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96-590: The Glen Davis Shale Oil Works was a shale oil extraction plant, in the Capertee Valley , at Glen Davis, New South Wales , Australia, which operated from 1940 until 1952. It was the last oil-shale operation in Australia , until the Stuart Oil Shale Project in the late 1990s. For the period of 1965–1952, it provided one fifth of the shale oil produced in Australia. The shale oil industry at Glen Davis

192-512: A bed of shale moves from top to bottom by gravity. Horizontal retorts are usually horizontal rotating drums or screws where shale moves from one end to the other. As a general rule, vertical retorts process lumps using a gas heat carrier, while horizontal retorts process fines using solid heat carrier. By complexity of technology : In situ technologies are usually classified either as true in situ processes or modified in situ processes. True in situ processes do not involve mining or crushing

288-414: A conventional oil refinery . Particulates in the raw oil clog downstream processes; sulfur and nitrogen create air pollution . Sulfur and nitrogen, along with the arsenic and iron that may be present, also destroy the catalysts used in refining. Olefins form insoluble sediments and cause instability. The oxygen within the oil, present at higher levels than in crude oil , lends itself to

384-439: A diameter of less than 10 millimeters (0.4 in); some technologies use particles even smaller than 2.5 millimeters (0.10 in). The recycled particles are heated in a separate chamber or vessel to about 800 °C (1,470 °F) and then mixed with the raw oil shale to cause the shale to decompose at about 500 °C (932 °F). Oil vapour and shale oil gas are separated from the solids and cooled to condense and collect

480-441: A distribution centre, but this section of the pipeline was never built. The works had its own brickworks and power station. Shale oil extraction Shale oil extraction is usually performed above ground ( ex situ processing) by mining the oil shale and then treating it in processing facilities . Other modern technologies perform the processing underground (on-site or in situ processing) by applying heat and extracting

576-442: A given area of land than conventional ex situ processing technologies, as the wells can reach greater depths than surface mines. They present an opportunity to recover shale oil from low-grade deposits that traditional mining techniques could not extract. John Fell experimented with in situ extraction, at Newnes , In Australia, during 1921, with some success, but his ambitions were well ahead of technologies available at

672-503: A gradual increase in output after the start of commercial production, the analysis projects a gradual reduction in processing costs to $ 30–40 per barrel ($ 190–250/m ) after achieving the milestone of 1 billion barrels (160 × 10 ^  m ). The United States Department of Energy estimates that the ex-situ processing would be economic at sustained average world oil prices above $ 54 per barrel and in-situ processing would be economic at prices above $ 35 per barrel. These estimates assume

768-506: A high-temperature stack of fuel cells . The cells, placed in the oil shale formation, are fueled by natural gas during a warm-up period and afterward by oil shale gas generated by its own waste heat . Externally generated hot gas in situ technologies use hot gases heated above-ground and then injected into the oil shale formation. The Chevron CRUSH process, which was researched by Chevron Corporation in partnership with Los Alamos National Laboratory , injects heated carbon dioxide into

864-426: A lower-temperature heating method similar to in situ processes by operating within the confines of an earthen structure. A hot gas circulated through parallel pipes heats the oil shale rubble. An installation within the empty space created by mining would permit rapid reclamation of the topography. A general drawback of conduction through a wall technologies is that the retorts are more costly when scaled-up due to

960-463: A mild carcinogenic potential which is comparable to some intermediate refinery products, while upgraded shale oil has lower carcinogenic potential as most of the polycyclic aromatics are believed to broken down by hydrogenation. Although raw shale oil can be immediately burnt as a fuel oil, many of its applications require that it be upgraded. The differing properties of the raw oils call for correspondingly various pre-treatments before it can be sent to

1056-618: A return rate of 15%. Royal Dutch Shell announced in 2006 that its Shell ICP technology would realize a profit when crude oil prices are higher than $ 30 per barrel ($ 190/m ), while some technologies at full-scale production assert profitability at oil prices even lower than $ 20 per barrel ($ 130/m ). To increase the efficiency of oil shale retorting and by this the viability of the shale oil production, researchers have proposed and tested several co-pyrolysis processes, in which other materials such as biomass , peat , waste bitumen , or rubber and plastic wastes are retorted along with

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1152-513: A source of energy, and the heat contained in hot spent oil shale and oil shale ash may be used to pre-heat the raw oil shale. For ex situ processing, oil shale is crushed into smaller pieces, increasing surface area for better extraction. The temperature at which decomposition of oil shale occurs depends on the time-scale of the process. In ex situ retorting processes, it begins at 300 °C (570 °F) and proceeds more rapidly and completely at higher temperatures. The amount of oil produced

1248-415: A tempting target for criminals; despite the obvious danger involved, there were at least three separate attempts to drill into overland pipeline and steal petrol, during the time that petrol was rationed. The pipeline was also vulnerable during bushfires . It was intended originally to construct another—gravity fed—pipeline from Newnes Junction to Blacktown , where National Oil Proprietary Ltd. had land for

1344-439: A total of 2000-million imperial gallons of oil. Although the secondary seam shale reduced the average oil content in the mined shale, mining both seams together allowed mechanised mining methods to be used. There was an independent coal mine nearby that supplied the works with the coal that it used as a fuel for its processes. The rainfall at Glen Davis was 16 to 18 inches per year and, in dry times, surface water at Glen Davies

1440-525: Is a by-product of coal mining such as at Fushun China, produce specialty chemicals as by Viru Keemia Grupp in Estonia, co-generate electricity from the waste heat and process high grade oil shale that yields more oil per shale processed. Short ton The short ton (abbreviation tn ) is a measurement unit equal to 2,000 pounds (907.18 kg). It is commonly used in the United States , where it

1536-403: Is conducted by pyrolysis , hydrogenation , or thermal dissolution . The efficiencies of extraction processes are often evaluated by comparing their yields to the results of a Fischer Assay performed on a sample of the shale. The oldest and the most common extraction method involves pyrolysis (also known as retorting or destructive distillation ). In this process, oil shale is heated in

1632-485: Is diluted by combustion gases and particles smaller than 10 millimeters (0.4 in) can not be processed. Uneven distribution of gas across the retort can result in blockages when hot spots cause particles to fuse or disintegrate. Hot recycled solids technologies deliver heat to the oil shale by recycling hot solid particles—typically oil shale ash. These technologies usually employ rotating kiln or fluidized bed retorts, fed by fine oil shale particles generally having

1728-427: Is done above or below ground, and classifies the technologies broadly as ex situ (displaced) or in situ (in place). In ex situ processing, also known as above-ground retorting , the oil shale is mined either underground or at the surface and then transported to a processing facility. In contrast, in situ processing converts the kerogen while it is still in the form of an oil shale deposit, following which it

1824-407: Is known simply as a ton; however, the term is ambiguous, the single word " ton " being variously used for short, long , and metric tons. The various tons are defined as units of mass. They are sometimes used as units of weight , the force exerted by a mass at standard gravity (e.g., short ton-force). One short ton exerts a weight at one standard gravity of 2,000 pound-force (lbf) . In

1920-445: Is not diluted with combustion exhaust gas. Another advantage is that there is no limit on the smallest particles that the retort can process, thus allowing all the crushed feed to be used. One disadvantage is that more water is used to handle the resulting finer shale ash. These technologies transfer heat to the oil shale by conducting it through the retort wall. The shale feed usually consists of fine particles. Their advantage lies in

2016-408: Is passed, and vertical wells, which provide both vertical heat transfer through refluxing of converted shale oil and a means to collect the produced hydrocarbons. Heat is supplied by combustion of natural gas or propane in the initial phase and by oil shale gas at a later stage. The Geothermic Fuels Cells Process (IEP GFC) proposed by Independent Energy Partners extracts shale oil by exploiting

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2112-428: Is processing without using water. In situ technologies heat oil shale underground by injecting hot fluids into the rock formation, or by using linear or planar heating sources followed by thermal conduction and convection to distribute heat through the target area. Shale oil is then recovered through vertical wells drilled into the formation. These technologies are potentially able to extract more shale oil from

2208-430: Is the highest when the temperature ranges between 480 and 520 °C (900 and 970 °F). The ratio of oil shale gas to shale oil generally increases along with retorting temperatures. For a modern in situ process, which might take several months of heating, decomposition may be conducted at temperatures as low as 250 °C (480 °F). Temperatures below 600 °C (1,110 °F) are preferable, as this prevents

2304-423: Is then extracted via oil wells , where it rises in the same way as conventional crude oil. Unlike ex situ processing, it does not involve mining or spent oil shale disposal aboveground as spent oil shale stays underground. By heating method : The method of transferring heat from combustion products to the oil shale may be classified as direct or indirect. While methods that allow combustion products to contact

2400-477: Is tightly bound to the shale and resists dissolution by most solvents . Despite this constraint, extraction using especially reactive fluids has been tested, including those in a supercritical state. Reactive fluid technologies are suitable for processing oil shales with a low hydrogen content. In these technologies, hydrogen gas (H 2 ) or hydrogen donors (chemicals that donate hydrogen during chemical reactions) react with coke precursors (chemical structures in

2496-675: The Miner's Federation —covering the mine workers—and the Australian Workers' Union —covering workers at the retorts and refinery. In 1948, the miners' union refused to allow Polish immigrants—eight of the men were experienced coal miners—to work in the shale mine but the same men were welcomed by the AWU. The miner's resistance to the Poles' working in the mine, seems to have been based on a perception of their political views rather than their ethnicity. Many saw

2592-449: The United States , a short ton is usually known simply as a "ton", without distinguishing it from the tonne (1,000 kilograms or 2,204.62 pounds), known there as the "metric ton", or the long ton also known as the "imperial ton" (2,240 pounds or 1,016.05 kilograms). There are, however, some U.S. applications where unspecified tons normally mean long tons (for example, naval ships) or metric tons (world grain production figures). Both

2688-464: The endothermic kerogen decomposition reactions require a source of energy. Some technologies burn other fossil fuels such as natural gas, oil, or coal to generate this heat and experimental methods have used electricity, radio waves , microwaves , or reactive fluids for this purpose. Two strategies are used to reduce, and even eliminate, external heat energy requirements: the oil shale gas and char by-products generated by pyrolysis may be burned as

2784-428: The hydraulic fractures created in the oil shale formation which then forms a heating element. Heating wells are placed in a parallel row with a second horizontal well intersecting them at their toe. This allows opposing electrical charges to be applied at either end. The Illinois Institute of Technology developed the concept of oil shale volumetric heating using radio waves (radio frequency processing) during

2880-664: The oil shale industry from the coal industry. China ( Manchuria ), Estonia, New Zealand , South Africa , Spain , Sweden , and Switzerland began extracting shale oil in the early 20th century. However, crude oil discoveries in Texas during the 1920s and in the Middle East in the mid 20th century brought most oil shale industries to a halt. In 1944, the US recommenced shale oil extraction as part of its Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program . These industries continued until oil prices fell sharply in

2976-558: The 'main seam' was a layer of white clay—6 inches to 2 feet thick—and above that a seam of semi-carbonaceous shale, the 'top' or 'secondary' seam. When assayed, the shale from the richer 'main seam' averaged 50% oil—containing over 130 imperial gallons (590 L; 160 US gal) per long ton —while the 'top' or 'secondary' seam contained only 8.5% oil, or just over 20 imperial gallons per long ton. The mixed shale from both seams averaged 20% oil or about 50 imperial gallons (230 L; 60 US gal) per long ton. The deposit held

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3072-646: The 10th century, the Assyrian physician Masawaih al-Mardini (Mesue the Younger) wrote of his experiments in extracting oil from "some kind of bituminous shale". The first shale oil extraction patent was granted by the English Crown in 1684 to three people who had "found a way to extract and make great quantities of pitch, tarr, and oyle out of a sort of stone". Modern industrial extraction of shale oil originated in France with

3168-576: The 1980s. The last oil shale retort in the US, operated by Unocal Corporation , closed in 1991. The US program was restarted in 2003, followed by a commercial leasing program in 2005 permitting the extraction of oil shale and oil sands on federal lands in accordance with the Energy Policy Act of 2005 . As of 2010 , shale oil extraction is in operation in Estonia, Brazil, and China. In 2008, their industries produced about 930,000  tonnes (17,700 barrels per day) of shale oil. Australia,

3264-606: The 21st century have led to renewed interest, accompanied by the development and testing of newer technologies. As of 2010, major long-standing extraction industries are operating in Estonia , Brazil , and China . Its economic viability usually requires a lack of locally available crude oil. National energy security issues have also played a role in its development. Critics of shale oil extraction pose questions about environmental management issues, such as waste disposal, extensive water use, waste water management, and air pollution. In

3360-519: The Glen Davis operation had only a very minor economic significance and would not be missed. The site was used as a location for the 1980 Australian movie " The Chain Reaction " and as the base location for the 2021 reality television show SAS Australia. Two seams of oil shale were mined at Glen Davis. The main seam was torbanite and was mined between 5 and 2 feet in thickness. Lying immediately above

3456-448: The US, and Canada have tested shale oil extraction techniques via demonstration projects and are planning commercial implementation; Morocco and Jordan have announced their intent to do the same. Only four processes are in commercial use: Kiviter , Galoter , Fushun , and Petrosix . Shale oil extraction process decomposes oil shale and converts its kerogen into shale oil—a petroleum -like synthetic crude oil. The process

3552-535: The United States. The first modified in situ oil shale experiment in the United States was conducted by Occidental Petroleum in 1972 at Logan Wash, Colorado. Newer technologies are being explored that use a variety of heat sources and heat delivery systems. Wall conduction in situ technologies use heating elements or heating pipes placed within the oil shale formation. The Shell in situ conversion process (Shell ICP) uses electrical heating elements for heating

3648-588: The Wolgan Valley. The next section of the pipeline, in part, followed the former route of the Wolgan Valley Railway but deviated from that route—following parts of the modern-day Pagoda Track and the Old Coach Road—to shorten its length. It was supported on pipe support and bridge structures made, at least in part, from old bullhead rails from the disused railway. The long exposed pipeline would prove

3744-442: The absence of oxygen until its kerogen decomposes into condensable shale oil vapors and non-condensable combustible oil shale gas . Oil vapors and oil shale gas are then collected and cooled, causing the shale oil to condense . In addition, oil shale processing produces spent oil shale, which is a solid residue. Spent shale consists of inorganic compounds ( minerals ) and char —a carbonaceous residue formed from kerogen. Burning

3840-524: The additional cost and complexity of hydrogen production and high-pressure retort vessels. Several experimental tests have been conducted for the oil-shale gasification by using plasma technologies. In these technologies, oil shale is bombarded by radicals ( ions ). The radicals crack kerogen molecules forming synthetic gas and oil. Air, hydrogen or nitrogen are used as plasma gas and processes may operate in an arc , plasma arc , or plasma electrolysis mode. The main benefit of these technologies

3936-408: The char off the spent shale produces oil shale ash. Spent shale and shale ash can be used as ingredients in cement or brick manufacture. The composition of the oil shale may lend added value to the extraction process through the recovery of by-products, including ammonia , sulfur , aromatic compounds , pitch , asphalt , and waxes . Heating the oil shale to pyrolysis temperature and completing

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4032-582: The composition of the parent oil shale and the extraction technology used. Like conventional oil, shale oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, and it is characterized using bulk properties of the oil. Shale oil usually contains large quantities of olefinic and aromatic hydrocarbons. Shale oil can also contain significant quantities of heteroatoms . A typical shale oil composition includes 0.5–1% of oxygen , 1.5–2% of nitrogen and 0.15–1% of sulfur , and some deposits contain more heteroatoms. Mineral particles and metals are often present as well. Generally,

4128-411: The decomposition of limestone and dolomite in the rock and thereby limits carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption. Hydrogenation and thermal dissolution (reactive fluid processes) extract the oil using hydrogen donors , solvents , or a combination of these. Thermal dissolution involves the application of solvents at elevated temperatures and pressures, increasing oil output by cracking

4224-462: The dissolved organic matter. Different methods produce shale oil with different properties. Industry analysts have created several classifications of the technologies used to extract shale oil from oil shale. By process principles : Based on the treatment of raw oil shale by heat and solvents the methods are classified as pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution. By location : A frequently used distinction considers whether processing

4320-524: The fact that retort vapors are not combined with combustion exhaust. The Combustion Resources process uses a hydrogen–fired rotating kiln, where hot gas is circulated through an outer annulus . The Oil-Tech staged electrically heated retort consists of individual inter-connected heating chambers, stacked atop each other. Its principal advantage lies in its modular design , which enhances its portability and adaptability. The Red Leaf Resources EcoShale In-Capsule Process combines surface mining with

4416-452: The failure to even try the Renco retort, which had been relocated at great cost, remains one of the mysteries of the Glen Davis operation. After expansion of the Glen Davis plant in 1946—to a nominal capacity of 10,000,000 imperial gallons (45,000,000 L; 12,000,000 US gal) of petrol per year—a shortage of mined shale constrained its output. In 1947, the refinery section of the plant

4512-437: The formation of destructive free radicals . Hydrodesulfurization and hydrodenitrogenation can address these problems and result in a product comparable to benchmark crude oil . Phenols can be first be removed by water extraction. Upgrading shale oil into transport fuels requires adjusting hydrogen–carbon ratios by adding hydrogen ( hydrocracking ) or removing carbon ( coking ). Before World War II , most shale oil

4608-750: The formation via drilled wells and to heat the formation through a series of horizontal fractures through which the gas is circulated. General Synfuels International has proposed the Omnishale process involving injection of super-heated air into the oil shale formation. Mountain West Energy 's In Situ Vapor Extraction process uses similar principles of injection of high-temperature gas. ExxonMobil 's in situ technology ( ExxonMobil Electrofrac ) uses electrical heating with elements of both wall conduction and volumetric heating methods. It injects an electrically conductive material such as calcined petroleum coke into

4704-505: The implementation of a process invented by Alexander Selligue in 1838, improved upon a decade later in Scotland using a process invented by James Young . During the late 19th century, plants were built in Australia, Brazil, Canada, and the United States. The 1894 invention of the Pumpherston retort , which was much less reliant on coal heat than its predecessors, marked the separation of

4800-403: The industrial plant to be disassembled. Beginning in early 1953, much of the movable equipment and other salvageable items were put on sale at auction. The population soon drifted away—dwindling from around 2,000, at its peak, to only 195 by late 1954—and some buildings in the town were relocated, leaving Glen Davis close to a ghost town. The immovable parts of the plant became ruins. Although

4896-478: The late 1970s. This technology was further developed by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . Oil shale is heated by vertical electrode arrays . Deeper volumes could be processed at slower heating rates by installations spaced at tens of meters. The concept presumes a radio frequency at which the skin depth is many tens of meters, thereby overcoming the thermal diffusion times needed for conductive heating. Its drawbacks include intensive electrical demand and

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4992-471: The lighter hydrocarbons used in gasoline. The dominant question for shale oil production is under what conditions shale oil is economically viable. According to the United States Department of Energy , the capital costs of a 100,000 barrels per day (16,000 m /d) ex-situ processing complex are $ 3–10 billion. The various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have succeeded only when

5088-476: The mines and NTU retorts of Lithgow Oil Proprietary Ltd, at Marangaroo , near Lithgow . Despite expert opinion and the apparent success of NTU retorts at Marangaroo, Glen Davis remained committed to its 'modified Pumpherston ' or 'Fell' retort design. That commitment to retort design was likely based on advice given to George Davis by John Fell , who had run the Newnes oil extraction operations from 1914 to 1923, but

5184-439: The oil is less fluid than crude oil, becoming pourable at temperatures between 24 and 27 °C (75 and 81 °F), while conventional crude oil is pourable at temperatures between −60 and 30 °C (−76 and 86 °F); this property affects shale oil's ability to be transported in existing pipelines. Shale oil contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons which are carcinogenic . It has been described that raw shale oil has

5280-461: The oil shale formation. The microwave heating process was tested by Global Resource Corporation . Electro-Petroleum proposes electrically enhanced oil recovery by the passage of direct current between cathodes in producing wells and anodes located either at the surface or at depth in other wells. The passage of the current through the oil shale formation results in resistive Joule heating . The properties of raw shale oil vary depending on

5376-477: The oil shale in a dryer before mixing with hot ash. The TOSCO II process uses ceramic balls instead of shale ash as the hot recycled solids. The distinguishing feature of the Alberta Taciuk Process (ATP) is that the entire process occurs in a single rotating multi–chamber horizontal vessel. Because the hot recycle solids are heated in a separate furnace, the oil shale gas from these technologies

5472-413: The oil shale layer to between 340 and 370 °C (650 and 700 °F) over a period of approximately four years. The processing area is isolated from surrounding groundwater by a freeze wall consisting of wells filled with a circulating super-chilled fluid. Disadvantages of this process are large electrical power consumption, extensive water use, and the risk of groundwater pollution . The process

5568-778: The oil shale that are prone to form char during retorting but have not yet done so). Reactive fluid technologies include the IGT Hytort (high-pressure H 2 ) process, donor solvent processes, and the Chattanooga fluidized bed reactor . In the IGT Hytort oil shale is processed in a high-pressure hydrogen environment. The Chattanooga process uses a fluidized bed reactor and an associated hydrogen-fired heater for oil shale thermal cracking and hydrogenation. Laboratory results indicate that these technologies can often obtain significantly higher oil yields than pyrolysis processes. Drawbacks are

5664-747: The oil shale within the retort are classified as direct , methods that burn materials external to the retort to heat another material that contacts the oil shale are described as indirect By heat carrier : Based on the material used to deliver heat energy to the oil shale, processing technologies have been classified into gas heat carrier, solid heat carrier, wall conduction, reactive fluid, and volumetric heating methods. Heat carrier methods can be sub-classified as direct or indirect. The following table shows extraction technologies classified by heating method, heat carrier and location ( in situ or ex situ ). By raw oil shale particle size : The various ex situ processing technologies may be differentiated by

5760-445: The oil shale. Some modified technologies propose combining a fluidized bed retort with a circulated fluidized bed furnace for burning the by-products of pyrolysis (char and oil shale gas) and thereby improving oil yield, increasing throughput, and decreasing retorting time. Other ways of improving the economics of shale oil extraction could be to increase the size of the operation to achieve economies of scale , use oil shale that

5856-552: The oil shale. Modified in situ processes involve drilling and fracturing the target oil shale deposit to create voids in the deposit. The voids enable a better flow of gases and fluids through the deposit, thereby increasing the volume and quality of the shale oil produced. Internal combustion technologies burn materials (typically char and oil shale gas) within a vertical shaft retort to supply heat for pyrolysis. Typically raw oil shale particles between 12 millimetres (0.5 in) and 75 millimetres (3.0 in) in size are fed into

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5952-402: The oil via oil wells . The earliest description of the process dates to the 10th century. In 1684, England granted the first formal extraction process patent. Extraction industries and innovations became widespread during the 19th century. The industry shrank in the mid-20th century following the discovery of large reserves of conventional oil , but high petroleum prices at the beginning of

6048-473: The oil. Heat recovered from the combustion gases and shale ash may be used to dry and preheat the raw oil shale before it is mixed with the hot recycle solids. In the Galoter and Enefit processes, the spent oil shale is burnt in a separate furnace and the resulting hot ash is separated from the combustion gas and mixed with oil shale particles in a rotating kiln. Combustion gases from the furnace are used to dry

6144-406: The operation. In 1951, the last full year before closure, it produced only 1,452,000 imperial gallons (6,600,000 L; 1,744,000 US gal) and in the year ending December 1950 it had lost £507,637—consisting of a trading loss of £206,078, depreciation of £124,903, and interest of £176,656—revenue from petrol sales was £263,156 but wages, salaries, stores and insurance costs were £501,951. Had

6240-452: The plant achieved even half of its design throughput in 1951, it would have been profitable but, by the end of 1950, the accumulated losses already totalled 84% of capital and advances. To the end, the continuing inability to mine sufficient shale to feed the retorts was the cause of the works' losses. Plans to change the method of mining from ' bord and pillar ' to ' longwall ' never eventuated. Government funding ceased in 1952, and Glen Davis

6336-466: The possibility that groundwater or char would absorb undue amounts of the energy. Radio frequency processing in conjunction with critical fluids is being developed by Raytheon together with CF Technologies and tested by Schlumberger . Microwave heating technologies are based on the same principles as radio wave heating, although it is believed that radio wave heating is an improvement over microwave heating because its energy can penetrate farther into

6432-479: The potential heat of combusting the char on the spent shale and thus must burn more valuable fuels. However, due to the lack of combustion of the spent shale, the oil shale does not exceed 500 °C (932 °F) and significant carbonate mineral decomposition and subsequent CO 2 generation can be avoided for some oil shales. Also, these technologies tend to be the more stable and easier to control than internal combustion or hot solid recycle technologies. Kerogen

6528-545: The private shareholders in 1949. During World War II , shale oil produced by the Glen Davis Shale Oil Works was considered to be a strategic resource. In 1941, 4,273,315 imperial gallons (19,426,870 L; 5,132,037 US gal) of shale oil were produced. In 1942, a visiting party from the US Board of Economic Warfare recommended that the plant be expanded using Renco (or NTU) retorts , and an order

6624-590: The resulting large amount of heat conducting walls made of high-temperature alloys. In general, externally generated hot gas technologies are similar to internal combustion technologies in that they also process oil shale lumps in vertical shaft kilns. Significantly, though, the heat in these technologies is delivered by gases heated outside the retort vessel, and therefore the retort vapors are not diluted with combustion exhaust. The Petrosix and Paraho Indirect employ this technology. In addition to not accepting fine particles as feed, these technologies do not utilize

6720-512: The retort and a pump moves it upward. In the Superior Direct process, oil shale is processed in a horizontal, segmented, doughnut-shaped traveling-grate retort . Internal combustion technologies such as the Paraho Direct are thermally efficient , since combustion of char on the spent shale and heat recovered from the shale ash and evolved gases can provide all the heat requirements of

6816-451: The retort. In the lower part of the retort, air is injected for the combustion which heats the spent oil shale and gases to between 700 °C (1,292 °F) and 900 °C (1,650 °F). Cold recycled gas may enter the bottom of the retort to cool the shale ash. The Union A and Superior Direct processes depart from this pattern. In the Union A process, oil shale is fed through the bottom of

6912-406: The retort. These technologies can achieve 80–90% of Fischer assay yield. Two well-established shale oil industries use internal combustion technologies: Kiviter process facilities have been operated continuously in Estonia since the 1920s, and a number of Chinese companies operate Fushun process facilities. Common drawbacks of internal combustion technologies are that the combustible oil shale gas

7008-426: The rigorous enforcement of the 'darg'—a work quota—by communist-led miners, as the reason for the low production rate of oil shale in the highly mechanised shale mine—with claims that miners were working actively for as little as four hours in an eight-hour shift—that in turn being the cause of the works' eventual fate. Others denied even the existence of a 'darg' and of communist-led unions at Glen Davis, blaming instead

7104-527: The shale-oil production cost in a given region is lower than the price of petroleum or its other substitutes. According to a survey conducted by the RAND Corporation , the cost of producing shale oil at a hypothetical surface retorting complex in the United States (comprising a mine, retorting plant, upgrading plant , supporting utilities, and spent oil shale reclamation), would be in a range of $ 70–95 per barrel ($ 440–600/m ), adjusted to 2005 values. Assuming

7200-494: The size of the oil shale particles that are fed into the retorts. As a rule, gas heat carrier technologies process oil shale lumps varying in diameter from 10 to 100 millimeters (0.4 to 3.9 in), while solid heat carrier and wall conduction technologies process fines which are particles less than 10 millimeters (0.4 in) in diameter. By retort orientation : "Ex-situ" technologies are sometimes classified as vertical or horizontal. Vertical retorts are usually shaft kilns where

7296-409: The state of the mining equipment and the management for the closure. Others blamed the scale of operations and the choice of retort design as the cause of its demise. The closure of the works loomed as a personal financial catastrophe for those who had built or bought houses on land in the township. The Commonwealth Government agreed to compensation that softened the blow, and the unions agreed to allow

7392-527: The time. During World War II a modified in situ extraction process was implemented without significant success in Germany. One of the earliest successful in situ processes was underground gasification by electrical energy ( Ljungström method)—a process exploited between 1940 and 1966 for shale oil extraction at Kvarntorp in Sweden. Prior to the 1980s, many variations of the in situ process were explored in

7488-419: The top of the retort and are heated by the rising hot gases, which pass through the descending oil shale, thereby causing decomposition of the kerogen at about 500 °C (932 °F) . Shale oil mist, evolved gases and cooled combustion gases are removed from the top of the retort then moved to separation equipment. Condensed shale oil is collected, while non-condensable gas is recycled and used to carry heat up

7584-399: The works had been intended as a means of securing local petrol production, it had provided only a tiny portion of annual petrol consumption in Australia, which by 1952 was 638-million imperial gallons per year. As early as 1944, it had been pointed out that the entire oil shale reserves of New South Wales were equivalent to only three months of Australia's peace-time oil consumption. In the end,

7680-472: Was around 600. There were plans to further expand the scale of mining, retorting and refining to double the capacity. However, in 1948, a report by Gordon Sellers of the Joint Coal Board revealed that the remaining shale reserves at Glen Davis were insufficient to support an expansion. Consequently, there would be no further capital investment from the government. In December 1950, it was decided to close

7776-417: Was chosen as the site, in preference to the old works site at Newnes , due to the high cost of rehabilitating the old Wolgan Valley railway and because mining conditions were considered to be better at Glen Davis. However, Glen Davis had its own disadvantages . Construction of the shale oil works started in 1938 and the plant was commissioned in 1939, with operations starting on 3 January 1940. More capital

7872-552: Was closed on 30 May. Although some syndicates had interest in the facility, no deal was concluded. The closure caused a 'stay down' strike by miners and other workers kept the retorts running without being paid. The 'stay down' strike ended after 26 days, without success, when the Australian Council of Trade Unions decided not to support the strike. The works had been the site of contention between communist -inspired and non-communist trade union leadership, particularly between

7968-587: Was created—with capital of £500,000—as a special purpose vehicle , by George Francis Davis of Davis Gelatine, to build and operate the new oil shale operation. This company received financial support from the Commonwealth of Australia and New South Wales governments. Davis contributed £166,000 and Commonwealth Government £344,000 (together the capital of £500,000), and the New South Wales Government provided £166,000 secured by debentures. Glen Davis

8064-508: Was decided in March 1939 to instead use the retorts that had been employed in the closed Newnes Shale Oil Works ; 64 modified Pumpherston retorts were transferred from Newnes. Crucially, the gas off-take arrangement of the Newnes retorts was not retained—causing initial problems when the Glen Davis plant started—and the retorts needed to be modified to use the older Newnes arrangement. Another 44 planned similar retorts were deferred until this problem

8160-562: Was developed for production of shale oil for national defence purposes, although the basis of this project was the 1934 report of the Newnes Investigation Committee , which looked at ways to decrease the number of unemployed miners in the region. A public notice in the Commonwealth of Australia Gazette , on 28 May 1936, invited offers for developing the oil industry in the Glen Davis area. National Oil Proprietary Limited

8256-533: Was highly mechanised. The mined shale was brought out of the mine using electric locomotives hauling skips over a 3ft 6in narrow-gauge industrial tramway. The shale was crushed by a Pennsylvania single-roll type crusher and was then conveyed into the retorts. The company originally planned to use two tunnel ovens, each with a daily capacity of 336 tons, designed by AS Franz Krull of Estonia and Lurgi AG of Germany, similar to those used by some oil shale industries in Estonia . However, for economic reasons, it

8352-638: Was insufficient. Bores were put down but the water needed treatment. Water was a constraint on production in the early years. From March 1946, water was supplied to the works, from the Oberon Dam on the Fish River , by a 105 km long pipeline. This is a rare instance of water from the Murray-Darling catchment being diverted to a location that is east of the Great Dividing Range . In 1949, reticulated water

8448-422: Was only operating 70-days during the first half of that year; not enough crude shale oil was produced by the retorts, which were only processing about 400 short tons of shale per calendar day. Productivity was poor and the works' losses were only limited by a petrol excise rebate on the oil that it produced. Securing sufficient skilled labour was a problem, due to the isolated location of Glen Davis . The workforce

8544-406: Was placed to supply these from the US but that order was later cancelled. A Renco retort, which had been successfully tested by Standard Oil of Australia at Newcastle using Baemari oil shale, was transported to Glen Davis, in 1942, but not used there. During the calendar years 1943 to 1945 inclusive, the Glen Davis plant refined around 2,000,000 gallons of crude shale oil that had been produced from

8640-399: Was pumped, under high pressure, through a 32-mile (51 km) long pipeline to storage tanks at Newnes Junction , from where it was transported by rail. There were two storage tanks at Newnes Junction, each with a capacity or 500,000 gallons. The pipeline was made of 3-inch diameter steel pipe. The first part of the pipeline was laid through chasms and across a saddle between the works and

8736-656: Was required from shareholders in April 1940 and again in November 1940, and the Commonwealth Government provided another £225,000 in the form of a loan. It became apparent that the estimate of cost provided in the Newnes Investigation Committee's report was inadequate, as the total expenditure on the plant reached £1,300,000. The incoming Curtin government was not satisfied with assurances that its investment

8832-408: Was resolved. The 44 retorts were added in 1946. Retorts were initially heated by coal, obtained from a nearby coal mine, before the retort reached a temperature at which its operation was self-sustaining. The rate of recovery of the retorts was 82% of the assayed oil content as crude oil. The crude shale oil was refined to make petrol, with the crude oil yielding a little over 50% petrol. The petrol

8928-507: Was safe. George Davis was knighted in 1941, for his contribution to the war effort, but the Commonwealth Government took over the board and appointed new management in December 1941. Sir George Davis remained chairman of the board but was no longer joint Managing Director, and the board was now dominated by government nominees. Davis resigned from the board in October 1942. The government would buy out

9024-537: Was supplied to the township. Yet, during the heavy rains of June 1949, the works was affected by the flooding of the nearby Capertee River and there was more flooding during 1950. The 55,000 acres (22,000 ha) mining and shale oil extraction complex was located in Gindantherie, Goolloinboin, Barton, Glen Alice, and Capertee parishes of Cook and Hunter counties. The oil shale mine used bord-and-pillar mining techniques, and employed 170 miners. The mine

9120-619: Was tested since the early 1980s at the Mahogany test site in the Piceance Basin . 270 cubic meters (1,700 bbl) of oil were extracted in 2004 at a 9-by-12-meter (30 by 40 ft) testing area. In the CCR Process proposed by American Shale Oil , superheated steam or another heat transfer medium is circulated through a series of pipes placed below the oil shale layer to be extracted. The system combines horizontal wells, through which steam

9216-517: Was upgraded for use as transport fuels. Afterwards, it was used as a raw material for chemical intermediates, pure chemicals and industrial resins, and as a railroad wood preservative . As of 2008, it is primarily used as a heating oil and marine fuel, and to a lesser extent in the production of various chemicals. Shale oil's concentration of high-boiling point compounds is suited for the production of middle distillates such as kerosene , jet fuel and diesel fuel . Additional cracking can create

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