104-630: Glengowla Mines is a "show mine" dedicated to the lead and silver mining history of Glengowla and the Oughterard area. Mining at Glengowla began in 1851, after a farmer discovered galena just under the soil surface. The first mine shaft was named after a Captain Paul. The mine was in operation until 1865, eventually measuring 40 metres deep and 200 feet wide. The main mining centred on silver and lead, though Connemara marble , gold , dolerite , quartz , and rare green and blue octahedral fluorite . The site
208-640: A pipe threader . It remains in common use for repair of existing "galv" systems and to satisfy building code non-combustibility requirements typically found in hotels, apartment buildings and other commercial applications. It is also extremely durable and resistant to mechanical abuse. Black lacquered steel pipe is the most widely used pipe material for fire sprinklers and natural gas. Most typical single family home systems will not require supply piping larger than 3 ⁄ 4 inch (19 mm) due to expense as well as steel piping's tendency to become obstructed from internal rusting and mineral deposits forming on
312-738: A building's plumbing system. They are considered to be "fixtures", in that they are semi-permanent parts of buildings, not usually owned or maintained separately. Plumbing fixtures are seen by and designed for the end-users . Some examples of fixtures include water closets (also known as toilets ), urinals , bidets , showers , bathtubs , utility and kitchen sinks , drinking fountains , ice makers , humidifiers, air washers , fountains , and eye wash stations. Threaded pipe joints are sealed with thread seal tape or pipe dope . Many plumbing fixtures are sealed to their mounting surfaces with plumber's putty . Plumbing equipment includes devices often behind walls or in utility spaces which are not seen by
416-570: A copper waste pipe. The word "plumber" dates from the Roman Empire . The Latin for lead is plumbum . Roman roofs used lead in conduits and drain pipes and some were also covered with lead. Lead was also used for piping and for making baths. Plumbing reached its early apex in ancient Rome , which saw the introduction of expansive systems of aqueducts , tile wastewater removal, and widespread use of lead pipes . The Romans used lead pipe inscriptions to prevent water theft . With
520-547: A decade ago. This has led to an increase in plumbing regulatory issues not covered under current policy, and as such, many policies are currently being updated to cover these more modern issues. The updates include changed to the minimum experience and training requirements for licensing, additional work standards for new and more specific kinds of plumbing, as well as adopting the Plumbing Code of Australia into state regulations in an effort to standardise plumbing regulations across
624-433: A density of 11.34 g/cm , which is greater than that of common metals such as iron (7.87 g/cm ), copper (8.93 g/cm ), and zinc (7.14 g/cm ). This density is the origin of the idiom to go over like a lead balloon . Some rarer metals are denser: tungsten and gold are both at 19.3 g/cm , and osmium —the densest metal known—has a density of 22.59 g/cm , almost twice that of lead. Lead
728-492: A few radioactive isotopes. One of them is lead-210; although it has a half-life of only 22.2 years, small quantities occur in nature because lead-210 is produced by a long decay series that starts with uranium-238 (that has been present for billions of years on Earth). Lead-211, −212, and −214 are present in the decay chains of uranium-235, thorium-232, and uranium-238, respectively, so traces of all three of these lead isotopes are found naturally. Minute traces of lead-209 arise from
832-565: A heavy duty pumper truck designed to vacuum raw sewage. Bacteria have been shown to live in "premises plumbing systems". The latter refers to the "pipes and fixtures within a building that transport water to taps after it is delivered by the utility". Community water systems have been known for centuries to spread waterborne diseases like typhoid and cholera. However, "opportunistic premises plumbing pathogens" have been recognized only more recently: Legionella pneumophila , discovered in 1976, Mycobacterium avium , and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are
936-429: A layer of plaque prevented the water contacting the lead itself. What often causes confusion is the large amount of evidence of widespread lead poisoning, particularly amongst those who would have had easy access to piped water, an unfortunate result of lead being used in cookware and as an additive to processed food and drink (for example as a preservative in wine). Roman lead pipe inscriptions provided information on
1040-457: A method to plasticize PVC, making it easier to process. PVC pipe began to be manufactured in the 1940s and was in wide use for Drain-Waste-Vent piping during the reconstruction of Germany and Japan following WWII. In the 1950s, plastics manufacturers in Western Europe and Japan began producing acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) pipe. The method for producing cross-linked polyethylene (PEX)
1144-558: A neutron and become thallium-204; this undergoes beta decay to give stable lead-204; on capturing another neutron, it becomes lead-205, which has a half-life of around 17 million years. Further captures result in lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208. On capturing another neutron, lead-208 becomes lead-209, which quickly decays into bismuth-209. On capturing another neutron, bismuth-209 becomes bismuth-210, and this beta decays to polonium-210, which alpha decays to lead-206. The cycle hence ends at lead-206, lead-207, lead-208, and bismuth-209. In
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#17330851949331248-466: A polyhedral vertex and contributes two electrons to each covalent bond along an edge from their sp hybrid orbitals, the other two being an external lone pair . They may be made in liquid ammonia via the reduction of lead by sodium . Lead can form multiply-bonded chains , a property it shares with its lighter homologs in the carbon group. Its capacity to do so is much less because the Pb–Pb bond energy
1352-432: A relatively large surface area allows the bacteria to form a biofilm , which protects them from disinfection. Much of the plumbing work in populated areas is regulated by government or quasi-government agencies due to the direct impact on the public's health, safety, and welfare. Plumbing installation and repair work on residences and other buildings generally must be done according to plumbing and building codes to protect
1456-484: A seismograph, contributing to information of earthquakes worldwide. This article about an Irish building or structure is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about a museum in the Republic of Ireland is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Lead Lead (pronounced "led") is a chemical element ; it has symbol Pb (from Latin plumbum ) and atomic number 82. It
1560-437: A significant partial positive charge on lead. The result is a stronger contraction of the lead 6s orbital than is the case for the 6p orbital, making it rather inert in ionic compounds. The inert pair effect is less applicable to compounds in which lead forms covalent bonds with elements of similar electronegativity, such as carbon in organolead compounds. In these, the 6s and 6p orbitals remain similarly sized and sp hybridization
1664-438: A single decay chain). In total, 43 lead isotopes have been synthesized, with mass numbers 178–220. Lead-205 is the most stable radioisotope, with a half-life of around 1.70 × 10 years. The second-most stable is lead-202, which has a half-life of about 52,500 years, longer than any of the natural trace radioisotopes. Bulk lead exposed to moist air forms a protective layer of varying composition. Lead(II) carbonate
1768-449: A structure, with every alternate layer of oxygen atoms absent. Negative oxidation states can occur as Zintl phases , as either free lead anions, as in Ba 2 Pb, with lead formally being lead(−IV), or in oxygen-sensitive ring-shaped or polyhedral cluster ions such as the trigonal bipyramidal Pb 5 ion, where two lead atoms are lead(−I) and three are lead(0). In such anions, each atom is at
1872-590: Is 6 times higher, copper 10 times, and mild steel 15 times higher); it can be strengthened by adding small amounts of copper or antimony . The melting point of lead—at 327.5 °C (621.5 °F) —is very low compared to most metals. Its boiling point of 1749 °C (3180 °F) is the lowest among the carbon-group elements. The electrical resistivity of lead at 20 °C is 192 nanoohm -meters, almost an order of magnitude higher than those of other industrial metals (copper at 15.43 nΩ·m ; gold 20.51 nΩ·m ; and aluminium at 24.15 nΩ·m ). Lead
1976-420: Is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable , and also has a relatively low melting point . When freshly cut, lead is a shiny gray with a hint of blue. It tarnishes to a dull gray color when exposed to air. Lead has the highest atomic number of any stable element and three of its isotopes are endpoints of major nuclear decay chains of heavier elements. Lead
2080-516: Is a neurotoxin that accumulates in soft tissues and bones. It damages the nervous system and interferes with the function of biological enzymes , causing neurological disorders ranging from behavioral problems to brain damage, and also affects general health, cardiovascular, and renal systems. Lead's toxicity was first documented by ancient Greek and Roman writers, who noted some of the symptoms of lead poisoning , but became widely recognized in Europe in
2184-401: Is a superconductor at temperatures lower than 7.19 K ; this is the highest critical temperature of all type-I superconductors and the third highest of the elemental superconductors. Natural lead consists of four stable isotopes with mass numbers of 204, 206, 207, and 208, and traces of six short-lived radioisotopes with mass numbers 209–214 inclusive. The high number of isotopes
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#17330851949332288-420: Is a common constituent; the sulfate or chloride may also be present in urban or maritime settings. This layer makes bulk lead effectively chemically inert in the air. Finely powdered lead, as with many metals, is pyrophoric , and burns with a bluish-white flame. Fluorine reacts with lead at room temperature, forming lead(II) fluoride . The reaction with chlorine is similar but requires heating, as
2392-412: Is a matter of sizing. For instance, PVC pipe for plumbing applications and galvanized steel pipe are measured in iron pipe size (IPS). Copper tube, CPVC , PeX and other tubing is measured nominally, basically an average diameter. These sizing schemes allow for universal adaptation of transitional fittings. For instance, 1/2" PeX tubing is the same size as 1/2" copper tubing. 1/2" PVC on the other hand
2496-775: Is a mixed sulfide derived from galena; anglesite , PbSO 4 , is a product of galena oxidation; and cerussite or white lead ore, PbCO 3 , is a decomposition product of galena. Arsenic , tin , antimony , silver , gold , copper , bismuth are common impurities in lead minerals. World lead resources exceed two billion tons. Significant deposits are located in Australia, China, Ireland, Mexico, Peru, Portugal, Russia, United States. Global reserves—resources that are economically feasible to extract—totaled 88 million tons in 2016, of which Australia had 35 million, China 17 million, Russia 6.4 million. Typical background concentrations of lead do not exceed 0.1 μg/m in
2600-420: Is a relatively unreactive post-transition metal . Its weak metallic character is illustrated by its amphoteric nature; lead and lead oxides react with acids and bases , and it tends to form covalent bonds . Compounds of lead are usually found in the +2 oxidation state rather than the +4 state common with lighter members of the carbon group . Exceptions are mostly limited to organolead compounds . Like
2704-426: Is a strong oxidizing agent, capable of oxidizing hydrochloric acid to chlorine gas. This is because the expected PbCl 4 that would be produced is unstable and spontaneously decomposes to PbCl 2 and Cl 2 . Analogously to lead monoxide , lead dioxide is capable of forming plumbate anions. Lead disulfide and lead diselenide are only stable at high pressures. Lead tetrafluoride , a yellow crystalline powder,
2808-404: Is a very soft metal with a Mohs hardness of 1.5; it can be scratched with a fingernail. It is quite malleable and somewhat ductile. The bulk modulus of lead—a measure of its ease of compressibility—is 45.8 GPa . In comparison, that of aluminium is 75.2 GPa; copper 137.8 GPa; and mild steel 160–169 GPa. Lead's tensile strength , at 12–17 MPa, is low (that of aluminium
2912-445: Is common for the carbon group. The divalent state is rare for carbon and silicon , minor for germanium, important (but not prevailing) for tin, and is the more important of the two oxidation states for lead. This is attributable to relativistic effects , specifically the inert pair effect , which manifests itself when there is a large difference in electronegativity between lead and oxide , halide , or nitride anions, leading to
3016-408: Is consistent with lead's atomic number being even. Lead has a magic number of protons (82), for which the nuclear shell model accurately predicts an especially stable nucleus. Lead-208 has 126 neutrons, another magic number, which may explain why lead-208 is extraordinarily stable. With its high atomic number, lead is the heaviest element whose natural isotopes are regarded as stable; lead-208
3120-414: Is exploited in the synthesis of other lead compounds. Few inorganic lead(IV) compounds are known. They are only formed in highly oxidizing solutions and do not normally exist under standard conditions. Lead(II) oxide gives a mixed oxide on further oxidation, Pb 3 O 4 . It is described as lead(II,IV) oxide , or structurally 2PbO·PbO 2 , and is the best-known mixed valence lead compound. Lead dioxide
3224-502: Is more prevalent than most other elements with atomic numbers greater than 40. Primordial lead—which comprises the isotopes lead-204, lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208—was mostly created as a result of repetitive neutron capture processes occurring in stars. The two main modes of capture are the s- and r-processes . In the s-process (s is for "slow"), captures are separated by years or decades, allowing less stable nuclei to undergo beta decay . A stable thallium-203 nucleus can capture
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3328-650: Is not stable, as both the lead(III) ion and the larger complexes containing it are radicals . The same applies for lead(I), which can be found in such radical species. Numerous mixed lead(II,IV) oxides are known. When PbO 2 is heated in air, it becomes Pb 12 O 19 at 293 °C, Pb 12 O 17 at 351 °C, Pb 3 O 4 at 374 °C, and finally PbO at 605 °C. A further sesquioxide , Pb 2 O 3 , can be obtained at high pressure, along with several non-stoichiometric phases. Many of them show defective fluorite structures in which some oxygen atoms are replaced by vacancies: PbO can be considered as having such
3432-486: Is not the same size as 1/2" tubing, and therefore requires either a threaded male or female adapter to connect them. When used in agricultural irrigation, the singular form "pipe" is often used as a plural. Pipe is available in rigid joints , which come in various lengths depending on the material. Tubing, in particular copper, comes in rigid hard tempered joints or soft tempered (annealed) rolls. PeX and CPVC tubing also comes in rigid joints or flexible rolls. The temper of
3536-741: Is over three and a half times lower than that of the C–C bond . With itself, lead can build metal–metal bonds of an order up to three. With carbon, lead forms organolead compounds similar to, but generally less stable than, typical organic compounds (due to the Pb–C bond being rather weak). This makes the organometallic chemistry of lead far less wide-ranging than that of tin. Lead predominantly forms organolead(IV) compounds, even when starting with inorganic lead(II) reactants; very few organolead(II) compounds are known. The most well-characterized exceptions are Pb[CH(SiMe 3 ) 2 ] 2 and plumbocene . The lead analog of
3640-406: Is rarely used today for new construction residential plumbing. Steel pipe has National Pipe Thread (NPT) standard tapered male threads, which connect with female tapered threads on elbows, tees, couplers, valves , and other fittings. Galvanized steel (often known simply as " galv " or " iron " in the plumbing trade) is relatively expensive, and difficult to work with due to weight and requirement of
3744-415: Is stable, but less so than the difluoride . Lead tetrachloride (a yellow oil) decomposes at room temperature, lead tetrabromide is less stable still, and the existence of lead tetraiodide is questionable. Some lead compounds exist in formal oxidation states other than +4 or +2. Lead(III) may be obtained, as an intermediate between lead(II) and lead(IV), in larger organolead complexes; this oxidation state
3848-413: Is still energetically favorable. Lead, like carbon, is predominantly tetravalent in such compounds. There is a relatively large difference in the electronegativity of lead(II) at 1.87 and lead(IV) at 2.33. This difference marks the reversal in the trend of increasing stability of the +4 oxidation state going down the carbon group; tin, by comparison, has values of 1.80 in the +2 oxidation state and 1.96 in
3952-448: Is the heaviest stable nucleus. (This distinction formerly fell to bismuth , with an atomic number of 83, until its only primordial isotope , bismuth-209, was found in 2003 to decay very slowly.) The four stable isotopes of lead could theoretically undergo alpha decay to isotopes of mercury with a release of energy, but this has not been observed for any of them; their predicted half-lives range from 10 to 10 years (at least 10 times
4056-529: Is the origin of the English word " plumbing ". Its ease of working, its low melting point enabling the easy fabrication of completely waterproof welded joints, and its resistance to corrosion ensured its widespread use in other applications, including pharmaceuticals, roofing, currency, warfare. Writers of the time, such as Cato the Elder , Columella , and Pliny the Elder , recommended lead (and lead-coated) vessels for
4160-525: Is the so-called inert pair effect : the 6s electrons of lead become reluctant to participate in bonding, stabilising the +2 oxidation state and making the distance between nearest atoms in crystalline lead unusually long. Lead's lighter carbon group congeners form stable or metastable allotropes with the tetrahedrally coordinated and covalently bonded diamond cubic structure. The energy levels of their outer s- and p-orbitals are close enough to allow mixing into four hybrid sp orbitals. In lead,
4264-495: Is to us. The Roman author Vitruvius reported the health dangers of lead and modern writers have suggested that lead poisoning played a major role in the decline of the Roman Empire . Other researchers have criticized such claims, pointing out, for instance, that not all abdominal pain is caused by lead poisoning. According to archaeological research, Roman lead pipes increased lead levels in tap water but such an effect
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4368-405: Is true that the trade still remains virtually ungoverned; there are no systems in place to monitor or control the activities of unqualified plumbers or those home owners who choose to undertake installation and maintenance works themselves, despite the health and safety issues which arise from such works when they are undertaken incorrectly; see Health Aspects of Plumbing (HAP) published jointly by
4472-598: Is typically formed via casting or welding , whereas a tube is made through extrusion . Pipe normally has thicker walls and may be threaded or welded, while tubing is thinner-walled and requires special joining techniques such as brazing , compression fitting , crimping , or for plastics, solvent welding . These joining techniques are discussed in more detail in the piping and plumbing fittings article. Galvanized steel potable water supply and distribution pipes are commonly found with nominal pipe sizes from 3 ⁄ 8 inch (9.5 mm) to 2 inches (51 mm). It
4576-446: Is usefully exploited: lead tetraacetate is an important laboratory reagent for oxidation in organic synthesis. Tetraethyllead, once added to automotive gasoline, was produced in larger quantities than any other organometallic compound, and is still widely used in fuel for small aircraft . Other organolead compounds are less chemically stable. For many organic compounds, a lead analog does not exist. Lead's per-particle abundance in
4680-446: The Fall of Rome both water supply and sanitation stagnated—or regressed—for well over 1,000 years. Improvement was very slow, with little effective progress made until the growth of modern densely populated cities in the 1800s. During this period, public health authorities began pressing for better waste disposal systems to be installed, to prevent or control epidemics of disease. Earlier,
4784-644: The Hittite city of Hattusa . They had easily detachable and replaceable segments, and allowed for cleaning. Standardized earthen plumbing pipes with broad flanges making use of asphalt for preventing leakages appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus Valley civilization by 2700 BC. Copper piping appeared in Egypt by 2400 BCE, with the Pyramid of Sahure and adjoining temple complex at Abusir , found to be connected by
4888-608: The Phoenicians worked deposits in the Iberian peninsula ; by 1600 BC, lead mining existed in Cyprus , Greece , and Sardinia . Rome's territorial expansion in Europe and across the Mediterranean, and its development of mining, led to it becoming the greatest producer of lead during the classical era , with an estimated annual output peaking at 80,000 tonnes. Like their predecessors,
4992-659: The Solar System is 0.121 ppb (parts per billion). This figure is two and a half times higher than that of platinum , eight times more than mercury , and seventeen times more than gold . The amount of lead in the universe is slowly increasing as most heavier atoms (all of which are unstable) gradually decay to lead. The abundance of lead in the Solar System since its formation 4.5 billion years ago has increased by about 0.75%. The solar system abundances table shows that lead, despite its relatively high atomic number,
5096-839: The World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Plumbing Council (WPC) . WPC has subsequently appointed a representative to the World Health Organization to take forward various projects related to Health Aspects of Plumbing. In the United States, plumbing codes and licensing are generally controlled by state and local governments. At the national level, the Environmental Protection Agency has set guidelines about what constitutes lead -free plumbing fittings and pipes, in order to comply with
5200-795: The fall of Rome and did not reach comparable levels until the Industrial Revolution . Lead played a crucial role in the development of the printing press , as movable type could be relatively easily cast from lead alloys. In 2014, the annual global production of lead was about ten million tonnes, over half of which was from recycling. Lead's high density, low melting point, ductility and relative inertness to oxidation make it useful. These properties, combined with its relative abundance and low cost, resulted in its extensive use in construction , plumbing , batteries , bullets , shots , weights , solders , pewters , fusible alloys , lead paints , leaded gasoline , and radiation shielding . Lead
5304-401: The nucleus , and more shielded by smaller orbitals. The sum of the first four ionization energies of lead exceeds that of tin, contrary to what periodic trends would predict. This is explained by relativistic effects , which become significant in heavier atoms, which contract s and p orbitals such that lead's 6s electrons have larger binding energies than its 5s electrons. A consequence
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#17330851949335408-468: The +4 state. Lead(II) compounds are characteristic of the inorganic chemistry of lead. Even strong oxidizing agents like fluorine and chlorine react with lead to give only PbF 2 and PbCl 2 . Lead(II) ions are usually colorless in solution, and partially hydrolyze to form Pb(OH) and finally [Pb 4 (OH) 4 ] (in which the hydroxyl ions act as bridging ligands ), but are not reducing agents as tin(II) ions are. Techniques for identifying
5512-557: The 1920s in the United States, although lead pipes were approved by national plumbing codes into the 1980s, and lead was used in plumbing solder for drinking water until it was banned in 1986. Drain and vent lines are made of plastic, steel, cast iron, or lead. In addition to lengths of pipe or tubing, pipe fittings such as valves, elbows, tees, and unions. are used in plumbing systems. Pipe and fittings are held in place with pipe hangers and strapping . Plumbing fixtures are exchangeable devices that use water and can be connected to
5616-606: The Egyptians had used lead for sinkers in fishing nets , glazes , glasses , enamels , ornaments . Various civilizations of the Fertile Crescent used lead as a writing material , as coins , and as a construction material . Lead was used by the ancient Chinese as a stimulant , as currency , as contraceptive , and in chopsticks . The Indus Valley civilization and the Mesoamericans used it for making amulets ; and
5720-697: The Plumbing Regulations 2008 and the Plumbing Code of Australia, pertains to plumbing. Each Government at the state level has their own Authority and regulations in place for licensing plumbers. They are also responsible for the interpretation, administration and enforcement of the regulations outlined in the NCC. These Authorities are usually established for the sole purpose of regulating plumbing activities in their respective states/territories. However, several state level regulation acts are quite outdated, with some still operating on local policies introduced more than
5824-471: The Romans obtained lead mostly as a by-product of silver smelting. Lead mining occurred in central Europe , Britain , Balkans , Greece , Anatolia , Hispania , the latter accounting for 40% of world production. Lead tablets were commonly used as a material for letters. Lead coffins, cast in flat sand forms and with interchangeable motifs to suit the faith of the deceased, were used in ancient Judea . Lead
5928-777: The UK by the Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR), defined as the ratio of the pipe diameter to its wall thickness. Pipe wall thickness increases with schedule, and is available in schedules 20, 40, 80, and higher in special cases. The schedule is largely determined by the operating pressure of the system, with higher pressures commanding greater thickness. Copper tubing is available in four wall thicknesses: type DWV (thinnest wall; only allowed as drain pipe per UPC), type 'M' (thin; typically only allowed as drain pipe by IPC code), type 'L' (thicker, standard duty for water lines and water service), and type 'K' (thickest, typically used underground between
6032-522: The US during the 20th century. These pipes (used in place of corrugated iron or reinforced concrete pipes) were made of sections cut from short lengths of wood. Locking of adjacent rings with hardwood dowel pins produced a flexible structure. About 100,000 feet of these wooden pipes were installed during WW2 in drainage culverts, storm sewers and conduits, under highways and at army camps, naval stations, airfields and ordnance plants. Cast iron and ductile iron pipe
6136-600: The atmosphere; 100 mg/kg in soil; 4 mg/kg in vegetation, 5 μg/L in fresh water and seawater. The modern English word lead is of Germanic origin; it comes from the Middle English leed and Old English lēad (with the macron above the "e" signifying that the vowel sound of that letter is long). The Old English word is derived from the hypothetical reconstructed Proto-Germanic * lauda- ('lead'). According to linguistic theory, this word bore descendants in multiple Germanic languages of exactly
6240-431: The copper, whether it is a rigid joint or flexible roll, does not affect the sizing. The thicknesses of the water pipe and tube walls can vary. Because piping and tubing are commodities, having a greater wall thickness implies higher initial cost. Thicker walled pipe generally implies greater durability and higher pressure tolerances. Pipe wall thickness is denoted by various schedules or for large bore polyethylene pipe in
6344-553: The country. In Norway, new domestic plumbing installed since 1997 has had to satisfy the requirement that it should be easily accessible for replacement after installation. This has led to the development of the pipe-in-pipe system as a de facto requirement for domestic plumbing. In the United Kingdom the professional body is the Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering (educational charity status) and it
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#17330851949336448-485: The course of the Earth's history, have remained in the crust instead of sinking deeper into the Earth's interior. This accounts for lead's relatively high crustal abundance of 14 ppm; it is the 36th most abundant element in the crust. The main lead-bearing mineral is galena (PbS), which is mostly found with zinc ores. Most other lead minerals are related to galena in some way; boulangerite , Pb 5 Sb 4 S 11 ,
6552-419: The current age of the universe). Three of the stable isotopes are found in three of the four major decay chains : lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208 are the final decay products of uranium-238 , uranium-235 , and thorium-232 , respectively. These decay chains are called the uranium chain , the actinium chain , and the thorium chain . Their isotopic concentrations in a natural rock sample depends greatly on
6656-416: The dangers of lead poisoning . At this time, copper piping was introduced as a better and safer alternative to lead pipes. The major categories of plumbing systems or subsystems are: A water pipe is a pipe or tube , frequently made of plastic or metal, that carries pressurized and treated fresh water to a building (as part of a municipal water system ), as well as inside the building. Lead
6760-428: The diiodide . Many lead(II) pseudohalides are known, such as the cyanide, cyanate, and thiocyanate . Lead(II) forms an extensive variety of halide coordination complexes , such as [PbCl 4 ] , [PbCl 6 ] , and the [Pb 2 Cl 9 ] n chain anion. Lead(II) sulfate is insoluble in water, like the sulfates of other heavy divalent cations . Lead(II) nitrate and lead(II) acetate are very soluble, and this
6864-434: The dramatic increase in the price of copper, resulting in increased demand for alternative products including PEX and stainless steel . Plastic pipe is in wide use for domestic water supply and drain-waste-vent (DWV) pipe. Principal types include: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was produced experimentally in the 19th century but did not become practical to manufacture until 1926, when Waldo Semon of BF Goodrich Co. developed
6968-470: The early 20th century and remain in many households. Lead-tin alloy solder was commonly used to join copper pipes , but modern practice uses tin-antimony alloy solder instead in order to eliminate lead hazards. Despite the Romans' common use of lead pipes, their aqueducts rarely poisoned people. Unlike other parts of the world where lead pipes cause poisoning, the Roman water had so much calcium in it that
7072-515: The eastern and southern Africans used lead in wire drawing . Because silver was extensively used as a decorative material and an exchange medium, lead deposits came to be worked in Asia Minor from 3000 BC; later, lead deposits were developed in the Aegean and Laurion . These three regions collectively dominated production of mined lead until c. 1200 BC . Beginning c. 2000 BC,
7176-566: The element its chemical symbol Pb . The word * ɸloud-io- is thought to be the origin of Proto-Germanic * bliwa- (which also means 'lead'), from which stemmed the German Blei . The name of the chemical element is not related to the verb of the same spelling, which is derived from Proto-Germanic * laidijan- ('to lead'). Metallic lead beads dating back to 7000–6500 BC have been found in Asia Minor and may represent
7280-413: The first example of metal smelting . At that time, lead had few (if any) applications due to its softness and dull appearance. The major reason for the spread of lead production was its association with silver, which may be obtained by burning galena (a common lead mineral). The Ancient Egyptians were the first to use lead minerals in cosmetics, an application that spread to Ancient Greece and beyond;
7384-457: The general public. It includes water meters , pumps , expansion tanks, back flow preventers , water filters , UV sterilization lights, water softeners , water heaters , heat exchangers , gauges, and control systems. There are many tools a plumber needs to do a good plumbing job. While many simple plumbing tasks can be completed with a few common hand held tools, other more complex jobs require specialised tools, designed specifically to make
7488-430: The group. Lead dihalides are well-characterized; this includes the diastatide and mixed halides, such as PbFCl. The relative insolubility of the latter forms a useful basis for the gravimetric determination of fluorine. The difluoride was the first solid ionically conducting compound to be discovered (in 1834, by Michael Faraday ). The other dihalides decompose on exposure to ultraviolet or visible light, especially
7592-446: The inert pair effect increases the separation between its s- and p-orbitals, and the gap cannot be overcome by the energy that would be released by extra bonds following hybridization. Rather than having a diamond cubic structure, lead forms metallic bonds in which only the p-electrons are delocalized and shared between the Pb ions. Lead consequently has a face-centered cubic structure like
7696-579: The inhabitants of the buildings and to ensure safe, quality construction to future buyers. If permits are required for work, plumbing contractors typically secure them from the authorities on behalf of home or building owners. In Australia, the national governing body for plumbing regulation is the Australian Building Codes Board . They are responsible for the creation of the National Construction Code (NCC), Volume 3 of which,
7800-453: The inside of the pipe over time once the internal galvanizing zinc coating has degraded. In potable water distribution service, galvanized steel pipe has a service life of about 30 to 50 years, although it is not uncommon for it to be less in geographic areas with corrosive water contaminants. Copper pipe and tubing was widely used for domestic water systems in the latter half of the twentieth century. Demand for copper products has fallen due to
7904-591: The job easier. Specialized plumbing tools include pipe wrenches , flaring pliers , pipe vise, pipe bending machine, pipe cutter, dies , and joining tools such as soldering torches and crimp tools. New tools have been developed to help plumbers fix problems more efficiently. For example, plumbers use video cameras for inspections of hidden leaks or other problems; they also use hydro jets, and high pressure hydraulic pumps connected to steel cables for trench-less sewer line replacement. Flooding from excessive rain or clogged sewers may require specialized equipment, such as
8008-447: The late 19th century AD. A lead atom has 82 electrons , arranged in an electron configuration of [ Xe ]4f 5d 6s 6p . The sum of lead's first and second ionization energies —the total energy required to remove the two 6p electrons—is close to that of tin , lead's upper neighbor in the carbon group . This is unusual; ionization energies generally fall going down a group, as an element's outer electrons become more distant from
8112-560: The latter being stable only above around 488 °C. Litharge is the most commonly used inorganic compound of lead. There is no lead(II) hydroxide; increasing the pH of solutions of lead(II) salts leads to hydrolysis and condensation. Lead commonly reacts with heavier chalcogens. Lead sulfide is a semiconductor , a photoconductor , and an extremely sensitive infrared radiation detector . The other two chalcogenides, lead selenide and lead telluride , are likewise photoconducting. They are unusual in that their color becomes lighter going down
8216-441: The latter is not; this allows for lead–lead dating . As uranium decays into lead, their relative amounts change; this is the basis for uranium–lead dating . Lead-207 exhibits nuclear magnetic resonance , a property that has been used to study its compounds in solution and solid state, including in the human body. Apart from the stable isotopes, which make up almost all lead that exists naturally, there are trace quantities of
8320-456: The lighter members of the group, lead tends to bond with itself ; it can form chains and polyhedral structures. Since lead is easily extracted from its ores , prehistoric people in the Near East were aware of it . Galena is a principal ore of lead which often bears silver. Interest in silver helped initiate widespread extraction and use of lead in ancient Rome . Lead production declined after
8424-454: The main and the meter). Wall thickness does not affect pipe or tubing size. 1/2" L copper has the same outer diameter as 1/2" K or M copper. The same applies to pipe schedules. As a result, a slight increase in pressure losses is realized due to a decrease in flowpath as wall thickness is increased. In other words, 1 foot of 1/2" L copper has slightly less volume than 1 foot of 1/2 M copper. Water systems of ancient times relied on gravity for
8528-770: The most common uses for plumbing, but it is not limited to these applications. The word derives from the Latin for lead , plumbum , as the first effective pipes used in the Roman era were lead pipes . In the developed world, plumbing infrastructure is critical to public health and sanitation . Boilermakers and pipefitters are not plumbers although they work with piping as part of their trade and their work can include some plumbing. Plumbing originated during ancient civilizations, as they developed public baths and needed to provide potable water and wastewater removal for larger numbers of people. The Mesopotamians introduced
8632-435: The most commonly tracked bacteria, which people with depressed immunity can inhale or ingest and may become infected with. Some of the locations where these opportunistic pathogens can grow include faucets, shower heads, water heaters and along pipe walls. Reasons that favor their growth are "high surface-to-volume ratio, intermittent stagnation, low disinfectant residual, and warming cycles". A high surface-to-volume ratio, i.e.
8736-533: The neutrons are arranged in complete shells in the atomic nucleus, and it becomes harder to energetically accommodate more of them. When the neutron flux subsides, these nuclei beta decay into stable isotopes of osmium , iridium , platinum . Lead is classified as a chalcophile under the Goldschmidt classification , meaning it is generally found combined with sulfur. It rarely occurs in its native , metallic form. Many lead minerals are relatively light and, over
8840-530: The owner to prevent water theft. Wooden pipes were used in London and elsewhere during the 16th and 17th centuries. The pipes were hollowed-out logs which were tapered at the end with a small hole in which the water would pass through. The multiple pipes were then sealed together with hot animal fat. Wooden pipes were used in Philadelphia, Boston, and Montreal in the 1800s. Built-up wooden tubes were widely used in
8944-418: The preparation of sweeteners and preservatives added to wine and food. The lead conferred an agreeable taste due to the formation of "sugar of lead" ( lead(II) acetate ), whereas copper vessels imparted a bitter flavor through verdigris formation. This metal was by far the most used material in classical antiquity, and it is appropriate to refer to the (Roman) Lead Age. Lead was to the Romans what plastic
9048-414: The presence of the Pb ion in water generally rely on the precipitation of lead(II) chloride using dilute hydrochloric acid. As the chloride salt is sparingly soluble in water, in very dilute solutions the precipitation of lead(II) sulfide is instead achieved by bubbling hydrogen sulfide through the solution. Lead monoxide exists in two polymorphs , litharge α-PbO (red) and massicot β-PbO (yellow),
9152-422: The presence of these three parent uranium and thorium isotopes. For example, the relative abundance of lead-208 can range from 52% in normal samples to 90% in thorium ores; for this reason, the standard atomic weight of lead is given to only one decimal place. As time passes, the ratio of lead-206 and lead-207 to lead-204 increases, since the former two are supplemented by radioactive decay of heavier elements while
9256-432: The r-process (r is for "rapid"), captures happen faster than nuclei can decay. This occurs in environments with a high neutron density, such as a supernova or the merger of two neutron stars . The neutron flux involved may be on the order of 10 neutrons per square centimeter per second. The r-process does not form as much lead as the s-process. It tends to stop once neutron-rich nuclei reach 126 neutrons. At this point,
9360-541: The resulting chloride layer diminishes the reactivity of the elements. Molten lead reacts with the chalcogens to give lead(II) chalcogenides. Lead metal resists sulfuric and phosphoric acid but not hydrochloric or nitric acid ; the outcome depends on insolubility and subsequent passivation of the product salt. Organic acids, such as acetic acid , dissolve lead in the presence of oxygen. Concentrated alkalis dissolve lead and form plumbites . Lead shows two main oxidation states: +4 and +2. The tetravalent state
9464-460: The same meaning. There is no consensus on the origin of the Proto-Germanic * lauda- . One hypothesis suggests it is derived from Proto-Indo-European * lAudh- ('lead'; capitalization of the vowel is equivalent to the macron). Another hypothesis suggests it is borrowed from Proto-Celtic * ɸloud-io- ('lead'). This word is related to the Latin plumbum , which gave
9568-491: The similarly sized divalent metals calcium and strontium . Pure lead has a bright, shiny gray appearance with a hint of blue. It tarnishes on contact with moist air and takes on a dull appearance, the hue of which depends on the prevailing conditions. Characteristic properties of lead include high density , malleability, ductility, and high resistance to corrosion due to passivation . Lead's close-packed face-centered cubic structure and high atomic weight result in
9672-588: The simplest organic compound , methane , is plumbane . Plumbane may be obtained in a reaction between metallic lead and atomic hydrogen. Two simple derivatives, tetramethyllead and tetraethyllead , are the best-known organolead compounds. These compounds are relatively stable: tetraethyllead only starts to decompose if heated or if exposed to sunlight or ultraviolet light. With sodium metal, lead readily forms an equimolar alloy that reacts with alkyl halides to form organometallic compounds such as tetraethyllead. The oxidizing nature of many organolead compounds
9776-639: The supply of water, using pipes or channels usually made of clay , lead , bamboo, wood, or stone. Hollowed wooden logs wrapped in steel banding were used for plumbing pipes, particularly water mains. Logs were used for water distribution in England close to 500 years ago. US cities began using hollowed logs in the late 1700s through the 1800s. Today, most plumbing supply pipe is made out of steel, copper, and plastic; most waste (also known as "soil") out of steel, copper, plastic, and cast iron. The straight sections of plumbing systems are called "pipes" or "tubes". A pipe
9880-403: The very rare cluster decay of radium-223, one of the daughter products of natural uranium-235, and the decay chain of neptunium-237, traces of which are produced by neutron capture in uranium ores. Lead-213 also occurs in the decay chain of neptunium-237. Lead-210 is particularly useful for helping to identify the ages of samples by measuring its ratio to lead-206 (both isotopes are present in
9984-433: The waste disposal system had consisted of collecting waste and dumping it on the ground or into a river. Eventually the development of separate, underground water and sewage systems eliminated open sewage ditches and cesspools . In post-classical Kilwa the wealthy enjoyed indoor plumbing in their stone homes. Most large cities today pipe solid wastes to sewage treatment plants in order to separate and partially purify
10088-436: The water, before emptying into streams or other bodies of water. For potable water use, galvanized iron piping was commonplace in the United States from the late 1800s until around 1960. After that period, copper piping took over, first soft copper with flared fittings, then with rigid copper tubing using soldered fittings. The use of lead for potable water declined sharply after World War II because of increased awareness of
10192-453: The world to clay sewer pipes around 4000 BCE, with the earliest examples found in the Temple of Bel at Nippur and at Eshnunna , used to remove wastewater from sites, and capture rainwater, in wells. The city of Uruk contains the oldest known examples of brick constructed Latrines , constructed atop interconnecting fired clay sewer pipes, c. 3200 BCE . Clay pipes were later used in
10296-607: Was "unlikely to have been truly harmful". When lead poisoning did occur, victims were called "saturnine", dark and cynical, after the ghoulish father of the gods, Saturn . By association, lead was considered the father of all metals. Its status in Roman society was low as it was readily available and cheap. Plumbing Plumbing is any system that conveys fluids for a wide range of applications. Plumbing uses pipes , valves , plumbing fixtures , tanks , and other apparatuses to convey fluids. Heating and cooling (HVAC), waste removal , and potable water delivery are among
10400-497: Was also developed in the 1950s. Plastic supply pipes have become increasingly common, with a variety of materials and fittings employed. Present-day water-supply systems use a network of high-pressure pumps, and pipes in buildings are now made of copper, brass, plastic (particularly cross-linked polyethylene called PEX, which is estimated to be used in 60% of single-family homes ), or other nontoxic material. Due to its toxicity , most cities moved away from lead water-supply piping by
10504-483: Was long a lower-cost alternative to copper before the advent of durable plastic materials but special non-conductive fittings must be used where transitions are to be made to other metallic pipes (except for terminal fittings) in order to avoid corrosion owing to electrochemical reactions between dissimilar metals (see galvanic cell ). Bronze fittings and short pipe segments are commonly used in combination with various materials. The difference between pipes and tubes
10608-406: Was opened as a heritage site by the owners of the land, Patrick and Keith Geoghegan. Glengowla Mines' site includes the remains of a 19th-century silver and lead mine, which has been restored to allow visitor access. There is also a heritage and visitor centre, a blacksmith's shop, and a circular powder house. Glengowla is part of Ireland's National Seismic Network, logging real-time information with
10712-482: Was the favoured material for water pipes for many centuries because its malleability made it practical to work into the desired shape. Such use was so common that the word "plumbing" derives from plumbum , the Latin word for lead. This was a source of lead-related health problems in the years before the health hazards of ingesting lead were fully understood; among these were stillbirths and high rates of infant mortality . Lead water pipes were still widely used in
10816-468: Was used to make sling bullets from the 5th century BC. In Roman times, lead sling bullets were amply used, and were effective at a distance of between 100 and 150 meters. The Balearic slingers , used as mercenaries in Carthaginian and Roman armies, were famous for their shooting distance and accuracy. Lead was used for making water pipes in the Roman Empire ; the Latin word for the metal, plumbum ,
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