrius II in an important battle. After obtaining

10070-517: The syllabic script Linear B . Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks , interword spacing , modern punctuation , and sometimes mixed case , but these were all introduced later. The beginning of Homer 's Iliad exemplifies

10176-438: The times of the great Celtic invasion , Dardania was raided by several Celtic tribes on their campaigns that were undertaken to plunder the treasuries of Greek temples. During these events an unnamed Dardanian king offered to help the Macedonians with 20,000 soldiers to counteract the invading Celts, but it was refused by the Macedonian king Ptolemy Keraunos who, underestimating the Celtic strength, died fighting them. Only at

10282-485: The uncertainty of the Ancient Greek and Roman authors in transcribing the Proto-Albanian affricates, which were unfamiliar to them. Indeed, many similar examples of Palaeo-Balkan names with alternating spellings in ancient literature using both dentals and sibilants can be connected to an earlier stage of Albanian and furthermore provide strong support for Eric Hamp 's thesis about the Proto- Albanoid dialects, spoken in

10388-455: The viewpoint of the Greeks . Dardanian slaves or freedmen at the time of the Roman conquest were clearly of Paleo-Balkan origin, according to their personal names. It has been noted that personal names were mostly of the "Central-Dalmatian type". The Dardanians had their own language. An extensive study based on onomastics of the Roman era has been undertaken by Radoslav Katičić which puts

10494-444: The votive monument of Smirë . The weapons included double-edged axes ( Labrys ), which might have been used in a ritualistic manner related to sun worship which was prevalent in the northern Illyrian tribes Among the characteristic Dardanian deities were Andinus , considered to have been the indigenous god of vegetation and soil fertility , and Dea Dardanica ("Dardanian Goddess"). They are attested in votive inscriptions of

10600-475: Was Aeolic. For example, fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos are in Aeolian. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric ), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian ,

10706-542: Was an ethnobotanical field study conducted in 37 villages of the Gollak region that focused on the traditional uses of medicinal plants , wild food plants and mushrooms. In total, 66 elderly members of these villages were interviewed - from this information, it was discovered that 98 taxa (belonging to 47 different families ) are utilized in the traditional medicines and foods of the region. These taxa included 92 angiosperms (of which 76 are dicotyledonous and 6 monocotyledons ), 6 mushroom species and 3 gymnosperms , with

10812-624: Was made up of many tribes and tribal groups, confirmed by Strabo , who mentions the Galabri and Thunatae as Dardanian tribes, and describes the Dardani as one of the three strongest Illyrian peoples, the other two being the Ardiaei and Autariatae . The Dardanians, in all their history, always had separate domains from the rest of the Illyrians . The term used for their territory was ( Δαρδανική ), while other tribal areas had more unspecified terms, such as Autariaton khora ( Αὐταριατῶν χώρα ), for

10918-619: Was only recreated by Emperor Diocletian in the 3rd century CE. The territory of present-day Kosovo which formed the core area of the Dardani has been inhabited since the Neolithic era . Runik and Vlashnjë are two of the most significant sites in the Neolithic period. During the late 3rd millennium BCE, Proto-Indo-European tribes migrated and settled in the region alongside the existing Neolithic population. New practices in agriculture and cattle breeding appear in this period and new settlements formed in Kosovo. Co-existence and intermingling of

11024-454: Was organized, but Philip V died and his son Perseus of Macedon withdrew his forces from the campaign. The Bastarnae crossed the Danube in huge numbers and although they didn't meet the Macedonians, they continued the campaign. Some 30,000 Bastarnae under the command of Clondicus seem to have defeated the Dardani. In 179 BC, the Bastarnae conquered the Dardani, who later in 174 pushed them out, in

11130-505: Was said of the Dardanians, and not of any other people, that they only bathed three times in their lives ...like the Dardanians', which was applied not to dirty folk, as might be expected, but to the miserly (ἐπὶ τῶν φειδωλῶν)! For the Greeks, obviously, to bathe or not was only a question of expense and financial means. Joseph, Brian D.; Dedvukaj, Lindon (2024). "Turning night into day: Milieu and semantic change in Albanian" . Proceedings of

11236-458: Was the first to propose that the names Dardanoi and Dardania were related to the Albanian word dardhë ("pear, pear-tree"). This is suggested by the fact that toponyms related to fruits or animals are not unknown in the region (cf. Alb. dele, delmë "sheep" supposedly related to Dalmatia, Ulcinj in Montenegro < Alb. ujk, ulk "wolf" etc.). Albanian typical toponyms formed with

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